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As a serial entrepreneur, Eric Ralls has long aspired to merge technology with a love for nature and our planet. Founder at Earth.com, EarthSnap, PlantSnap, redOrbit.  "My goal has always been to bring people back to nature, to help them realize that humanity is a part of nature, not 'apart' from nature," says <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Eric Ralls</a>, Founder and CEO of EarthSnap. "Homosapiens are only one species out of over 8 million species of life with whom we share this planet. Yet humanity treats the earth like it is ours alone to do with as we please, even though we've only been here for a few hundred thousand years out of the 3.5 billion years that this beautiful blue marble has been zipping through the universe."
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The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet has captivated scientists and the public alike for generations. Now, an intriguing new study on fossils suggests we might be looking in the wrong places for their earliest ancestors. 



While we've found countless dinosaur fossils in places like Argentina and Zimbabwe, the very first dinosaurs might have emerged from the steamy equatorial regions of ancient Earth - areas that today make up the Amazon rainforest, Congo basin, and Sahara Desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gap-in-the-dinosaur-fossil-record">Gap in the dinosaur fossil record</h2>



The oldest known dinosaur fossils date back around 230 million years and have been found in Argentina, Brazil, and Zimbabwe. 



However, the differences between these fossils indicate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> had already been evolving for millions of years before these specimens emerged. This implies an even earlier origin, but direct fossil evidence of this has yet to be found.



The new study, published in the journal Current Biology, addresses this issue by using advanced modeling techniques to account for gaps in the fossil record.



The researchers analyzed fossils, evolutionary trees, and ancient geography to reconstruct the likely emergence of dinosaurs. 



Instead of assuming that fossils have not been found in certain areas because they never existed there, the study treats those regions as simply missing data.



“Dinosaurs are well studied but we still don’t really know where they came from. The fossil record has such large gaps that it can’t be taken at face value,” noted study lead author Joel Heath from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-dinosaurs-and-their-world">First dinosaurs and their world</h2>



According to the study, the earliest dinosaurs likely appeared in western low-latitude Gondwana, a region that was hot and dry, resembling today’s deserts and savannas. This challenges the previous assumption that dinosaurs first evolved in more temperate environments. 



Despite the study’s findings, no fossils from these early dinosaurs have been discovered in the Amazon or central Africa. 



Heath suggests that this is due to a combination of accessibility issues and a lack of focused research in these regions.



The world of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> was vastly different from the one their descendants would later dominate. During the Late Triassic period, dinosaurs were only a minor part of a diverse ecosystem filled with other reptilian creatures. 



These included the ancestors of crocodiles, known as pseudosuchians, some of which grew up to 10 meters (33 feet) long. 



Another major group in this prehistoric world was pterosaurs, the first vertebrates to develop powered flight. These flying reptiles would eventually evolve into species as large as modern fighter jets.



In contrast to their massive successors like Diplodocus or Tyrannosaurus rex, the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> were much smaller, typically the size of a chicken or a medium-sized dog.



They walked on two legs, making them agile hunters and scavengers, and most were likely omnivorous. Their small size and adaptability may have helped them survive in the challenging environments of early Gondwana.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-dinosaurs">The rise of dinosaurs</h2>



For millions of years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-triassic-fossil-gondwanax-paraisensis-may-rewrite-history-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> remained in the shadow of their reptilian cousins. That changed around 201 million years ago, when a series of massive volcanic eruptions led to the end-Triassic mass extinction. 



This catastrophe wiped out many of the dominant reptile species, creating an ecological vacuum that the surviving dinosaurs quickly filled. 



With their competitors gone, dinosaurs began to spread and diversify, eventually becoming the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.



The modeling study suggests that dinosaurs and other reptiles may have first evolved in low-latitude Gondwana before spreading outward. 



They expanded southward into what is now Argentina and Zimbabwe, and northward into Laurasia, the northern supercontinent that would later split into Europe, Asia, and North America. 



