Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the remnants of Lake Razzaza, an artificial lake situated a few miles west of Karbala, Iraq.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> was created in the late 1970s as a flood control measure to regulate the floodwaters of the Euphrates River. 



Razzaza covers an area of approximately 1,562 square kilometers and is located in a depression where excess water from Lake Habbaniyah is diverted through a controlled escape channel or canal.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-colors-of-lake-razzaza">The colors of Lake Razzaza</h2>



“The lake, also known as Baḩr al-Milḩ (‘Sea of Salt’ in Arabic), is fed by overflow from Habbaniyah Lake, which lies just outside the top left corner of the image,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153756/iraqs-sea-of-salt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“The difference in water color results from the various communities of algae that thrive in the lake depending on the water temperature and salinity.”



“Green areas contain lower salt concentrations than red areas. At times when the lake receives no overflow from Habbaniyah Lake, as shown in this image, most of the lakebed is exposed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salinity-of-lake-razzaza">Salinity of Lake Razzaza</h2>



Over the years, the salinity of Lake Razzaza has been increasing due to inadequate water supply from the linked canal and high evaporation rates during Iraq's hot summers.&nbsp;



This rise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> has led to a decline in fish populations, adversely affecting local fishermen who once relied on the lake for their livelihoods. 



By 2008, only the fish species locally known as "al-Shanik" (Acanthopagrus arabicus), of marine origin and stocked by the government, was reported to survive in the lake.&nbsp;



The lake's fluctuating water levels and increasing salinity have also impacted its recreational appeal, with few recreational areas existing around the lake.&nbsp;



Additionally, the surrounding desert landscape and low cliff shores contribute to its limited accessibility for leisure activities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-of-lake-razzaza">Wildlife of Lake Razzaza</h2>



Despite these challenges, Lake Razzaza remains an important habitat for various bird species. It has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International, supporting significant numbers of wintering waterfowl and serving as a breeding ground for species such as the marbled duck.&nbsp;



The lake's mudflats attract large numbers of waders and shorebirds during migration periods.&nbsp;



The surrounding area features vegetation such as Phragmites australis, Juncus acutus, Aeluropus lagopoides, Salicornia herbacea, and Schoenoplectus litoralis, along with desert shrublands including Tamarix aucherana, Prosopis farcta, and Haloxylon salicornicum.&nbsp;



Mammals reported in this region include Rüppell's fox, golden jackal, Indian grey mongoose, jungle cat, and wildcat.&nbsp;



In recent years, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-warming-toward-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> has faced environmental challenges due to reduced water inflows and increased evaporation, leading to higher salinity levels and a decline in biodiversity. 



Efforts to address these issues are essential to preserve the ecological and economic significance of Lake Razzaza.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-euphrates-river-nbsp">The Euphrates River&nbsp;</h2>



The Euphrates River is one of the most significant rivers in the Middle East and holds immense historical, cultural, and ecological importance.&nbsp;



Stretching approximately 2,800 kilometers (1,740 miles), it originates in the mountains of eastern Turkey and flows through Syria and Iraq before merging with the Tigris River to form the Shatt al-Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-plastic-pollution-lurks-beneath-the-surface-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> has been a cradle of civilization for thousands of years, supporting ancient Mesopotamian societies, including Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria.



The Euphrates has provided water for irrigation, enabling the development of agriculture in an otherwise arid region. Its floodplains have been vital for sustaining life and fostering the growth of cities along its course.&nbsp;



However, the river also plays a key geopolitical role, as disputes over water usage and dam construction among Turkey, Syria, and Iraq have emerged over the years, impacting water availability downstream.



Ecologically, the Euphrates supports a range of habitats, from wetlands to desert ecosystems, making it home to diverse flora and fauna.&nbsp;



However, modern challenges such as damming, pollution, and climate change threaten its flow and ecological balance. Despite these challenges, the Euphrates remains a symbol of life and resilience in the heart of the Middle East.



The image was captured by an astronaut on the International Space Station (ISS) on September 23, 2024.



