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Evolution is often thought of as a slow, creeping process. But when it comes to octopuses and squids, it seems nature works in quick, sharp bursts.



Over the last 500 million years, nearly all the evolutionary changes in these creatures have happened during short periods when new species appeared.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a> studied these remarkable animals, offering fresh evidence for an idea that’s stirred debate for decades. 



The concept, known as punctuated equilibrium, was first introduced in the 1970s by paleontologists Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge. Instead of slow, gradual changes, this theory suggests that evolution typically moves in sudden jumps, with long stretches of calm in between.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-evolution">New approach to evolution</h2>



Researchers in the University of Auckland’s Department of Physics took a new approach to studying evolution. 



The team refined a probabilistic model and used BEAST 2, a powerful software tool for building evolutionary trees, to track how species changed over time. 



The experts applied their method to cephalopods, a group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squids</a>, cuttlefish, and vampire squids. 



By examining traits such as shell shapes, the number of tentacles, and fin structures, the researchers found that gradual evolution played only a “trivial role.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-paced-evolution-unveiled">Fast-paced evolution unveiled</h2>



The team also studied the evolution of Indo-European languages and ancient enzymes involved in genetic coding. According to the analysis, these too evolved in sudden, dramatic leaps that the researchers refer to as "saltative branching."



The idea of saltative branching highlights a shift in how scientists think about evolution. It captures the idea that these rapid changes occur precisely when new species split off from the family tree. 



Instead of a steady march, evolution - at least for cephalopods and other systems studied - seems to move in energetic, unpredictable bursts. It’s a reminder that nature often rewrites its own rules, and sometimes all at once.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-life-and-leaps">Language, life, and leaps</h2>



The study extended beyond biology. The evolution of Indo-European languages revealed a similar pattern of fast paced change. 



The findings support the “hybrid theory,” which suggests that these languages originated south of the Caucasus Mountains before spreading northward.



Even aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases - enzymes that trace back to life’s beginnings - show signs of evolving in quick bursts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-theory-gains-momentum">A theory gains momentum</h2>



For decades, punctuated equilibrium has sparked discussion and debate. It’s been applied to bacteria, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-going-strong-when-the-deadly-asteroid-struck/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, cancer, and even human culture. But questions about its general validity have lingered.



Niles Eldredge, curator emeritus at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, weighed in on the research. In an email to the authors of the study, Eldredge expressed optimism that this research might finally sway the skeptics.



“The new research may serve as a ‘tipping point’ for acceptance of the theory, which has remained controversial for decades,” he said.



Eldredge added that over the past 50 years, the concept has been used broadly but doubts about its widespread applicability remained. 



Now, with the help of advanced mathematical techniques, the new study shows that rapid evolutionary changes almost always align with the appearance of new species. The paper, he said, “removes all doubt.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-rapid-evolution-means-for-science">What rapid evolution means for science</h2>



The idea that evolution can happen in fast paced bursts opens new doors for how scientists think about life’s history. It suggests that sudden environmental changes, genetic shifts, or even random chance could trigger these leaps, reshaping species in a relatively short time.



This challenges the long-held view of evolution as a steady, gradual climb. Instead, it points to a landscape full of sudden turns and quick adaptations. 



For researchers, it means looking closer at the moments when species first appear, as these may hold the real action in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-eyes-catch-a-glimpse-of-evolutionary-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary history</a>.



The study also hints at how life might respond to today’s rapid changes in the environment. If evolution can move quickly when needed, it raises both hope and questions about how species will adapt to the pressures of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yeast-evolution-reveals-limits-to-surviving-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and habitat loss.



For now, the study of octopuses and squids adds another layer to our understanding of evolution - one that shows nature’s ability to move in quick, surprising steps when the time is right.



The research was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0182" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Octopuses and squids defy the slow pace of evolution

Evolution is often thought of as a slow, creeping process....

In the wild, group living offers animals many advantages, from protection to shared knowledge. But it also brings complexity. Who goes first? Who follows? And why? For decades, scientists have tried to explain why animals like baboons walk in organized lines called "progressions." 



Some believed it was about defense. Others thought it had to do with food. But a new study from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a> reveals a different truth. Baboons, it turns out, may just want to walk with their friends.



This insight emerged from one of the most detailed baboon movement studies to date. The team tracked 13 chacma baboons using high-resolution GPS collars. These baboons lived in the Da Gama Park area of South Africa’s Cape Peninsula.