This idea is supported by fossil evidence showing that some of the dinosaurs’ closest relatives, including early crocodile-like reptiles, were found in northern Laurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-link-in-dinosaur-evolution">Missing link in dinosaur evolution</h2>



One of the study’s key findings concerns the evolutionary relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-worlds-best-preserved-psittacosaurus-dinosaurs-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early dinosaurs</a> and their close relatives. There is ongoing debate about how different groups of dinosaurs evolved from their reptilian ancestors. 



To address this, the researchers tested their model against three different evolutionary trees. The strongest support for a Gondwanan origin came from a model that classified silesaurids, traditionally seen as distant cousins of dinosaurs, as direct ancestors of ornithischians.



This finding is significant because ornithischians - one of the three major dinosaur groups, which later included the stegosaurs and Triceratops species - are mysteriously absent from the fossil record in the earliest years of dinosaur history.



If silesaurids were indeed their ancestors, this would help fill a major gap in the evolutionary tree and provide a clearer picture of how dinosaurs diversified over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-and-climate-adaptation">Dinosaurs and climate adaptation</h2>



The study also sheds light on how dinosaurs adapted to different climates over millions of years. “Our results suggest early dinosaurs may have been well adapted to hot and arid environments,” noted Professor Philip Mannion, a senior author of the study.



This is particularly evident in sauropods, the group that includes massive plant-eaters like Brontosaurus and Diplodocus. These dinosaurs appear to have retained their preference for warm climates, remaining in lower latitudes throughout their existence.



On the other hand, theropods - the group that includes T. rex and modern birds - and ornithischians seem to have developed the ability to generate their own body heat.



This adaptation allowed them to expand into colder regions, including the polar regions, by the time of the Jurassic period. This shift in climate tolerance may have contributed to their long-term evolutionary success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dinosaur-fossils">Future research on dinosaur fossils</h2>



Despite the study’s compelling findings, direct fossil evidence of the earliest dinosaurs in the Amazon, Congo, or Sahara remains absent. 



Future expeditions to these regions may uncover this elusive evidence that could redefine our understanding of dinosaur origins.



If dinosaurs did originate in equatorial Gondwana, as the study suggests, their earliest ancestors may still lie buried beneath the dense rainforests of the Amazon or the shifting sands of the Sahara. 



These areas remain some of the least-explored fossil sites on Earth, meaning that the missing chapters of dinosaur evolution may still be waiting to be revealed.



As paleontologists continue to refine their understanding of early dinosaur evolution, this study highlights the importance of exploring new frontiers in fossil research. 



The true story of dinosaur origins is still being written, and future discoveries in these regions could change everything we thought we knew about the dawn of the dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01722-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Where did dinosaurs come from? Scientists say they figured it out

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet...

A recent study&nbsp;by Global Fishing Watch has uncovered an immense quantity of previously untracked vessel activity at sea.



The ocean has long been a vast and mysterious frontier, covering over 70% of the Earth’s surface. It is the lifeblood of global trade, a crucial source of food, and a key player in energy production. Yet, despite its importance, much of what happens on its surface remains shrouded in secrecy. 



By leveraging satellite imagery, vessel GPS data, and artificial intelligence, researchers have created a detailed map of industrial vessel movements and offshore energy infrastructure.



The findings reveal staggering gaps in public tracking systems, raising urgent concerns about maritime transparency, environmental sustainability, and global security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-vessels-at-sea">Dark vessels at sea</h2>



For years, maritime organizations and governments have relied on the&nbsp;Automatic Identification System (AIS)&nbsp;to track vessel movements. While AIS is useful for monitoring registered ships, it has significant limitations. 



Not all countries mandate its use, and many vessels turn off their transponders to avoid detection, particularly those engaging in illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-gets-a-boost-from-genomics-roadmap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a>, smuggling, and other illicit activities.



The&nbsp;experts found that between&nbsp;72% and 76% of the world’s industrial fishing vessels are not publicly tracked - a striking figure that highlights the hidden scale of commercial fishing operations.