Image Credit: NASA



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Lake Razzaza: A shrinking oasis shaped by salinity

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral galaxy NGC 2566, which is located 76 million light-years away in the constellation Puppis. The image was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



“A prominent bar of stars stretches across the center of this galaxy, and spiral arms emerge from each end of the bar. Because NGC 2566 appears tilted from our perspective, its disk takes on an almond shape, giving the galaxy the appearance of a cosmic eye,” said <a href="https://phys.org/news/2024-12-hubble-spies-spiral-galaxy-ngc.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“As NGC 2566 appears to gaze at us, astronomers gaze right back, using Hubble to survey the galaxy's star clusters and star-forming regions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-appearance-of-ngc-2566">Complex appearance of NGC 2566</h2>



NGC 2566 lies at a considerable distance from Earth, making it a challenging object for amateur astronomers to observe in detail without powerful telescopes.&nbsp;



It can be seen in the Southern Hemisphere sky and is better observed from locations with minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-light-pollution-influences-interest-in-astronomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light pollution</a>.&nbsp;



The galaxy's arms are populated with young, bright stars, regions of active star formation, and interstellar gas and dust - giving it a dynamic and complex appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-ages-of-stars">Measuring the ages of stars</h2>



According to NASA, data from Hubble is especially valuable for studying stars that are just a few million years old. “These stars are bright at the ultraviolet and visible wavelengths to which Hubble is sensitive.”



“Using these data, researchers can measure the ages of NGC 2566's stars, which helps piece together the timeline of the galaxy's star formation and the exchange of gas between star-forming clouds and the stars themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-galaxies">Star formation in galaxies</h2>



Star formation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> is a fascinating and complex process that unfolds over millions of years. It begins in vast clouds of gas and dust, known as molecular clouds, which are often found in the spiral arms of galaxies or in regions of irregular or starburst galaxies.&nbsp;



These clouds provide the raw material for star formation, consisting primarily of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of heavier elements.



As the molecular clouds collapse under their own gravity, regions within them begin to condense and fragment, forming dense clumps. Within these clumps, protostars emerge. Their formation is driven by the gravitational pull drawing in surrounding gas. 



During this process, the gas heats up due to increasing pressure, eventually igniting nuclear fusion in the core, signaling the birth of a new star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rate-of-star-formation-nbsp-across-galaxies">Rate of star formation&nbsp;across galaxies</h2>



The rate of star formation varies across galaxies is influenced by numerous factors. In spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, star formation is most active in the spiral arms, where density waves compress gas and dust, triggering the collapse of molecular clouds. 



In contrast, elliptical galaxies, which often have little cold gas and dust, typically exhibit low rates of star formation or none at all.



Starburst galaxies, on the other hand, experience episodes of exceptionally high star formation, often triggered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-captures-a-galaxy-collision-with-a-radiant-smile/">galactic collisions</a> or interactions. 



These events can funnel large amounts of gas into central regions, leading to intense star-forming activity. However, such bursts are usually short-lived on cosmic timescales, exhausting the available gas quickly.



The environment within a galaxy also plays a significant role. Stellar winds and supernova explosions from existing stars can both inhibit and promote star formation. They may disperse gas, preventing further collapse, or compress nearby clouds, triggering new star formation.&nbsp;



Over time, as galaxies evolve, the availability of gas diminishes, leading to a gradual decline in star formation activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-puppis-constellation-nbsp">The Puppis constellation&nbsp;</h2>



The Puppis constellation in the southern sky represents the stern of a ship. It was once part of a larger constellation known as Argo Navis, which depicted the mythical ship of Jason and the Argonauts. 



However, Argo Navis was later divided into three separate constellations: Puppis, Carina (the keel), and Vela (the sails). Puppis is the largest of these three and contains many notable celestial objects.



This constellation is home to several bright stars, including Naos (Zeta Puppis), a hot, massive star that emits intense ultraviolet radiation. Puppis also hosts a wide variety of deep-sky objects, such as open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-star-clusters-captured-in-the-extreme-outskirts-of-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star clusters</a> and nebulae. 



Among these, Messier 46 and Messier 47 stand out. Both are beautiful star clusters that are visible through binoculars or small telescopes. The region is dense with stars because it lies along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-collision-may-change-everything-we-know-about-our-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, making it a prime area for stargazing and astrophotography. 



Image Credit: NASA



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NGC 2566: A cosmic eye in the Puppis constellation

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Cat's Eye Nebula (NGC 6543), located about 3,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Draco.&nbsp;



The nebula's name comes from its eye-like appearance when viewed through a telescope. This particular image, which reveals the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horsehead-nebula-webb-telescope-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> in stunning detail, was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae-nbsp">Planetary nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, the Cat's Eye Nebula is one of the most complex planetary nebulae that has ever been discovered.



“A planetary nebula forms when Sun-like stars gently eject their outer gaseous layers to form bright nebulae with amazing twisted shapes," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Until recently, it was thought that shells around planetary nebulae were a rare phenomenon. However, astronomers have instead shown that these rings are likely to be the rule rather than the exception."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-of-the-cat-s-eye-nebula-nbsp">Appearance of the Cat's Eye Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The central focus of the Cat's Eye is a hot, dying star that has shed its outer layers to form the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragons-egg-nebula-is-a-truly-stunning-sight-to-behold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a>. It is surrounded by concentric gas shells, jets of high-speed gas, and unusual shock-induced knots of gas.



