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Space can surprise even those who spend their lives studying it. People often think of our solar system as just a few planets and a bunch of empty space. 



Yet new observations suggest we have been living inside a hot, less dense region, and that there may even be a strange cosmic channel connecting us to distant stars.



After years of careful mapping, a new analysis reveals what appears to be a channel of hot, low-density plasma stretching out from our solar system toward distant constellations. Astronomers from the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a> recently confirmed it using data from the <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2021/03/aa39313-20/aa39313-20.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eRosita instrument</a>. Dr. L. L. Sala, lead researcher, and colleagues shared these findings in a paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/10/aa51045-24/aa51045-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-familiar">Looking beyond the familiar</h2>



For a long time, scientists have known that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-space-station-observes-something-unknown-55-miles-above-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> sits within a peculiar region of space called the <a href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/11550" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Local Hot Bubble</a>. 



This area, estimated to be <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">about 300 light years across</a>, formed as a result of powerful stellar explosions called supernovas. They heated the surrounding gas, producing a low-density, high-temperature environment. Traces of these distant events still linger as wispy distributions of hot plasma. “We find the temperature of the LHB exhibits a north-south dichotomy at high latitudes,” stated Dr. L. L. Sala, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-x-ray-explorer">A cosmic X-ray explorer</h2>



To better understand this environment, scientists turned to eRosita. This X-ray observatory, launched as part of the <a href="https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/srg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spectrum-Roentgen-Gamma mission</a>, scoured the sky to capture soft X-ray emissions. One of eRosita’s goals is to chart hot gas in space, learn about supernova remnants, and investigate the surroundings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-anticipated-comet-of-2024-returns-this-weekend-after-80000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our neighborhood</a>.



By combining these results with older data from <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/rosat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ROSAT</a>, another X-ray survey, astronomers have pieced together a more detailed picture of our local region. They took on the challenging <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2013/10/aa22221-13/aa22221-13.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">task</a> of dividing the sky into thousands of bins, extracting subtle signals of warm gas, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/502/4/5779/6131844" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust cavities</a>, and interstellar structures. This painstaking approach helped isolate the faint glow of the surrounding plasma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzling-cosmic-channel">Puzzling cosmic channel</h2>



What stands out is the detection of a channel, or “tunnel,” that appears to stretch toward the Centaurus constellation.



This feature seems to punch through the hot material, connecting our neighborhood to distant star systems.&nbsp;



Another such pathway appears to link toward the vicinity of Canis Major. Data hints these might be just one part of a larger, branching network of channels that run between star-forming regions and pockets of heated gas.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/milky-way_local-hot-bubble_eRosita_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/milky-way_local-hot-bubble_eRosita_1s.webp" alt="3D map of the Milky Way’s Local Hot Bubble (LHB) created from eROSITA data reveals a low-density region around the solar system, heated by ancient supernovas. The bubble shows temperature gradients and an interstellar “tunnel” toward Centaurus, likely formed by young stars’ winds. This bubble may connect to other superbubbles, shaping the Milky Way’s structure. The solar system entered the LHB a few million years ago, adding to our understanding of its cosmic neighborhood. Credit: Max Planck Institute" class="wp-image-1953925"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">3D map of the Milky Way’s Local Hot Bubble (LHB) created from eROSITA data reveals a low-density region around the solar system, heated by ancient supernovas. The bubble shows temperature gradients and an interstellar “tunnel” toward Centaurus, likely formed by young stars’ winds. This bubble may connect to other superbubbles, shaping the Milky Way’s structure. The solar system entered the LHB a few million years ago, adding to our understanding of its cosmic neighborhood. Credit: Max Planck Institute</figcaption></figure>



Each route may represent a kind of interstellar backroad, a path carved out by dynamic processes and influenced by the long-ago actions of exploding stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-theories-on-cosmic-channels">Old theories on cosmic channels</h2>



Ideas about a network of hot, low-density channels are not new. 