Over 36 days, the team recorded 78 coordinated group movements. Each one showed the animals lining up in a consistent, non-random way. But instead of a tactical plan, social ties seemed to shape this order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-old-baboon-movement-theories">Testing old baboon movement theories</h2>



Previous ideas about baboon movement suggested clear strategies. The “risk hypothesis” argued that strong individuals like males took positions at the front or rear to shield weaker members.



The “competition hypothesis” suggested subordinates moved up front to access food before dominants arrived. And the “decision-making hypothesis” claimed that leaders guided the troop from the front. All these theories aimed to explain baboon lines as evolved survival tools.



But the Swansea team’s results didn’t match those expectations. Their GPS data revealed no strong link between position in the line and safety, food access, or leadership.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-shape-movement">Social bonds shape movement</h2>



In fact, dominant baboons often appeared in the center rather than the front. Subordinates moved toward the edges, not because of strategy, but due to social positioning.



“Surprisingly, the consistent order we see for the baboons we studied isn’t about avoiding danger like we see in prey animals when they position themselves in the middle of their social group, or for better access to food or water like we see in the movements of plains zebra,” noted Dr. Andrew King, associate professor at Swansea University.



Their movement is guided by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-can-ease-stress-among-elephants/">social bonds</a> rather than individual choices, creating a consistent pattern.



“In the baboon group we studied, the more socially connected, higher-ranking individuals usually walk in the middle of the group, while lower-ranking baboons are often out in front or at the rear," Dr. King said. 



"During these group movements, like heading to a familiar sleeping spot, it’s likely that the group already knows where they’re going. So, the baboons at the front aren’t really leading; they’re just out ahead.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-baboon-walks-reflect-friendship">How baboon walks reflect friendship</h2>



This unexpected discovery led the researchers to apply the concept of a “social spandrel.” In architecture, a spandrel is a space that arises between two arches. 



It wasn’t designed on purpose. It just appears as a side effect. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-rule-of-biology-instability-key-to-evolution-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology</a>, the term refers to traits that emerge not from direct evolutionary pressure, but as by-products of other forces.



In the case of baboons, social relationships were the hidden architects. Friends stayed close together, and these pairs naturally formed repeatable line formations. The travel order was not the result of strategy, but a side effect of close companionship.



Over time, this created what looked like an organized pattern, but it was just friendship in motion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-movement-of-baboons">Stable movement of baboons</h2>



To reach these conclusions, the researchers collected 13.87 hours of data using collars fitted to adult baboons. They tracked the animals from morning until evening.



The team defined a progression only when the group moved together in a tight, aligned formation. Progressions happened throughout the day, but many occurred in the late afternoon when baboons returned to their sleeping site.



Interestingly, the baboons’ movement speed, group shape, and order remained stable across different times of day. 



Whether they were heading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dietary-shift-to-forage-fish-could-prevent-millions-of-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forage</a> or returning to rest, the travel line followed the same structure. This consistency further ruled out time-sensitive strategies like racing for food or responding to risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-friends-shape-movement">Friends shape movement</h2>



The researchers compared how close baboons stayed to each other during progressions and during casual group activity.



The same pairs that spent time together while resting also stuck close while walking. Dominant baboons were more central in the group, not because they pushed others aside, but because others naturally gathered near them.



This pattern suggests a kind of social gravity. Baboons with stronger social bonds pull others toward them. Dominant individuals had more neighbors, but their neighbors changed often. 



Subordinates had fewer companions, which often left them at the edges. Over time, these patterns led to consistent line positions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-strategy-just-bonds">No strategy, just bonds</h2>



The data showed no link between position and benefits like food or safety. Even near risky <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-animal-species-will-soon-vanish-from-cities/">urban areas</a>, the order stayed the same.



This questions the idea of baboon lines as tactical formations. Instead, movement reflected social bonds.



If strategy mattered, dominant baboons might lead or guard the rear. But they stayed central. These results suggest social ties, not tactics, shape group travel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baboons-walk-in-familiar-lines">Baboons walk in familiar lines</h2>



“We know that strong social bonds are important for baboons - they’re linked to longer lives and greater reproductive success," said Marco Fele, the study’s lead author and PhD student at Swansea University.



"But in this context, those bonds aren’t serving a specific purpose. The travel order we see is simply a by-product of those relationships, not a strategy with immediate benefits. Our study highlights the potential for these kinds of spandrels in collective animal behavior.”



This view encourages scientists to rethink wild behavior. Not all group actions are strategic or useful. Sometimes, they reflect social bonds. In baboons, these ties shape both grooming and walking order.