“Although the rings may be the key to explaining the final ‘gasp’ of the dying central star, the mystery behind the Cat’s Eye Nebula’s nested ‘Russian doll’ structure remains largely unsolved,” noted ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rings-around-the-cat-s-eye">Rings around the Cat’s Eye</h2>



“This image, taken with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), reveals the full pattern of eleven or more concentric rings, or shells, around the Cat’s Eye. Each ‘ring’ is actually the edge of a spherical bubble seen projected onto the sky - which is why it appears bright along its outer edge.”



According to ESA, observations suggest that the star ejected its mass in a series of pulses at 1,500-year intervals. “These convulsions created dust shells that each contains as much mass as all of the planets in our solar system combined.”



Several explanations have been proposed for this phenomenon, including cycles of magnetic activity similar to our Sun's sunspot cycle, the influence of companion stars orbiting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dying-stars-may-be-a-source-of-gravitational-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dying star</a>, or stellar pulsations.&nbsp;



Another theory suggests that the material is ejected smoothly from the star, with the rings forming later due to the creation of waves in the outflowing material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-draco-nbsp">The constellation Draco&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extrasolar-ocean-planet-discovered-in-the-draco-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Draco</a> is a constellation in the northern sky that represents a dragon. It's one of the largest constellations, winding between the Big and Little Dippers.&nbsp;



In Greek mythology, Draco is often identified as the dragon Ladon, who guarded the golden apples in the garden of the Hesperides.



Draco is a circumpolar constellation for most northern hemisphere observers, meaning it never sets below the horizon and can be seen all year round.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-famous-planetary-nebulae">Famous planetary nebulae </h2>



Planetary nebulae are some of the most beautiful and intriguing objects in the universe.&nbsp;



One of the most famous is the Ring Nebula, or M57, located in the constellation Lyra. This nebula is renowned for its nearly perfect ring shape, which is the result of a dying star shedding its outer layers.&nbsp;



Another well-known planetary nebula is the Helix Nebula, or NGC 7293, often referred to as the "Eye of God" due to its eye-like appearance. The Helix Nebula is one of the closest planetary nebulae to Earth, making it a popular target for amateur astronomers.&nbsp;



The Dumbbell Nebula, or M27, in the constellation Vulpecula, is another striking example. It is named for its resemblance to a dumbbell and is notable for being the first planetary nebula ever discovered, by Charles Messier in 1764.&nbsp;



The Butterfly Nebula, or NGC 6302, is located in the constellation Scorpius. Its name comes from its distinctive bipolar structure, resembling the wings of a butterfly. The nebula's central star is one of the hottest known, with a surface temperature of around 250,000 degrees Celsius.&nbsp;



The Eskimo Nebula, or NGC 2392, in the constellation Gemini, is known for its resemblance to a face surrounded by a fur parka, which gives it its name. Its intricate structure, including filaments and bubble-like shapes, makes it a fascinating object of study. 



These nebulae not only captivate us with their beauty but also provide valuable insights into the life cycles of stars and the processes that shape our galaxy.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope



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Cat's Eye Nebula in the constellation Draco

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of South Georgia, a remote and rugged island located in the southern Atlantic Ocean. 



"Linked with the South Sandwich Islands to form a British Overseas Territory, this southern Atlantic island is a haven for a vast array of wildlife," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Around five million seals call the islands home, as well as 65 million birds of 30 different species. Migrating whales and various fish species populate the surrounding waters and there is a large penguin population."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-and-wildlife-of-south-georgia">Climate and wildlife of South Georgia </h2>



The island is dominated by mountains, glaciers, and fjords. Its highest peak, Mount Paget, rises to 2,935 meters, making it one of the tallest in the region.



South Georgia’s location within the Antarctic Convergence gives it a cold, maritime climate. Although not part of the Antarctic Treaty System, its environment and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-are-not-enough-to-save-antarctic-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> are closely linked to Antarctica. 



The island is home to vast colonies of penguins, seals, and seabirds. The surrounding waters are rich with krill, providing an abundant food source for marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguins-adapted-to-harsh-environments">Penguins adapted to harsh environments </h2>



The most notable species found here are the king penguins, which are the second-largest penguin species in the world. South Georgia also hosts large populations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-the-gentoo-penguin-the-worlds-fastest-swimming-bird/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gentoo</a> and macaroni penguins. 



The island's harsh climate, characterized by strong winds, snow, and cold temperatures, makes it a tough environment, but the penguins have adapted well. 