Decades ago, some <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/381679E86154865FF68FE884DA62F1D4/S0074180900089348a.pdf/div-class-title-the-structure-of-the-interstellar-medium-div.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> speculated that the space around us could hold labyrinths of connected cavities. But there was never enough data to be sure. Instruments like eRosita have now provided that clarity. By showing tunnels and pockets filled with hot plasma, the findings confirm at least one piece of these older theories.



The presence of dust cavities packed with hot gas supports the notion that supernova events shaped a connected patchwork of interstellar matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-empty-space">Not just empty space</h2>



It is tempting to think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> as nothingness, but that is misleading. 



Even the void between stars contains various materials. The Local Hot Bubble is one example of how dramatic events can sculpt gas into unexpected forms.



Supernovas push out matter and energy that heat and churn the interstellar medium. Over millions of years, these actions create differences in density, temperature, and composition. 



The interplay of dust, plasma, radiation, and magnetic fields leads to an environment with far more complexity than a simple vacuum. The Max Planck Institute’s recent <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/10/aa51045-24/aa51045-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> argues that the average thermal pressure in this bubble is lower than expected, indicating that it might be open in some directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-channels-the-evidence">Cosmic channels: The evidence</h2>



While researchers have mapped parts of this hot region and uncovered these unusual passages, not every aspect is understood. 



Some star lines seem supported by a series of linked cavities. Other regions appear more blocked. The complexity of these patterns requires more sensitive data and further analysis. With time, better models may explain how these structures formed and how they continue to evolve.



Space’s calm appearance is deceiving. Over the past millions of years, our solar system drifted into the Local Hot Bubble. 



At roughly the same time, supernovas occurred nearby. The timing is not a coincidence. Those <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient blasts</a> likely shaped the conditions we find today. The fact that our Sun now sits near the bubble’s center is simply chance, but it makes for an interesting perspective. It is as if we arrived late to a party, only to find a lingering aftermath of dramatic events that took place long before humans even existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-inside-a-hidden-structure">Peering inside a hidden structure</h2>



Continuing to explore these cosmic channels will require increasingly sensitive instruments. New X-ray missions, deeper surveys, and refined models of hot gas distribution will improve our understanding. Over time, astronomers hope to fill in more of this cosmic map and explain how these tunnels affect everything from local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-source-of-cosmic-rays-found-after-a-century-long-search/">cosmic rays</a> to dust flow patterns and stellar wind dynamics.



The discovery of these hidden routes and temperature differences offers a reminder that even our own cosmic backyard holds surprises. 



These channels challenge old assumptions and add complexity to the picture of what lies between our Sun and the nearest stars.&nbsp;



As technology advances and new methods improve, these discoveries are bound to raise even more questions. 



Every new piece of evidence will bring us closer to understanding both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curvature-propulsion-warp-drive-krasnikov-tube-future-intergalactic-space-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> we inhabit today and the ancient events that shaped it.



What once seemed distant and unknowable may soon reveal connections that redefine our place in the cosmos.



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/10/aa51045-24/aa51045-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



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Astronomers discover an "interstellar tunnel" that connects our solar system to other stars

Space can surprise even those who spend their lives studying...

Cast,Of,Fossilized,Early,Ancient,Man,Skull.,Australopithecus,Afarensis,Is

The story of human evolution is not a simple ladder from early forms to more advanced ones. For decades, fossils shaped a picture of steady, linear progress - one form giving rise to another in a neat sequence.



But science often rewrites its narratives when new evidence appears. Now, remarkable finds in Ethiopia are challenging long-held assumptions and painting a richer, more intricate picture of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-males-small-females-a-window-into-prehistoric-power-struggles/">origins</a>.



Recent fossil discoveries in Ethiopia suggest that our evolutionary past was far more complex than a simple linear progression. 