Even more concerning,&nbsp;21% to 30% of transport and energy vessel activity is missing from public monitoring systems, further obscuring the true scale of industrial use of the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-fishing-activity">Hidden fishing activity </h2>



Most of this untracked activity occurs in&nbsp;South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the northern and western coasts of Africa. These regions, rich in marine biodiversity, are also hotspots for illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-consequences-of-catch-and-release-sport-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a>, overexploitation of marine resources, and environmental degradation. 



Without a reliable and transparent tracking system, governments and conservationists struggle to enforce regulations, protect fish stocks, and monitor maritime security.



The implications of this dark vessel activity extend far beyond fishing. More than&nbsp;one billion people depend on the ocean as their primary food source, and&nbsp;260 million people are directly employed by global marine fisheries.



Additionally,&nbsp;80% of all traded goods are transported via ocean routes, and&nbsp;nearly 30% of the world’s oil production occurs offshore. Without accurate tracking, illegal activities such as&nbsp;forced labor, human trafficking, and environmental crimes&nbsp;can continue unchecked, undermining efforts to promote sustainable ocean management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-satellites-reveal-dark-vessels">AI and satellites reveal dark vessels </h2>



To address the limitations of AIS and other conventional tracking systems, the researchers turned to artificial intelligence and satellite technology.



They used deep learning models to scan a staggering&nbsp;two petabytes of satellite imagery&nbsp;from the&nbsp;European Space Agency’s Sentinel-1 satellite constellation. This AI-powered system was trained to detect and classify vessels with remarkable accuracy, far surpassing previous methods.



The team&nbsp;designed and trained three deep convolutional neural networks&nbsp;to analyze satellite imagery and vessel GPS data. 



These models achieved an&nbsp;object detection accuracy of over 97%, a&nbsp;classification accuracy of 98% for offshore infrastructure, and a&nbsp;90% accuracy rate for distinguishing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> vessels from non-fishing vessels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-untracked-vessel-activity">Unveiling untracked vessel activity</h2>



The dataset used for this analysis was massive. Researchers examined&nbsp;67 million image tiles, including&nbsp;53 billion AIS vessel positions, to determine which ships were actively broadcasting their location and which were operating in the shadows. 



The&nbsp;resolution of the satellite radar allowed the team to detect objects as small as 15 meters, making it possible to track industrial fishing vessels, cargo ships, tankers, and offshore infrastructure with unprecedented clarity.



"Our satellite mapping revealed high densities of vessel activity in large areas of the ocean that previously showed little to no vessel activity by public tracking systems," the research team stated.



The study’s findings have already&nbsp;reshaped our understanding of global maritime activity, revealing areas where fishing and transport vessels operate without oversight. 



This new method of tracking vessels will be&nbsp;instrumental in identifying illegal fishing hotspots, detecting human rights violations at sea, and improving enforcement of marine protected areas (MPAs).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rise-of-offshore-energy-wind-vs-oil">Rise of offshore energy: Wind vs. oil</h2>



Beyond vessel movements, the study also mapped the rapid expansion of offshore energy infrastructure. 



By&nbsp;2021, offshore wind turbines had surpassed oil structures in number, a significant milestone in the transition toward renewable energy. Wind power accounted for&nbsp;48% of all offshore structures, while oil installations made up&nbsp;38%.



Despite the growth of wind energy,&nbsp;oil-related vessel traffic still dwarfs that of wind infrastructure, with oil platforms generating&nbsp;five times more vessel activity&nbsp;than wind farms. The global shift to offshore renewables is happening, but oil remains dominant in terms of maritime traffic and industrial footprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-footprint-of-offshore-energy">Growing footprint of offshore energy</h2>



The study from <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Fishing Watch</a> found that offshore wind farms are&nbsp;highly concentrated in northern Europe (52%) and China (45%), with China experiencing an extraordinary&nbsp;900% increase in offshore wind turbines from 2017 to 2021. 



Meanwhile, offshore oil infrastructure remains concentrated in&nbsp;the Gulf of Mexico, the Persian Gulf, and Southeast Asia, with the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Indonesia leading in oil platform installations.