Their colonies - some of which number in the hundreds of thousands - can be found along the island's rugged coasts and beaches. 



The island’s isolation, combined with its plentiful food supply, makes it a critical breeding ground for these penguins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-south-georgia">History of South Georgia </h2>



The island has a history of exploration and exploitation. Captain James Cook first claimed South Georgia for Britain in 1775. 



During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it became a hub for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/echoes-of-the-past-whalings-long-term-impact-on-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whaling</a> industry, with stations like Grytviken serving as operational centers. These stations have since been abandoned, and the island is now a haven for scientific research and ecotourism.



South Georgia is also notable for its role in Ernest Shackleton’s famed Endurance expedition. His crew reached the island in 1916 after an extraordinary open-boat journey from Elephant Island. Shackleton later died on South Georgia in 1922 and is buried in Grytviken.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pristine-nature-of-the-island">Pristine nature of the island</h2>



Today, South Georgia is a focus of conservation efforts. The eradication of invasive species, such as rats and reindeer, has been a significant success, allowing native wildlife to recover. 



Rats and mice were responsible for the decline of ground-nesting birds, including the South Georgia pipit, the island's only endemic bird. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reindeer-use-ultraviolet-vision-to-find-food-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reindeer</a>, which had been introduced for farming in the 19th century, caused extensive damage to the island’s vegetation, disrupting the habitat for native species.



South Georgia is uninhabited except for a small number of scientists and staff working at research stations and administrative facilities, emphasizing its role as a protected wilderness area and an essential site for understanding global environmental changes.



Its uninhabited status has helped preserve its pristine nature. Visitors to South Georgia must follow strict environmental guidelines to minimize human impact on this extraordinary island.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance-of-remote-islands">Scientific significance of remote islands </h2>



Remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-life-on-islands-loses-diversity-when-humans-arrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">islands</a> are scientifically significant for several reasons. They often serve as unique ecosystems that can provide insights into evolutionary processes, biodiversity, and adaptation. 



Due to their isolation, species on remote islands may evolve differently from their mainland counterparts, resulting in the development of endemic species that exist nowhere else in the world. 



These islands also act as natural laboratories for studying the effects of climate change, human activity, and ecological interactions, as they are more vulnerable to disturbances. 



Moreover, remote islands can offer valuable information on the health of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, as their ecosystems are often less impacted by human-induced factors. This makes them ideal for studying natural processes in relatively undisturbed environments. 



The isolation of these islands can also help scientists study the patterns of species migration, colonization, and extinction.



Image Credit: ESA 



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South Georgia: One of the most remote islands in the world

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Messak Settafet, a rocky plateau located in the central Sahara Desert. It is part of the greater Messak Plateau, which stretches between the Erg Uan Kasa and the Murzuq Sand Sea.&nbsp;



The plateau's surface is characterized by blackened sandstone, sculpted by thousands of years of wind erosion. This dark patina, often referred to as "desert varnish," adds to its distinctive appearance. The region is starkly beautiful but harsh, with extreme temperatures and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-climate-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-messak-settafet">Image of the Messak Settafet</h2>



“Towering over the desert in southwestern Libya, the Messak Settafet plateau resembles the wall of a giant fortress, with its dark, erosion-resistant sandstone separating the Ubari Sand Sea to the north and the Marzūq Sand Sea to the south,” noted NASA.



“The large outcrop of Cretaceous rock features a sharp escarpment on its north side. The cliff, some 300 meters (1,000 feet) high in places, is lined with a thin dark shadow.”&nbsp;



“Dark debris from rockfalls is visible to the north. Note that an optical illusion called relief inversion can make high-elevation areas appear low and vice versa when shadows appear on the northern side of a feature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaeological-significance-of-the-plateau-nbsp">Archaeological significance of the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



Messak Settafet is often referred to as the "land of stone tools" because it is one of the world's largest sites for prehistoric tools.&nbsp;



The area is littered with countless <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fstone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> and artifacts dating back to various prehistoric periods, including the Acheulean and Neolithic. These tools offer insights into early human technology and adaptation to desert environments.



“Signs of ancient tool making cover much of the plateau’s surface,” said <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “According to one archaeological survey, people discarded so many stone tools and rock fragments on the plateau over hundreds of thousands of years that roughly 75 artifacts per square meter now carpet the surface.”&nbsp;



“That makes this one of the earliest known examples of hominins modifying an entire landscape, according to the University of Cambridge archaeologists who conducted the survey.”