Research led by UNLV anthropologist <a href="https://www.unlv.edu/people/brian-villmoare" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brian Villmoare</a>, in collaboration with the <a href="https://shesc.asu.edu/research/projects/ledi-geraru-research-project-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ledi-Geraru Research Project</a>, has revealed that Australopithecus and early and unidentified Homo species coexisted between 2.6 and 2.8 million years ago in the same part of Africa.



These findings challenge the traditional “march from ape to human” model and instead support the idea of a branching tree with multiple lineages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-australopithecus-the-basics">Understanding Australopithecus - the basics</h2>



Australopithecus walked the African landscape around 3 million years ago, bridging the gap between our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-males-small-females-a-window-into-prehistoric-power-struggles/">ape-like ancestors</a> and modern humans. 



They stood upright, though shorter and smaller-brained than us, and their mix of traits - long arms for climbing, but pelvis and legs built for walking - shows how they lived in both trees and open grasslands. 



Fossils of species like Australopithecus afarensis, best known from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lucy-could-barely-run-what-does-that-say-about-our-ancestors/">famous skeleton "Lucy,"</a> reveal that these early hominins were already experimenting with bipedalism while still relying on arboreal agility.



What makes Australopithecus so fascinating is the story their bones tell about adaptation. They didn’t use tools the way later hominins did, but they set the stage for it by freeing their hands once walking became the norm. 



Their teeth and jaws suggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/">a varied diet</a>, probably fruits, roots, and tougher plants, helping them survive in shifting environments. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-australopithecus-lived-with-others">Australopithecus lived with others</h2>



At the <a href="https://shesc.asu.edu/research/projects/ledi-geraru-research-project-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ledi-Geraru site</a>, scientists found 13 teeth. Some belonged to early Homo, while others came from a previously unknown Australopithecus species.



The latter is different from the famous Australopithecus afarensis skeleton, known as “Lucy,” that disappeared from the fossil record around 2.95 million years ago. 



The research showed no evidence of Lucy’s kind aged any younger than 2.95 million years.



“This new research shows that the image many of us have in our minds of an ape to a Neanderthal to a modern human is not correct - evolution doesn’t work like that,” said <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASU</a> paleoecologist Kaye Reed. 



“Here we have two hominin species that are together. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestor-paranthropus-robustus-walked-upright-2-million-years-ago/">Human evolution</a> is not linear - it's a bushy tree, there are life forms that go extinct.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-site-shows-oldest-homo-and-tools">Site shows oldest Homo and tools</h2>



Ledi-Geraru is already well known in paleoanthropology. It has produced the oldest known Homo jaw fossil, dated to 2.8 million years ago, and the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/">Oldowan stone tools</a>. 



The site’s sediments, which are rich in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/">volcanic ash</a>, allow precise dating.



Crystals in the ash, called feldspars, are key for determining the ages of fossils, as they can be dated from volcanic eruptions above and below the fossil layers. 



This geological context also provides clues about the environment in which these species lived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-australopithecus-territory-had-rivers">Australopithecus territory had rivers</h2>



Two to three million years ago, the Ledi-Geraru area was a dynamic landscape of rivers, vegetation, and shallow lakes that expanded and shrank over time. 



This is a stark contrast to today’s faulted badlands. 



Geological evidence indicates that the region preserved an interpretable record for the period from 2.3 to 2.95 million years ago - a crucial time in terms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-ate-tough-plants-and-changed-the-world-forever/">human evolution</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/new-hominin-species_fossil-teeth_LGRP_credit-Nature_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/new-hominin-species_fossil-teeth_LGRP_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="New hominin species fossil teeth from the LGRP. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1982136"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New hominin species fossil teeth from the LGRP. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-lineages-multiple-niches">Multiple lineages, multiple niches</h2>



The study concluded that before 2.5 million years ago, eastern Africa may have had as many as four hominin lineages: early Homo, Australopithecus garhi, the newly discovered Ledi-Geraru Australopithecus, and potentially others in nearby regions.