As renewable energy infrastructure continues to grow, understanding how these structures interact with existing maritime industries will be crucial. The study found that&nbsp;trawlers avoid fishing within one kilometer of oil platforms, likely to prevent net entanglement. 



However, other fishing activities&nbsp;increase around offshore infrastructure, as these structures can serve as artificial reefs that attract marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-maritime-surveillance">Future of maritime surveillance</h2>



In addition to satellite-based vessel tracking, new AI-driven technologies are set to&nbsp;revolutionize real-time ship detection. The&nbsp;Rapid Earth Monitoring Information System (REMIS), developed in partnership with&nbsp;<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>, <a href="https://www.stcorp.nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">S[&amp;]T</a>, <a href="https://www.vake.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vake</a>, and <a href="https://emlogic.no" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EmLogic</a> in Norway, promises to&nbsp;locate ships in hours instead of days.



Current satellite monitoring relies on&nbsp;downlinking images, processing them on the ground, and analyzing them manually, which can take days. By the time authorities receive data, dark vessels may have moved on, making enforcement difficult.



REMIS will&nbsp;pre-filter images in space, prioritizing those containing ships before sending them to ground stations. This drastically reduces&nbsp;data transmission time and processing costs, enabling authorities to&nbsp;track vessels in near real-time.



“If we can already identify ships onboard and potentially even combine it with AI systems, we could mark dark vessels and prioritize the scenes containing ships or their locations,” explains&nbsp;Maris Tali, the technical officer leading the project.



This system will be particularly valuable for&nbsp;detecting illegal fishing vessels, preventing ship collisions, and redirecting maritime traffic during emergencies. It represents a&nbsp;significant leap forward in global ocean monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-covid-19-on-fishing-activity">Impact of COVID-19 on fishing activity</h2>



The study also examined how maritime activity was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. While&nbsp;global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> activity dropped by 12% in 2020, it has&nbsp;not yet returned to pre-pandemic levels. However, transport and energy-related vessel activity remained relatively&nbsp;unaffected&nbsp;during the same period.



This decline in fishing is part of a&nbsp;longer-term trend. Since the 1980s,&nbsp;global marine fish catch has remained stagnant, as many fisheries have reached or exceeded sustainable limits. Meanwhile,&nbsp;offshore energy and maritime trade continue to expand, reshaping human interactions with the ocean.



As industrialization of the ocean accelerates, conflicts between fisheries, energy developers, and conservationists are likely to increase. 



Understanding these trends is essential for&nbsp;policymakers, environmental groups, and industry leaders&nbsp;to make informed decisions about marine resource management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-transparency-and-accountability">Call for transparency and accountability</h2>



The findings of this study highlight the urgent need for&nbsp;greater transparency in maritime activity. With three-quarters of industrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-freshwater-fish-toward-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> occurring&nbsp;outside public tracking systems, governments must adopt&nbsp;stricter regulations and better enforcement mechanisms.



AI-powered satellite monitoring and real-time detection systems like REMIS offer&nbsp;powerful new tools to combat illegal fishing, improve ocean governance, and enforce environmental protections.



As human activity in the ocean continues to grow, the need for&nbsp;accountability, sustainability, and international cooperation&nbsp;has never been greater. By illuminating the&nbsp;hidden industrial fleet&nbsp;operating in our oceans, science and technology are paving the way for a&nbsp;more transparent and sustainable future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06825-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: European Space Agency 



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Earth's oceans are filled with what scientists are calling "dark vessels"

A recent study&nbsp;by Global Fishing Watch has uncovered an immense...

The recent detection of a&nbsp;cosmic explosion by the Einstein Probe is stirring excitement among space watchers everywhere. Early last year, the probe's Wide-field X-ray Telescope spotted a mysterious X-ray burst that defies the usual patterns.



The strange event lasted over 15 minutes before fading from view. Astronomers suspect it could reshape theories on how these cosmic blasts begin.



Yuan Liu is an expert in the National Astronomical Observatories at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAO, CAS) and first author on a new paper describing the observation.