“Other signs of ancient activity include the bright spots that dot the image. These areas were likely quarrying pits where people dug up rocks and crafted them into tools, the archaeologists reported.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-art-on-the-plateau-nbsp">Rock art on the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



The plateau is home to numerous petroglyphs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negev-petroglyphs-ancient-art-rock-carvings-face-erosion-fungi-lichens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carvings</a>. These engravings depict animals, humans, and symbolic designs, providing valuable clues about the lives, beliefs, and environments of the region's ancient inhabitants.&nbsp;



“For instance, Wadi Mathendous, a prehistoric archaeological site located in the southern part of the plateau, contains engravings of rhinoceroses, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, fighting cats, giraffes, long-horned buffaloes, and elephants. The art is thought to be about 8,000 years old,” said NASA.



Some of the animals depicted, such as giraffes and elephants, indicate that the Sahara was once a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fa-lush-green-sahara-desert-helped-early-humans-migrate-out-of-africa%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">much wetter</a> and more hospitable environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-the-messak-settafet">Cultural significance of the Messak Settafet</h2>



Messak Settafet forms part of the Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985. This designation highlights the area's importance for understanding early human culture and environmental changes in the Sahara.



The plateau has been a critical area for studying the migration and adaptation of early humans. Its archaeological richness offers a glimpse into how humans thrived in this region during periods when the climate was wetter.



“Although the plateau now receives less than 0.4 inches of rain annually, clues in the landscape make clear it was once much wetter,” noted NASA.



“Deeply incised dried stream valleys, or wadis, crisscross the plateau, indicating significant past water flow. The small, bright features scattered across the plateau are sand and silt deposits left where water once pooled.”



The Messak Settafet, like many remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> regions, faces challenges such as erosion, vandalism of ancient rock art, and the potential impacts of development. 



Efforts to preserve its archaeological treasures are vital for protecting its cultural and scientific significance.



The image was captured November 17, 2024 by the Operational Land Imager-2 (OLI-2) on Landsat 9 on&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Messak Settafet plateau in the Sahara Desert

While Earth celebrates the advent of a northern hemisphere New Year amidst winter chills, Mars embraces the start of spring.



On November 12, 2024, the Red Planet completed another journey around the Sun, marking this the beginning of a Martian year - a cycle that lasts 687 Earth days.



Springtime on Mars triggers unique and explosive transformations, including avalanches, as temperatures rise and ice begins to thaw.



“Springtime on Earth has lots of trickling as water ice gradually melts. But on Mars, everything happens with a bang,” said Serina Diniega, a planetary surface researcher at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>).



Unlike on Earth, Mars’s thin atmosphere doesn’t support liquid water. Ice sublimates directly into gas, creating dramatic phenomena that NASA scientists are closely monitoring using the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-reconnaissance-orbiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MRO</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-arrival-of-spring-on-mars">The arrival of spring on Mars</h2>



Mars’s cliffs roar to life during spring as frost avalanches cascade down their slopes.



In 2015, the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (<a href="https://www.uahirise.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HiRISE</a>) camera aboard the MRO captured a remarkable moment - a 66-foot-wide chunk of frozen carbon dioxide in mid-fall.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars-new-year_ice-cracking_co2-frost_MRO_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars-new-year_ice-cracking_co2-frost_MRO_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Martian spring involves lots of cracking ice, which led to this 66-foot-wide (20-meter-wide) chunk of carbon dioxide frost captured in freefall by the HiRISE camera aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in 2015. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona" class="wp-image-1955359"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Martian spring involves lots of cracking ice, which led to this 66-foot-wide (20-meter-wide) chunk of carbon dioxide frost captured in freefall by the HiRISE camera aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in 2015. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona</figcaption></figure>



“We’re lucky we’ve had a spacecraft like MRO observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-pulls-earth-closer-to-the-sun-warming-our-climate-scientists-say/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> for as long as it has,” Diniega shared. “Watching for almost 20 years has let us catch dramatic moments like these avalanches.”



These avalanches highlight the dramatic environmental shifts that occur on Mars, offering scientists a chance to understand its dynamic surface better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-gas-geysers">Explosive gas geysers</h2>



As sunlight penetrates frozen carbon dioxide, the bottom layers sublimate into gas, causing pressure to build.



Eventually, the gas erupts through the surface, creating geysers that spray dark fans of sand and dust. These explosive jets are unique to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> spring and offer a stark contrast to Earth’s gentle seasonal transitions.



“You get lots of cracks and explosions instead of melting,” Diniega said. “I imagine it gets really noisy.”



While these fans are visible across the planet, the most dramatic examples appear during southern spring, which starts in December 2025.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="dDNrFq8TXp-4158293-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spider-like-scour-marks-on-mars">Spider-like scour marks on Mars </h2>



Mars’s southern hemisphere presents a fascinating phenomenon: spider-like patterns that form on its surface due to erupting geysers.