“We used to think of human evolution as fairly linear, with a steady march from an ape-like ancestor to modern Homo sapiens," Villmoare said. 



Instead, humans branched out multiple times into different niches.



"Our pattern of evolution is not particularly unusual, and what has happened to humans has happened to every other tree of life.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tooth-enamel-holds-hidden-answers">Tooth enamel holds hidden answers</h2>



Detailed analysis of the teeth showed differences from known Australopithecus and Homo specimens. 



These distinctions suggest the Ledi-Geraru Australopithecus was neither a late-surviving A. afarensis nor A. garhi, but rather a previously unknown species. 



However, the team has not yet named it, as more fossils are needed for a full classification.



Researchers are now studying the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/">tooth enamel</a> to understand diet and possible interactions between early Homo and this Australopithecus species. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-study-is-needed">More study is needed</h2>



Key questions remain: Did they compete for food or share resources? How often did they encounter each other? Who were their ancestors?



“Whenever you have an exciting discovery, if you’re a paleontologist, you always know that you need more information,” Reed explained. “You need more fossils.”



“That’s why it’s an important field to train people in - and for people to go out and find their own sites and explore places where we haven’t yet found fossils.”



More finds could reveal not just how these species lived but also why some survived while others vanished.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09390-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Kaye Reed, <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>.



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New early Homo species discovered that challenges 'ape-to-human' evolution theory

The story of human evolution is not a simple ladder...

For many people, mornings don’t really begin until the first sip of coffee. That drink doesn’t just wake the body - it flips a switch in the mind. Researchers at Bielefeld University and the University of Warwick wanted to know why coffee feels so uplifting in the morning compared with the afternoon.



The team followed young adults in Germany for several weeks. Each person tracked their mood and reported whether they had consumed caffeine in the last 90 minutes. 



The results were clear. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-may-reduce-frailty-in-aging-adults/">Coffee</a> and other caffeinated drinks boosted happiness and enthusiasm. The effect was strongest within two and a half hours of waking. Later in the day, the effect weakened.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-morning-coffee-resets-our-mood">Morning coffee resets our mood</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-helps-bacteria-resist-antibiotics-in-your-gut/">Caffeine</a> didn’t only improve positive feelings. It also reduced negative ones like sadness and being upset. But that change was smaller and less reliable. Unlike the morning lift in happiness, this effect didn’t depend on the time of day.



The difference may lie in how caffeine works. It blocks adenosine receptors in the brain. This lifts energy and increases dopamine activity. 



Dopamine is tied to alertness and mood. Together, these changes explain why the morning cup feels like such a mental reset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-people-react-differently">Do people react differently?</h2>



The team expected to see differences based on mental health, anxiety, or caffeine habits. But they didn’t. 



"We were somewhat surprised to find no differences between individuals with varying levels of caffeine consumption or differing degrees of depressive symptoms, anxiety, or sleep problems," noted Justin Hachenberger from <a href="https://www.uni-bielefeld.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bielefeld University</a>.



"The links between caffeine intake and positive or negative emotions were fairly consistent across all groups."



This result suggests that caffeine’s emotional effects are widely shared. People who react badly to caffeine may avoid it, so they were not strongly represented in the study. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-withdrawal-question">The withdrawal question</h2>



Scientists also debated whether the morning boost is real or simply relief from overnight withdrawal. 



"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-may-help-you-live-longer-if-you-drink-it-this-way/">Caffeine</a> works by blocking adenosine receptors, which can increase dopamine activity in key brain regions - an effect that studies have linked to improved mood and greater alertness," explained Professor Anu Realo from the <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Warwick</a>.



"Even people with moderate caffeine consumption can experience mild withdrawal symptoms that disappear with the first cup of coffee or tea in the morning." 



In other words, coffee may feel good not only because of brain chemistry but also because it takes away the drag of going without caffeine during sleep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mood-changes-depend-on-coffee-use">Mood changes depend on coffee use</h2>



The research showed that tiredness and social setting also change how caffeine feels. When people were more tired than usual, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-caffeine-slow-down-aging-yeast-may-hold-the-answer/">caffeine</a> gave them a bigger mood boost. 