In the end, this study reminds us that friendship may be one of nature’s most powerful organizing forces. Even in the wilderness, when it comes to walking through life, we often choose to do it side by side with those we know best.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/advance-article/doi/10.1093/beheco/araf022/8071582" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Behavioral Ecology</a>.



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Baboons walk in lines just to stay near their friends

In the wild, group living offers animals many advantages, from...

Hollywood once spun a wild yarn about “Cocaine Bear,” a hapless black bear that gorged itself on lost narcotics. It turns out the plot has a saltwater sequel. In coastal Brazil, “cocaine sharks” - petite Brazilian sharpnose sharks - are cruising through drug-laden surf, minding their own business - and absorbing far more than sunshine.



The tale sounds like clickbait, yet it is anchored in hard numbers. Seawater sampled near the crowded <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Santos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Port of Santos</a> - Latin America’s busiest harbor - contained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-help-us-understand-cocaine-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocaine concentrations</a> on par with caffeine. 



Those waters eventually lap against popular beaches only a few miles away. Juvenile sharks captured for study later returned chemical readings that would make any toxicologist wince. 



Sharks on cocaine? Believe it!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cocaine-small-sharks-big-questions">Cocaine, small sharks, big questions</h2>



Barely 20 inches from snout to tail, <a href="https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/caribbean/en/thefishes/species/2694" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhizoprionodon lalandii</a> hardly fits the image of a fearsome predator. These nimble hunters weigh less than a quart of milk yet punch above their size in local food webs. 



They became the focus of marine toxicologist Gabriel de Farias Araujo and ecotoxicologist Enrico Mendes Saggioro at Brazil’s <a href="https://www.ioc.fiocruz.br/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oswaldo Cruz Institute</a> after a late-night brainstorming session about invisible pollutants and overlooked species.



The researchers spent weeks prowling estuaries in small boats, setting gill nets at dawn and dusk when sharpnoses patrol the shallows. Thirteen juvenile and young adult sharks were taken back to the lab, packed in ice.



Chromatography showed every fish carried cocaine plus hefty doses of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoylecgonine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benzoylecgonine</a>, the drug’s chief metabolite. 



Levels dwarfed those seen in most aquatic surveys, pointing to chronic exposure rather than a one-off snort from floating contraband.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-drugs-pollute-ocean-waters">How drugs pollute ocean waters</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pharmaceutical-pollution-changes-the-behavior-of-atlantic-salmon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pharmaceutical pollution</a> is a worldwide headache, but Brazil faces an outsized share because it is a major transit hub for cocaine. 



Much of the drug winds up in wastewater after human use, slipping past treatment plants that were never designed to neutralize narcotics. In hot, crowded cities, a single facility may discharge millions of gallons of partially treated effluent each day.



Add in discarded bales tossed overboard by smugglers and residue from clandestine labs hidden along rivers, and the result is a steady trickle of cocaine into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-can-quickly-recover-carbon-lost-to-climate-extremes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangroves and estuaries</a>. 



Tidal mixing and mangrove roots slow water flow, allowing chemicals to linger. By the time currents, wind, and rain have done their spreading, fish, crustaceans, and filter feeders are marinating in a diluted yet persistent cocktail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-cocaine-does-underwater">What cocaine does underwater</h2>



Exactly how cocaine tweaks a shark’s physiology remains an open question, but parallel studies on other species offer troubling clues. 



Zebrafish embryos exposed to tiny doses show reduced cell vitality and greater DNA fragmentation, hinting at developmental risks. 



In European eels, swimming through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-cocaine-tricks-and-hijacks-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocaine-tainted</a> water alters muscle performance and accelerates exhaustion, making long migrations harder.



Sharks may experience similar stress. Even subtle interference with neurotransmitters such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dopamine-and-serotonin-shape-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine and serotonin</a> could blunt the electroreception they use to find prey. 



Over time, that handicap translates into slower growth and lower survival, eroding populations already pressured by overfishing and habitat loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loading-the-food-chain">Loading the food chain</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-use-detected-in-the-brains-of-17th-century-mummies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cocaine</a> is not picky about hosts. Once it slips into the water, it is readily absorbed by plankton and small invertebrates hovering at the base of the food web. 