These patterns, known as "araneiforms," are created when sunlight penetrates layers of translucent frozen carbon dioxide.



As the ice sublimates directly into gas during spring and summer, the trapped gas builds pressure until it bursts through the surface. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars-new-year_mars-spiders_c02-gas-carvings_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars-new-year_mars-spiders_c02-gas-carvings_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Sometimes, after carbon dioxide geysers have erupted from ice-covered areas on Mars, they leave scour marks on the surface. When the ice is all gone by summer, these long scour marks look like the legs of giant spiders. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona" class="wp-image-1955361"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sometimes, after carbon dioxide geysers have erupted from ice-covered areas on Mars, they leave scour marks on the surface. When the ice is all gone by summer, these long scour marks look like the legs of giant spiders. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona</figcaption></figure>



This eruption sends dust and debris outward, carving branching, spider-like marks into the ground. Once all the frozen carbon dioxide has sublimated, these marks remain visible, resembling the legs of giant spiders.



To understand this process, NASA scientists have recreated it in controlled conditions at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-mars-s-spring-winds">Power of Mars's spring winds</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mars-became-uninhabitable-after-being-life-supporting-ocean-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> north pole, home to a Texas-sized ice cap, experiences the relentless power of springtime winds. These gusts carve spiral troughs into the ice cap, revealing traces of the red soil beneath.



“These things are enormous,” said Isaac Smith from Toronto’s York University. “You can find similar troughs in Antarctica but nothing at this scale.”



The winds accelerate as they move down the troughs, reshaping the icy surface through what scientists call an adiabatic process. 



This process involves changes in air temperature and pressure, without the addition or removal of energy. Adiabatic processes on Earth give rise to the Santa Ana and Chinook winds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wandering-dunes-sand-on-the-move">Wandering dunes: Sand on the move</h2>



The powerful winds also affect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-radiation-levels-are-measured-for-the-first-time-and-will-help-astronauts-prepare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> sand dunes.



During winter, frozen carbon dioxide fixes the dunes in place. But when spring arrives, the frozen gas sublimates, allowing the dunes to resume their slow migration.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars-new-year_sand-dunes_NASA-JPL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars-new-year_sand-dunes_NASA-JPL_1s.webp" alt="Surrounded by frost, these Martian dunes in Mars’ northern hemisphere were captured from above by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter using its HiRISE camera. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona" class="wp-image-1955363"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Surrounded by frost, these Martian dunes in Mars’ northern hemisphere were captured from above by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter using its HiRISE camera. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona</figcaption></figure>



This ongoing process, observed by researchers, highlights how seasonal changes impact Martian landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-world-of-ice-and-fire">A different world of ice and fire</h2>



Every northern spring on Mars is slightly different. Variations in temperature and sublimation rates influence the speed and intensity of these natural phenomena. 



The dynamic interactions between frozen carbon dioxide, winds, and sand are crucial for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-water-found-on-mars-would-cover-the-planet-over-one-mile-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars’s past</a> and future.



NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, equipped with the HiRISE camera and other sensors, has been pivotal in uncovering these extraordinary events. 



Managed by NASA’s JPL, the MRO has provided nearly two decades of continuous observations, allowing researchers to capture Mars’s explosive beauty in unprecedented detail.



With each Martian year that passes, scientists gain deeper insights into the planet’s extreme seasonal transformations, which differ vastly from Earth’s. 



Whether it’s avalanches, geysers, "spider legs" or wandering dunes, spring on Mars is a spectacle of cosmic proportions.



Video Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech



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New year on Mars: Avalanches, icy explosions, and the arrival of spring

While Earth celebrates the advent of a northern hemisphere New...

Have you ever wondered why it takes us a while to process what's happening around us? Or why we can't multitask as effectively as we'd like? The answer lies in our brains' processing speed.



Despite their immense complexity, our brains operate much slower than the average internet connection.



Scientists have revealed that while the human sensory system gathers information at a staggering rate of one billion bits per second, our brains process these signals at just 10 bits per second - a rate millions of times slower than the input.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fast-do-we-really-think">How fast do we really think?</h2>



“Every moment, we are extracting just 10 bits from the trillion that our senses are taking in and using those 10 to perceive the world around us and make decisions," said study co-author Markus Meister of <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/thinking-slowly-the-paradoxical-slowness-of-human-behavior" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CalTech</a>. "This raises a paradox: What is the brain doing to filter all this information?” 



To put this in perspective, a typical Wi-Fi connection processes data at around 50 million bits per second. This is incredibly fast when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">compared to the human brain</a>, which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-simple-solutions-appeal-to-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes thoughts</a> at just 10 bits per second.