“It was really good to see the algorithm working fine for this event,” explained Liu, who also designed the onboard software that flagged this outburst.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-cosmic-explosion">Strange cosmic explosion</h2>



Experts have identified the source of the explosion as a fast X-ray transient. It is tagged EP240315a and seems to be tied to a gamma-ray burst designated GRB 240315C.



Such intense flares are best known for releasing enormous energy across multiple wavelengths. Researchers are excited about the chance to match X-ray data with radio signals and figure out if standard models still hold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-event-linked-to-a-gamma-ray-burst">Event linked to a gamma-ray burst</h2>



Roughly an hour after the X-ray peak, observers in South Africa recorded matching visible light. Additional instruments in Hawaii and Chile confirmed a redshift that places this explosion about 12.5 billion light-years away.



This distance indicates that the blast happened when our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-blaze-star-explosion-visible-one-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmos</a> was far younger. According to the research team, it is a rare glimpse of primordial processes that shaped early star formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-ancient-cosmic-explosions">Exploring ancient cosmic explosions</h2>



The team collaborated with Roberto Ricci, <a href="https://web.uniroma2.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rome Tor Vergata</a>, to investigate the outburst in radio wavelengths. The experts uncovered signs of a relativistic jet consistent with typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-nova-explosion-nearby-star-light-up-earths-skies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bursts</a> from massive star collapse.



“Combining the power of X-ray and radio observations hands us a new way to explore these ancient explosions even without detecting their <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/ems/12_gammarays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gamma rays</a>,” said Roberto. This multi-wavelength approach is a strong clue to the burst’s overall energy release.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-jet-from-a-collapsing-star">Powerful jet from a collapsing star</h2>



“Such a long delay has never been previously observed,” noted Hui Sun, a scientist at the <a href="https://gcn.nasa.gov/missions/einstein-probe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Einstein Probe Science Center</a>. EP240315a arrived hundreds of seconds before its corresponding gamma-ray signal.&nbsp;



This difference complicates standard ideas about what triggers the blasts. Researchers are weighing new explanations for how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-novae-star-explosion-may-be-origin-phosphorus-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">burst</a> engine might fire up in stages.



“This tells us something really new and maybe we have to rethink the models we have for gamma-ray bursts,” said Weimin Yuan, Einstein Probe's principal investigator. He pointed to the extended soft X-ray glow as a clue to unexpected activity in the source.



Scientists say more bursts are needed to confirm whether EP240315a is a one-off or part of a pattern. They hope these puzzling signals might show that gamma-ray <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bursts</a> go through previously unseen phases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-cosmic-explosion-theories">Rethinking cosmic explosion theories</h2>



“This is just the starting point and really demonstrates the potential of Einstein Probe to detect cosmic explosions from the early Universe,” said Weimin. 



The probe's wide field of view is expected to reveal more events in the distant corners of space.



“As soon as we opened the eyes of Einstein Probe to the sky, it found interesting new phenomena. That's pretty good and should mean that there are a lot more interesting discoveries to come,” noted Erik Kuulkers of the European Space Agency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-einstein-probe">More about the Einstein Probe </h2>



Einstein Probe is a joint project led by the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, partnering with the European Space Agency and other institutions. 



The orobe was launched from China’s Xichang site on January 9, 2024 with instruments ready to scan for uncharted X-ray outbursts.



The Follow-up X-ray Telescope locks onto sources flagged by its wide-view partner. This two-part approach helps scientists gather quick signals and then take a deeper look without missing fleeting moments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-cosmic-history">Early cosmic history</h2>



<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/53/8/003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">High-redshift detections</a> can reveal how stars and galaxies formed under extreme conditions. Fresh data from future telescopes may confirm patterns or highlight even more surprises.



A few of these explosions could help astronomers piece together the puzzle of early cosmic history. They also hope to refine ideas about massive star endings and black hole birth.



Scientists remain intrigued by the bursts that appear more energetic at different stages. They are hopeful that more in-depth studies will confirm whether we need to revamp long-held assumptions.