Brazilian sharpnose sharks, prowling for sardines and shrimp, take in a double dose: the drug dissolved in seawater and the bolus stored in their prey.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/cocaine-shark_benzoylecgonine_brazil-waters_infographic_credit-SOTE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/cocaine-shark_benzoylecgonine_brazil-waters_infographic_credit-SOTE_1s.webp" alt="How Brazil's sharpnose sharks, High seas: The surprising but true tale of Brazil’s ‘cocaine sharks’ - Rhizoprionodon lalandii, ingest cocaine. Credit: Oswaldo Cruz Institute" class="wp-image-1972758"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">How Brazil's sharpnose sharks, High seas: The surprising but true tale of Brazil’s ‘cocaine sharks’ - Rhizoprionodon lalandii, ingest cocaine. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Oswaldo Cruz Institute</figcaption></figure>



The study recorded tissue concentrations up to one hundred times higher than levels measured in other marine organisms. 



Such biomagnification means that apex predators - larger sharks, dolphins, even seabirds - could be accumulating unexpected pharmaceutical payloads without leaving obvious forensic clues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wider-pollution-picture">The wider pollution picture</h2>



Cocaine is only one piece of a sprawling chemical mosaic. Researchers have spotted antidepressants in Great Lakes perch, epilepsy drugs in British river otters, and methamphetamines in Czech trout. 



Each compound nudges behavior and metabolism in its own way, yet they mingle in the same waterways and sometimes interact.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-ocean-warming-in-2024-is-a-warning-for-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer seas</a> driven by climate change add another wrinkle by speeding biochemical reactions and altering currents. 



Altered predator-prey dynamics, skewed reproductive cycles, and shifts in migration routes can ripple outward, reshaping entire ecosystems faster than regulators can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-cocaine-away-from-sharks">Keeping cocaine away from sharks</h2>



Araujo and Saggioro argue that sharper monitoring is the first step toward relief. 



Upgrading wastewater plants with activated carbon filters, cracking down on illegal dumping, and tracing pollution hot spots with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-dna-can-track-wildlife-diseases-and-even-drugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> surveys would help tighten the tap before drugs reach the open ocean.



Roughly one-third of shark and ray species already teeter on the edge because of overfishing. Pharmaceutical runoff piles on yet another hurdle. 



Curbing drug pollution is less about finger-wagging at individual users and more about safeguarding coral nurseries, fisheries, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-flooding-is-happening-far-more-often-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal communities</a> that depend on them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-ocean-shared-responsibility">One ocean, shared responsibility</h2>



The presence of cocaine in Brazilian sharpnose sharks is more than a catchy headline. It is a plain reminder that human habits seep into the sea in ways we seldom notice. 



Cleaning up after ourselves should never be looked at as just a charitable act of kindness for wildlife. 



Not only is it our responsibility as the dominant species on the planet, it's an investment in the stability of ecosystems, biodiversity, and global food chains that humans ultimately rely on. The ocean does not recognize national borders, so every watershed matters.



Solving the problem will take cooperation from chemists, wastewater engineers, legislators, and everyday citizens. 



Until then, the next time a ripple of seawater brushes your ankles, keep in mind the curious little shark beneath the surface - and the silent stimulant drifting alongside it.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724049477" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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'Cocaine sharks' found off the coast of Brazil - strange but true tale of ocean pollution gone awry

Hollywood once spun a wild yarn about “Cocaine Bear,” a...

Woman's,Hands,Hugging,And,Scratching,A,Fluffy,Gray,Cat,,Pet,

Whether you share your home with a cat or simply watch them purr online, these creatures hold an irreplaceable spot in countless lives. They have evolved alongside humans, displaying distinct tendencies unlike most other felines that live solitary lives.



Curiosity about the genetic background of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-tell-people-apart-by-sniffing-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> has grown in recent years, and a new study explores a particular region of the androgen receptor gene to see if it links to purring and other behavior patterns. 



The investigation was led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.wrc.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Research Center</a> of Kyoto University, including first author Yume Okamoto from Kyoto University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-with-short-genes-purr-more">Cats with short genes purr more</h2>



Many cat enthusiasts have noticed that cats communicate in various ways, yet they may not realize that purring is <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19602409/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than just a pleasant hum</a>. It can indicate comfort, solicit attention, and even signal a desire to maintain peace in tense moments.



Researchers looked at a group of neutered or spayed mixed-breed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-cats-orange-scientists-have-finally-found-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> living in typical home settings. They investigated whether short or long versions of a DNA repeat in the gene might affect behaviors, especially purring and meowing. 



One of the early takeaways was that cats with short-type gene repeats showed higher purring than those with long-type repeats.



The study also noted that male cats carrying shorter repeats tended to be more vocal toward humans. That finding could mean these cats are more likely to request food or companionship with distinct calls. 