When people were around others, the effect weakened. Social interactions may have already shaped mood, leaving caffeine less noticeable.



Negative feelings like worry didn’t shift much. Researchers think these emotions are tied to long-term stress or life events. That makes them harder to change with one drink. Positive emotions, on the other hand, respond more quickly to stimulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-link-between-coffee-and-mood">Global link between coffee and mood </h2>



"Around 80 percent of adults worldwide consume caffeinated beverages, and the use of such stimulating substances dates far back in human history," said Professor Sakari Lemola from Bielefeld University, the study’s senior author. 



"Even wild animals consume caffeine; bees and bumblebees prefer nectar from plants that contain caffeine."



Coffee is more than a drink. It is part of daily routines across cultures. Yet researchers warn against drinking too much. High doses can disturb sleep and increase dependence. Over time, stopping suddenly can trigger headaches, irritability, and fatigue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mood-boost-from-morning-coffee">Mood boost from morning coffee</h2>



The study shows caffeine works best early in the day. It makes people feel happier, more awake, and more enthusiastic. But the effect doesn’t grow stronger with each cup. It fades as the day goes on.



For most people, moderation is the key. That first cup can brighten the morning, but too much can backfire. 



Coffee may not solve deeper worries or stress, but it can lift the mood enough to start the day with energy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-14317-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Mood boost: How coffee makes us happier in the morning

For many people, mornings don’t really begin until the first...

In 2024, the world’s climate continued to break records, with greenhouse gas concentrations and global temperatures reaching unprecedented highs.



The oceans absorbed more heat than ever before. Sea levels climbed to their highest point on record, and glaciers shed more ice than in any prior year.



This year’s State of the Climate report, published by the <a href="https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/">American Meteorological Society</a>, brought together 589 scientists from 58 countries. 



The experts used data from satellites, weather stations, ocean buoys, and ice-core records. For decades, this report has been the go-to snapshot of Earth’s climate - tracking key changes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/">extreme events</a> across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenhouse-gases-hit-highest-levels">Greenhouse gases hit highest levels</h2>



Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide all set new records in 2024. Average CO2 levels reached 422.8 parts per million, up 52% from pre-industrial times. The jump from 2023 matched the fastest increase seen in the past 60 years.



Fossil fuel burning and agriculture remain the biggest sources. Rising greenhouse gases are locking in more heat, driving stronger feedback loops like higher water vapor in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/">atmosphere</a> and changes in how land stores carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-breaks-climate-records-again">Heat breaks climate records again</h2>



For the second year in a row, the planet broke its surface temperature record. Readings were up to 0.72°C (1.30°F) above the 1991-2020 average. 



A strong El Niño that began in mid-2023 and ended in spring 2024 helped push temperatures higher.



Heat extremes weren’t limited to the tropics. Europe, Asia, and South America saw their hottest years yet. Heatwaves lasted longer and struck at times of year when they used to be rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-rain-and-drought">Extreme rain and drought</h2>



Warmer air holds more moisture, and in 2024 it showed. The atmosphere carried record levels of water vapor. One in five areas on Earth hit all-time highs, double the share from 2023.



Heavy rain events set records too. Dubai saw 250 mm in one day - three times its yearly average. While some places were drowning, others faced persistent droughts and extreme heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-heating-breaks-climate-records">Ocean heating breaks climate records</h2>



From January through June, sea surface temperatures refused to budge from record-breaking highs. 



The global average edged past the 2023 mark by 0.06°C (0.11°F) - a small number on paper, but significant in climate terms. A potent El Niño, layered on top of decades of steady warming, drove the surge.