Experts hope new detections will truly clarify massive star endings. The observations might reshape how we view ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/supernova-explosion-captured-in-the-constellation-gemini/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic events</a>.



The associated studies are published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02449-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a> and <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad8b3f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Strange cosmic explosion changes what we know about space

The recent detection of a&nbsp;cosmic explosion by the Einstein Probe...

Scientists have discovered two continent-sized regions hidden deep within Earth's mantle, referred to in a recent study as "islands." 



Research from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> reveals that these regions are not only hotter than their surroundings, but are also ancient, dating back at least half a billion years or longer.



The findings challenge conventional theories about the Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle</a> being a well-mixed and rapidly flowing system. Instead, the research suggests there is much less flow within the mantle than previously believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-islands-inside-earth">Hidden islands inside Earth</h2>



These subterranean islands are&nbsp;buried 1,200 miles (2,000km) beneath our feet, and reach heights of roughly 620 miles (1,000km), dwarfing every mountain peak found on Earth's surface and every other planet in our solar system.



The regions in question, located beneath Africa and the Pacific Ocean, were first identified in the late 20th century through seismic analysis.&nbsp;



When large earthquakes strike, they cause the Earth to resonate like a bell, producing oscillations that seismologists can analyze to reveal subsurface anomalies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-low-seismic-velocity-provinces-llsvps">Large Low Seismic Velocity Provinces (LLSVPs)</h2>



The studies showed the presence of what scientists now call Large Low Seismic Velocity Provinces (LLSVPs).



“Nobody knows what they are, and whether they are only a temporary phenomenon or if they have been sitting there for millions or perhaps even billions of years,” explained study senior author Arwen Deuss, a seismologist at Utrecht University.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/subterranean-islands_earth-mantle_continent-size_LLSVPs_illustration_Utrecht-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/subterranean-islands_earth-mantle_continent-size_LLSVPs_illustration_Utrecht-University_1s.webp" alt="Schematic representation of the process of subduction of tectonic plates and of a mantle plume rising from an LLSVP. In the latter, the mineral grains are larger than those in the subducted plates. Credit: Utrecht University" class="wp-image-1957790"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Schematic representation of the process of subduction of tectonic plates and of a mantle plume rising from an LLSVP. In the latter, the mineral grains are larger than those in the subducted plates. Credit: Utrecht University</figcaption></figure>



Surrounding these “islands” is a graveyard of cold, sunken tectonic plates that have descended through Earth's mantle via subduction - the process by which one plate sinks beneath another. 



Unlike the surrounding regions, seismic waves slow down significantly in the LLSVPs due to their elevated temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mantle-is-still-a-mystery">Earth's mantle is still a mystery</h2>



To delve deeper into these structures, Deuss and her colleague Sujania Talavera-Soza incorporated a novel approach to studying seismic waves.&nbsp;



Beyond analyzing how much waves slow down, they also measured “damping,” or how much energy the waves lose as they travel through the Earth.



“Against our expectations, we found little damping in the LLSVPs, which made the tones sound very loud there. But we did find a lot of damping in the cold slab graveyard, where the tones sounded very soft,” Talavera-Soza said.



The findings revealed that the LLSVPs, despite being hot, do not significantly dampen seismic waves. This contradicted expectations based on the behavior of waves in the hotter upper mantle, where both slowing and damping are observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grain-size-plays-a-role-in-llsvps">Grain size plays a role in LLSVPs</h2>



The unexpected results prompted the team to investigate the material properties of the LLSVPs. According to mineralogical analyses suggested by study co-author Laura Cobden, grain size plays a pivotal role.&nbsp;



In the cold slab graveyard, tectonic plates recrystallize into small grains as they sink into the mantle, leading to significant energy loss as seismic waves cross numerous grain boundaries. 