In contrast, female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-associate-human-words-with-images/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> holding the short-type repeats scored higher on measures of aggression directed at unfamiliar people.



This dual pattern highlights how the same gene region could influence communication in one sex and potential defensive responses in the other. 



The team also discovered that longer variants of the gene were usually found in purebred cats, while many shorter variants showed up in rescued or formerly stray mixed breeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cats-breeds-and-genes-shape-purr-patterns">How cats’ breeds and genes shape purr patterns</h2>



Comparisons with related species, such as the leopard cat and the fishing cat, revealed that domestic cats alone have longer repeats. 



This difference may have emerged with <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20210480418" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestication</a>, when friendly or less vocal cats began thriving under human care. 



Selection for certain physical traits or temperaments might have gradually shifted gene frequencies toward specific repeat lengths.



Understanding how these genetic factors play out can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-cat-lovers-share-these-personality-traits-according-to-psychologists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">help owners</a> and veterinarians pick up on a cat’s needs. 



A cat that rarely meows might still signal stress or discomfort, so early attention to non-vocal cues could be extra important for cats with longer repeats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-genes-could-shape-cat-personality">More genes could shape cat personality</h2>



The research focused on a single gene, but cats (like all animals) express behavior through a complex network of genes and hormones. 



Other candidate genes, such as the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-59161-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxytocin receptor</a> and vasopressin receptor, have shown associations with social bonding and aggression in past feline studies. 



Including these alongside androgen receptor data could give a more complete view of what shapes a cat’s personality.



There’s also growing interest in applying <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7581003/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whole-genome sequencing</a> to behavioral studies. With that approach, scientists might identify dozens of small genetic differences that together influence tendencies like playfulness, fear, or sociability. 



That level of detail could one day help animal shelters, breeders, and pet owners better understand how a specific cat might respond to different environments or routines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



“When we called for participants, we were moved to receive responses from 265 cat owners from across Japan in just a single day, and received kind messages,” said Okamoto. 



He and colleagues used a detailed questionnaire to gather day-to-day accounts of cat behaviors at home. Data from regular home life can show subtle patterns that might be lost in lab-based observations.



Their hope is that this knowledge can lead to more tailored care for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-cat-day-creating-life-saving-change-for-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these special animals</a>, especially for rescued cats that rely heavily on vocal signals. 



Owners with an eye on vocal changes, be it louder meowing or quieter behavior, can respond faster to any underlying emotional or health issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-may-also-make-wild-cats-purr">Genetics may also make wild cats purr</h2>



“Through our research, we hope to deepen our understanding of cats and contribute to building happier relationships between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-old-is-your-cat-in-human-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats and humans</a>,” said Okamoto. That perspective also extends to wild cat relatives.



Some species are on conservation watch lists, and any breakthrough that clarifies feline behavior may help in captivity or rehab situations. 



Genetic insights can set the stage for better strategies in breeding programs, managed habitats, and rescue work. 



The more precisely scientists can predict behavior, the easier it is to create stress-free spaces or direct resources to the animals that need them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-study-of-cat-behavior">Future study of cat behavior</h2>



It is possible that future genetic tests could offer a fuller picture of a cat’s likely social style. 



That knowledge may be valuable in busy households or settings where owners hope to match a cat’s temperament to their own routines.



No single gene tells the entire story, though. Factors like environment, early experiences, and individual personalities still count for a lot. But these findings shine a light on the subtle interplay of heredity and everyday cat life. 



Genetic patterns linked to cat purring and other vocal calls help explain why some felines seem chatty, while others stick to quiet signals.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0324055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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How and why do cats purr? Scientists finally found the answers

Whether you share your home with a cat or simply...

Researchers announced that NASA’s James Webb space telescope captured an unusual snapshot of a small, gassy planet known as <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/toi-421-b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TOI-421 B</a>. They found strong signs of water vapor but no traces of carbon dioxide or methane, hinting that this planet is more hospitable to specific chemical mixtures than expected.



Principal investigator <a href="https://www.astro.umd.edu/people/ekempton.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eliza Kempton</a> of the University of Maryland, College Park notes that TOI-421 B’s atmosphere belongs to a class of planets called <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2020JE006639" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sub-neptunes</a>, which are planets between the size of Earth and Neptune. 