Vast stretches of ocean endured marine heatwaves - bleaching coral reefs, pushing fish into new territories, and unsettling entire food webs. On average, the seas sweltered through 100 heatwave days in 2024, while cold spells were rare - just nine days across the year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-levels-keep-rising">Sea levels keep rising</h2>



Oceans absorb over 90% of excess heat from greenhouse gases. In 2024, heat content down to 2,000 meters (6,562 feet) reached its highest ever. 



Global sea level hit a new high for the 13th year straight - over 10 centimeters (3.94 inches) above 1993 levels.



Warmer water expands, and melting ice from Greenland, Antarctica, and glaciers adds more volume. The result is higher flood risks and saltwater intrusion into freshwater supplies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-heat-at-the-poles">Record heat at the poles</h2>



The Arctic experienced its second-warmest year on record, with autumn setting an all-time high for temperatures.



In August, parts of the North American Arctic endured record high temperatures, and Norway topped 30°C (86°F) in September for the first time that late in the year.



Antarctica’s sea ice stayed far below average. Minimum and maximum extents were the second lowest ever recorded, continuing a run of poor ice years since 2016.



For the second consecutive year, all 58 reference glaciers lost ice in 2024. It was the worst year for glacier loss in the 55-year record. Venezuela lost its last glacier. In Colombia, the Conejeras Glacier vanished completely.



These losses threaten water supplies for farming, hydropower, and drinking water in many mountain regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storms-bring-destruction">Storms bring destruction</h2>



There were 82 named tropical cyclones in 2024, fewer than average but still deadly. Hurricane Helene flooded parts of the U.S., killing more than 200 people. 



Hurricane Milton hit Florida less than two weeks later - setting a state record for the shortest gap between two major hurricanes.



In Asia, Super Typhoon Yagi tore through China and Vietnam, leaving more than 800 dead. Many storms intensified unusually quickly, fueled by warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/">ocean</a> waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-changing-climate-reality">Our changing climate reality</h2>



“The State of the Climate report is an annual scientific landmark,” said American Meteorological Society President David J. Stensrud. 



"It is a truly global effort, in which hundreds of researchers from universities, government agencies, and more come together to provide a careful, rigorously peer-reviewed report on our planet’s climate."



"High-quality observations and findings from all over the world are incorporated, underscoring the vital importance of observations to monitor, and climate science to understand, our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-just-three-years-away-from-dangerous-carbon-milestone/">environment</a>." 



According to Stensrud, the results affirm the reality of our changing climate, as global temperatures continue to reach record highs.



The research is published in the <a href="https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/publications/bulletin-of-the-american-meteorological-society-bams/state-of-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</a>.



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State of the Climate 2024: Record heat and rising seas

In 2024, the world’s climate continued to break records, with...

If you live around Naples, you know the ground breathes. Streets crack, the harbor silts up, steam curls from the earth, and swarms of small quakes rattle windows. All that action comes from Campi Flegrei, a wide “supervolcano” caldera that last erupted in 1538.



For years, many scientists have read these signals as classic signs of magma on the move. But two recent studies - one in March 2023 and another in May 2025 - have reshaped the picture.



Together, they tell a story that is both sobering and surprisingly hopeful: Campi Flegrei is still dangerous, but some of its most disruptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcano-eruptions-alerts-shear-wave-signals-discovered-that-could-transform-early-warning-systems/">behavior may be managed</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-campi-flegrei-in-2023">Studying Campi Flegrei in 2023</h2>



The <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/51/4/397/620796/Discriminating-carbon-dioxide-sources-during" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2023 paper</a> focused on carbon dioxide (CO₂), a gas that volcanoes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-cooling-not-warming-caused-a-major-mass-extinction/">release in large amounts</a>. CO₂ matters because it often increases when magma rises and starts to degas, which can precede eruptions. 



At the Campi Flegrei caldera, CO₂ measurements at the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/a-Geologic-map-of-the-Solfatara-Pisciarelli-area-from-this-study-UTM-projection_fig2_351100327" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solfatara-Pisciarelli zone</a> rose during the current unrest (which began in 2005), reaching roughly 4,000-5,000 tons per day - among the highest volcanic CO₂ fluxes on Earth. 