Now, consider the brain's structure. It has over 85 billion neurons, and each neuron can transmit signals at speeds greater than 10 bits per second individually. 



However, the collective processing rate of the brain - the speed at which it actually processes thoughts - remains very slow at 10 bits per second.



This means that while individual neurons are capable of fast transmission, the brain as a whole is limited in how quickly it integrates and processes all the information it receives. 



This bottleneck reflects the brain's focus on quality over quantity, filtering out vast amounts of sensory data to concentrate on the most relevant details for survival and decision-making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-the-brain-so-slow">Why is the brain so slow?</h2>



The brain’s "speed limit" on processing information likely evolved for survival. Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-human-brain-created-by-harvard-and-google/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nervous systems</a> in primitive organisms were simple and designed for basic tasks like navigating toward food and avoiding predators. 



These systems didn’t need to handle complex, multitasking scenarios, just survival-focused decisions.



As humans evolved, this limitation carried over into our more complex brains. While our brains are highly sophisticated, they still follow a sequential approach to problem-solving. 



This means we can only focus on one possible outcome or course of action at a time, rather than exploring multiple options simultaneously.



Take chess as an example. A chess player cannot mentally calculate every possible move and counter-move at once. Instead, they examine one sequence of moves, analyze it, and then move on to another.



This sequential thought process contrasts with machines, such as computers, which can perform millions of parallel calculations almost instantly. 



This difference highlights the trade-off in human evolution - our brains prioritize quality, focus, and survival over speed and multitasking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-sensory-filters-and-speed">Brain sensory filters and speed</h2>



Despite the apparent slowness, our brains excel at prioritizing. While bombarded with trillions of sensory inputs, the brain filters out unnecessary data, focusing on what’s vital for survival. 



“Our ancestors have chosen an ecological niche where the world is slow enough to make survival possible. In fact, the 10 bits per second are needed only in worst-case situations, and most of the time our environment changes at a much more leisurely pace,” Meister noted.



This adaptability helps humans focus on immediate tasks without being overwhelmed by excessive information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-artificial-intelligence">Implications for artificial intelligence</h2>



These findings suggest that machines will eventually outperform humans in any task as their computational capabilities improve. 



With computing power doubling approximately every two years, machines are rapidly bridging the gap in areas like decision-making and problem-solving. 



In fact, scientists believe computers could soon replicate, and even surpass, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abilities of the human brain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-brain-speed-matters">Why brain speed matters</h2>



The discovery highlights a paradox about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-create-three-copies-of-every-memory-we-make/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human intelligence</a>. Despite being relatively slow thinkers, humans excel in creativity, emotion, and adaptability - traits machines have yet to master.



However, understanding the brain’s speed limit raises questions about the future of neuroscience and artificial intelligence.



Future research may unlock why this limit exists and how it influences everything from perception to decision-making. It could also provide insights into enhancing human cognition and developing smarter, more efficient technologies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273(24)00808-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuron</a>.



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Brain processing speed is millions of times slower than Wi-Fi

Have you ever wondered why it takes us a while...

The global livestock industry plays a significant role in the production of greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change in ways that are often overlooked. 



Cows, sheep, and other livestock produce methane, a potent greenhouse gas, during digestion through a process called enteric fermentation. 



In fact, methane has a much higher heat-trapping potential than carbon dioxide, making livestock farming a key driver of global warming. 



Additionally, the industry is responsible for large amounts of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide emissions, mainly from the use of synthetic fertilizers and land-use changes like deforestation for grazing. 



Together, these emissions make the livestock sector one of the leading contributors to global greenhouse gas levels.



On top of direct emissions, the livestock industry also contributes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a> and other forms of environmental degradation through its high demand for resources like water and land.



A substantial amount of land - counting both grazing areas for cattle, pigs, and poultry, and agricultural fields for their feed crops - is devoted to sustaining the world’s 92 billion farm animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-are-pets-involved-with-livestock">How are pets involved with livestock?</h2>



A large portion of pet food is made from animal products, including meat, which requires significant land, water, and energy to produce. 



As a result, the pet food industry indirectly contributes to the environmental problems tied to livestock farming, such as deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions.



Andrew Knight of the <a href="https://www.winchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Winchester</a>, writing for The Conversation, recently explored the potential environmental benefits of switching all pets to vegan diets. 