In contrast, the LLSVPs appear to consist of much larger grains, which allow waves to pass with minimal damping.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/subterranean-islands_earth-mantle_continent-size_LLSVPs_wave-speed_Utrecht-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/subterranean-islands_earth-mantle_continent-size_LLSVPs_wave-speed_Utrecht-University_1s.webp" alt="Location of the LLSVPs and a schematic representation of the Earth's cross-section for speed and damping of the seismic waves. Credit: Utrecht University" class="wp-image-1957792"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Location of the LLSVPs and a schematic representation of the Earth's cross-section for speed and damping of the seismic waves. Credit: Utrecht University</figcaption></figure>



Since those mineral grains do not grow fast, it means that LLSVPs are much older than the surrounding slab graveyards.



This insight suggests the LLSVPs are not part of the mantle’s convection processes and have remained largely unchanged for vast periods - which is in stark contrast to the constantly recycling material around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The rigidity and age of the LLSVPs challenge the notion of the mantle as a uniformly mixed system. “After all, the LLSVPs must be able to survive mantle convection one way or another,” Talavera-Soza said.



This has profound implications for understanding Earth’s evolution. The mantle drives surface phenomena such as volcanism and mountain building.&nbsp;



For instance, mantle plumes - columns of hot material rising from deep within the Earth - are believed to originate at the edges of LLSVPs. These plumes eventually cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-trees-predict-volcano-eruptions-when-viewed-from-space-satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a>, such as that seen in Hawaii.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-hidden-islands">Studying the hidden islands</h2>



To study these deep regions, seismologists rely on oscillations caused by massive earthquakes, particularly those occurring at great depths, such as the 1994 Bolivia earthquake.



“It never made it into the newspapers because it took place at a large depth of 650 km and luckily did not result in any damage or casualties at the Earth's surface,” Deuss said.



Seismometers have been recording high-quality data since 1975, allowing researchers to revisit past earthquakes to gather valuable insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-llsvps-and-earth-s-mantle">LLSVPs and Earth’s mantle</h2>



This research provides a transformative view of Earth’s mantle. Instead of a uniform, well-mixed system, the mantle contains ancient, stable structures that defy conventional models.&nbsp;



Understanding these regions is crucial for interpreting surface phenomena and offers a clearer picture of Earth’s complex inner workings.



“The Earth's mantle is the engine that drives all these phenomena. Take, for example, mantle plumes, which are large bubbles of hot material that rise from the Earth's deep interior as in a lava lamp. And we think that those mantle plumes originate at the edges of the LLSVPs,” Deuss said.



The discovery of the LLSVPs’ unique properties and their role in shaping Earth’s surface processes marks a significant step forward in the study of our planet’s dynamic interior.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08322-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Continent-sized "islands" found inside Earth are 100 times taller than Mount Everest

Scientists have discovered two continent-sized regions hidden deep within Earth's...

The existence of water on Mars has long been a subject of curiosity and debate. A recently published study presents compelling evidence of ancient "wave ripples" in rocks that were shaped by Martian water and winds billions of years ago.



These ripples, imprinted on the Martian surface, speak to a time when shallow bodies of water were open to the Martian air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-ripples-on-mars">Mysterious ripples on Mars</h2>



The importance of these ripples cannot be overemphasized as they provide clear evidence of the existence of a standing body of water on Mars approximately 3.7 billion years ago.



This profound discovery paints a picture of a time when the Martian climate was seemingly warm enough to support liquid bodies water, not just frozen ice fields, that were open to the air.



"The shape of the ripples could only have been formed under water that was open to the atmosphere and acted upon by wind," observed Claire Mondro, a postdoctoral scholar from The California Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CalTech</a>) and the study's first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-mars-ripples-tell-us">What the Mars ripples tell us</h2>



Dr. Michael Lamb, a geology professor at Caltech, painstakingly created computer models based on these ripples to estimate the size of the ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-samples-bunsen-peak-rock-jezero-crater-martian-lake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian lake</a>.



Lamb’s extensive experience in studying sediment, water, and atmosphere interactions on Earth lent credibility to this model. 



The ripples, a mere 6 millimeters high and spaced 4 to 5 centimeters apart suggest the existence of a shallow lake, no deeper than about 2 meters (6.5 feet).