Many of these smaller worlds are shrouded in haze, but this one seems to have clear skies and to be unusually hot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sniffing-out-a-hidden-atmosphere">Sniffing out a hidden atmosphere</h2>



TOI-421 B sits several times closer to its star than earth does to the sun. <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/toi-421-b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The planet’s atmosphere</a> reaches around 1,340°F, which is intense even by exoplanet standards.



Astronomers using the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb Telescope</a> used a method known as <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2023/03/Transmission_spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transmission spectroscopy</a> to spot water in the planet’s upper layers. 



They observed light passing through the planet’s atmosphere during a transit, then checked for chemical signatures in the spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-temperature-on-toi-421-b">Unusual temperature on TOI-421 B</h2>



Its scorching temperature has likely cleared out much of the haze seen on cooler sub-neptunes. Observations indicate these conditions prevent heavy clouds from forming high in the atmosphere.



Scientists were surprised to detect possible <a href="https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/topics/atmosphere/sulfur-dioxide" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sulfur dioxide</a> in such a fierce environment. This molecule is more common in cooler or more chemically complex planets, so it raises new questions about chemical interactions at high temperatures.



The results suggest TOI-421 B has a hydrogen-dominated envelope rather than a mixture that is heavy in carbon or oxygen. 



Such a configuration leads to a lighter overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-mars-atmosphere-may-improve-weather-predictions/">atmosphere</a>, different from sub-neptunes observed around cooler stars.



Researchers confirmed this by comparing various wavelength signatures across <a href="https://www.shimadzu.com/an/service-support/technical-support/ftir/tips_and_tricks/nir1.html#:~:text=Near%2Dinfrared%20light%20generally%20refers,1)." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near-infrared ranges</a>. They matched small dips in starlight to the molecular fingerprints of water, hydrogen, and other trace gases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-methane-or-carbon-dioxide">No methane or carbon dioxide</h2>



Scientists were expecting to find methane or carbon dioxide, since these gases are often linked to the chemistry of small, gassy exoplanets. But neither molecule showed up in TOI-421 B’s spectrum.



That absence supports the idea that methane breaks down at high temperatures and that these types of planets may not follow the same chemical rules as their cooler counterparts. 



Without methane, the formation of hazes is unlikely, which helps explain why the atmosphere is so transparent.



Hot sub-neptunes like TOI-421 B appear rare among the objects studied so far with advanced tools. Many smaller planets in the same size range showed hazy, high-metallicity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-shrinking-earths-atmosphere-and-thats-bad-for-satellites/">atmospheres</a> that flattened out the chemical signals.



In contrast, this planet’s composition seems closer to what astronomers expect for primordial hydrogen envelopes. 



That discovery may improve theories on how these types of planets form and keep their light gases under punishing heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-toi-421-b-compares">How TOI-421 B compares</h2>



Although TOI-421 B is a sub-neptune, there’s nothing quite like it in our solar system. Neptune and Uranus are colder, farther from the sun, and wrapped in thick clouds that block direct views of their deep atmospheres.



TOI-421 B’s hot, hydrogen-rich envelope and clear skies make it more chemically similar to Jupiter, but it’s much smaller and far hotter. 



Its strange combination of size, temperature, and clarity gives astronomers a new benchmark to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-announce-evidence-suggesting-that-our-solar-system-has-nine-planets-again/">planets</a> that form outside our own solar neighborhood.



Some investigators suggest that intense radiation from a star usually strips away lighter molecules, leaving behind heavier ones. 



Yet TOI-421 B seems to have dodged that fate, or it reshaped its atmosphere over time in a different way than previously thought.



“I had been waiting my entire career for Webb so that we could meaningfully characterize the atmospheres of these smaller planets,” said Kempton. She and her team plan to look at more hot sub-neptunes to see if this planet’s profile is unique or part of a broader pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-beyond-our-solar-system">Planets beyond our solar system</h2>



The clear, hydrogen-rich atmosphere of TOI-421 B suggests that not all sub-neptunes follow the same evolutionary path. 



It challenges previous assumptions that most of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitable-exoplanet-gliese-12-b-only-40-light-years-away-earth-like-temperatures/">planets</a> have murky atmospheres full of heavy molecules or cloud layers that block observation.



Understanding why this planet avoided those conditions could unlock new clues about how stars, temperature, and distance shape a planet’s chemistry. 



With more examples like this, scientists may be able to piece together a larger picture of how common or rare clear-skied, hydrogen-rich sub-neptunes really are.



The study is published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/adcd76" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



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Webb telescope detects water vapor on a planet outside the solar system smaller than Neptune

Researchers announced that NASA’s James Webb space telescope captured an...

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