If this were somehow possible, how much impact would it have on the planet? Short answer - a lot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-considering-the-impacts-of-pet-diets">Considering the impacts of pet diets</h2>



Efforts to address these challenges have sparked interest in shifting human diets to plant-based alternatives. Yet, as experts increasingly argue, the environmental impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-owners-ages-and-beliefs-influence-their-pet-food-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet food</a> must also be considered.&nbsp;



This focus on pet diets stems from the fact that companion animals - dogs and cats in particular - often consume meat-based products comparable to those eaten by humans, ultimately contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and land use changes. 



The question arises: should our pets join us in transitioning to plant-based diets?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-environmental-costs-of-pet-diets">The environmental costs of pet diets</h2>



Quantifying how pet food affects the environment has long been hindered by sparse data on its ingredients. However, a 2020 report providing in-depth information on over 500 components used by the U.S. pet food industry enabled researchers to estimate its ecological footprint.&nbsp;



By examining this database, scientists calculated potential benefits if the global population of dogs and cats were fed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-you-eat-can-literally-change-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based diets</a>.



The results proved eye-opening. Transitioning all pet dogs to nutritionally sound plant-based diets could save an estimated 0.57 gigatons of CO₂ each year - more than what the United Kingdom emitted in 2023.&nbsp;



This transition would also free up land larger than Mexico’s total area, which could be reclaimed for habitat restoration, enhancing both biodiversity and carbon storage.&nbsp;



Furthermore, replacing livestock feed crops with plant-based alternatives for pets would yield enough calories to feed some 450 million people - more than the population of the European Union. Such a change could also spare as many as six billion land animals from slaughter annually.



A similar pattern emerges for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/switching-dogs-and-cats-to-vegan-diets-would-help-the-earth-tremendously/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a>. Switching all cats to plant-based diets could prevent 0.09 gigatons of CO₂ emissions yearly - surpassing New Zealand’s total emissions - and would liberate land exceeding the size of Germany.&nbsp;



The freed-up food energy could feed around 70 million people, comparable to the entire population of the United Kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-use-of-byproducts">Rethinking the use of byproducts</h2>



Some have assumed that pet food’s reliance on byproducts of human meat consumption reduces its environmental impact, on the grounds that these are materials otherwise considered waste.&nbsp;



However, recent research suggests the situation is more complicated. Because a relatively small portion of each animal carcass is converted into these byproducts, sustaining pet food production can, in fact, raise the demand for livestock overall.&nbsp;



More animals being raised and slaughtered translates into more land cleared for grazing or feed crops, heavier freshwater consumption, and additional greenhouse gas emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-of-vegan-pet-diets">Health implications of vegan pet diets</h2>



While dogs are naturally omnivorous and cats are considered carnivorous, modern commercial pet foods already deviate from their ancestral diets.&nbsp;



In practice, these foods commonly blend plant materials - like grains and vegetables - with various animal-sourced ingredients, then add preservatives and flavor enhancers.&nbsp;



Meeting a pet’s nutritional needs fundamentally involves supplying adequate protein, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, rather than providing specific meat sources. As researchers have found, pets can thrive on meticulously formulated plant-based diets.



Several studies completed by late 2024 suggest dogs and cats can thrive on vegan meals. In certain cases, these diets may lead to improvements in areas such as obesity control and allergic responses.&nbsp;



Furthermore, investigations into feeding behavior indicate that pets generally accept vegan meals as readily as they do meat-based ones, based on measures of excitement and enjoyment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-push-for-sustainability">A broader push for sustainability</h2>



Confronting climate change and curbing biodiversity loss requires far-reaching measures, as emphasized by international bodies.&nbsp;



While shifting human diets toward plant-based options is a commonly proposed solution, it may not go far enough on its own.&nbsp;



Integrating pets into these changes expands the potential for lowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a> and decreasing the strain on resources. If such diets are provided by reputable manufacturers that ensure complete nutrition, it is possible to preserve the health and welfare of companion animals.



For those contemplating this shift, websites like <a href="http://sustainablepetfood.info/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SustainablePetFood.info</a> can offer guidance in sourcing products that meet pets’ nutritional requirements.&nbsp;



By rethinking how companion animals are fed, pet owners can contribute to mitigating climate change while continuing to support the well-being of dogs and cats.&nbsp;



This aspect of dietary transition underscores that addressing global environmental challenges can be an inclusive effort, embracing not only human choices but also those made on behalf of the animals in our care.



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Changing how we feed our pets will improve their health and also the environment

The global livestock industry plays a significant role in the...

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Did you know that the Statue of Liberty wasn’t always green? Today’s Video of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society’s</a> Reactions series and features a look at how chemistry has changed the statue’s color over time.
  &#8212;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a>
Source: <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ZSLrXtg1-o&amp;feature=youtu.be">American Chemical Society</a>

The Statue of Liberty and her true colors