Mondro’s observations lend further weight to these inferences. “Extending the length of time that liquid water was present extends the possibilities for microbial habitability later into Mars's history,” she pointed out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-finding-liquid-water-on-mars-matters">Why finding liquid water on Mars matters</h2>



Discovering that Mars once had liquid water is a game-changer for our understanding of the planet and the broader possibilities of life beyond Earth. 



Water is a fundamental ingredient for life as we know it, so finding evidence of past liquid water raises exciting questions about whether Mars could have supported microbial life.



Beyond the search for life, knowing that Mars had liquid water has practical implications for future human missions. Water is a crucial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-radiation-levels-are-measured-for-the-first-time-and-will-help-astronauts-prepare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resource for astronauts</a>, not only for drinking but also for producing oxygen and even rocket fuel. 



If remnants of ancient water sources or ice deposits exist on Mars, they could be tapped into to support long-term human habitation and exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-martian-surface">Exploring the Martian surface</h2>



These marvelous ripples went unnoticed until NASA's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-mars-rover-finds-more-compelling-evidence-for-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity rover</a> documented them in 2022 during its expedition across the Gale Crater region of Mars, a region that was once home to wind-blown dunes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mars_lakes_ponds_ice-free_ripples_rock-formation_credit-Science-Advances_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mars_lakes_ponds_ice-free_ripples_rock-formation_credit-Science-Advances_1s.webp" alt="Symmetric ripple marks in the AMB outcrop. Credit: Science Advances (2025)." class="wp-image-1957535"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Symmetric ripple marks in the AMB outcrop. Credit: Science Advances (2025).</figcaption></figure>



A nearby band of rock, the Amapari Marker Band, hinted at the existence of another lake, approximately 6.5 feet (2 meters) deep, that formed slightly later in Mars's history than the previous one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-mars-ripples-matter">Why do Mars ripples matter?</h2>



“The discovery of wave ripples is an important advance for Mars paleoclimate science," noted John Grotzinger, the Harold Brown Professor of Geology at Caltech.



"The Curiosity rover discovered evidence for long-lived ancient lakes in 2014, and now, 10 years later, Curiosity has discovered ancient lakes that were free of ice, offering an important insight into the planet's early climate,” added Grotzinger, a former project scientist for Curiosity's Mars Science Laboratory (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/msl-curiosity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSL</a>) mission.



It seems we are just scratching the surface of understanding the red planet’s past, and with each discovery, we inch closer to unraveling the mysteries of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-may-be-lurking-deep-underground-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars and its potential for supporting life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-mars-climate-evolution">Clues to Mars' climate evolution</h2>



The discovery of these ancient ripples offers a crucial glimpse into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-mars-past-climate-supportive-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars's climate history</a>, providing scientists with valuable data to reconstruct the environmental conditions that existed billions of years ago.



The presence of liquid water suggests that Mars once had a significantly thicker atmosphere that was capable of sustaining warmer temperatures.



Over time, the planet's climate underwent drastic changes, leading to the loss of surface water and the thinning of its atmosphere. 



Understanding these transitions is key to determining how long Mars could have supported habitable conditions and whether it might have once harbored microbial life. 



Scientists believe that further exploration of ripple formations could shed light on the duration and stability of these ancient lakes, helping to piece together the timeline of Mars' environmental shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-mars-missions">Implications for future Mars missions</h2>



The findings from Curiosity's observations could play a pivotal role in shaping the objectives of upcoming Mars missions. 



Future rovers and landers, equipped with more advanced instruments, may focus on analyzing ripple formations in greater detail, searching for chemical signatures that indicate past life-supporting conditions. 



The Perseverance rover, currently exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a>, has already been tasked with collecting samples that might contain traces of ancient microbial activity.



These efforts align with NASA's long-term goal of bringing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian samples</a> back to Earth for comprehensive laboratory analysis.



The ripple evidence on Mars is also encouraging for future crewed missions, as understanding past water sources could help identify potential locations for human exploration and resource utilization.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr0010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Clear evidence of liquid water, not just frozen ice, discovered on Mars

The existence of water on Mars has long been a...