If one looked only at that trend, one might conclude that magma was moving upward and a countdown to an eruption had begun.



The authors investigated further. They examined gases such as nitrogen and helium alongside CO₂ and compared the real data to what their models predicted if magma degassing were the only driver. 



The numbers did not line up. 



Beginning in 2005, the gas ratios drifted away from the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-affects-magma-formation-deep-within-the-earth/">pure magma</a>” pattern, matching two surface indicators: hydrothermal temperatures and the steady ground uplift known locally as bradyseism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-was-the-gas-coming-from">Where was the gas coming from?</h2>



What was adding CO₂ if not just magma? The 2023 study pointed to a second source: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-trees-predict-volcano-eruptions-when-viewed-from-space-satellites/">the hydrothermal system</a> heating the rocks themselves. 



In plain language, hot, reactive fluids were <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/decarbonation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decarbonating calcite</a> (a carbonate-rich mineral) in the shallow reservoir rocks and releasing additional CO₂. The team estimated that this non-magmatic source contributed about 20-40% of total CO₂. 



That finding did not make the volcano harmless - far from it - but it did change how scientists interpret gas alarms.



A spike in CO₂ at Campi Flegrei does not automatically mean magma is surging. Sometimes it means the hydrothermal system is getting hotter and more pressurized, which can still be hazardous but in a different way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-campi-flegrei-in-2025">Studying Campi Flegrei in 2025</h2>



Fast forward 14 months to May 2025. A second group of scientists <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt2067" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published a study</a> that asked a bigger question: what, exactly, is driving the recent bursts of earthquakes and the dramatic rise and fall of the ground? 



They pulled together two major episodes of unrest - 1982-1984 and 2011-2024 - then compared the patterns of uplift, seismicity, and subsurface imaging. 



In the lab, they simulated the rocks above the caldera using a setup like a moka pot, the stovetop espresso maker. 



A heated lower chamber (representing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geothermal-energy-is-cheap-and-clean-and-having-its-moment/">geothermal reservoir</a>) pushed fluid into a cracked “lid” made of Campi Flegrei-like materials. The result of all that detective work was a new model with a crucial twist.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/supervolcano_campi-flegrei_location-satellite-view_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/supervolcano_campi-flegrei_location-satellite-view_1s.webp" alt="Satellite view Phlegraean Fields and Solfatara crater showing a massive caldera supervolcano named Campi Flegrei west of Naples, Italy. It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, which includes Mount Vesuvius. Credit: Geology" class="wp-image-1982065"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Satellite view Phlegraean Fields and Solfatara crater showing a massive caldera supervolcano named Campi Flegrei west of Naples, Italy. It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, which includes Mount Vesuvius. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Geology</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-supervolcano-pressure-builds">How supervolcano pressure builds</h2>



The central actor behind the building pressure inside Campi Flegrei is not a blob of rising magma in the upper crust; it is a capped geothermal reservoir sitting beneath the town of Pozzuoli. The caprock above it is fibrous and “self-healing,” which means cracks can seal up quickly. 



When the lid seals, water and steam trapped below it build pressure. Pressure builds until the rocks fracture, the water flashes to steam, producing a burst of shaking and noise - a pattern residents report. 



Interestingly, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-tremors-can-now-be-detected-to-forecast-eruptions/">earthquakes in these sequences</a> tend to start shallow and then deepen over time, which is the opposite of what you would expect if magma or its gases were pushing upward from depth. 



After big episodes, the land actually sinks a bit, consistent with fluids discharging and pressure dropping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Here is the hopeful part. If the main driver of unrest is pressure in a closed, fluid-filled reservoir, then you can manage the fuel. 



You cannot turn off the “burner” heating the system - the deep magmatic heat source - but you can reduce the amount of water available to pressurize the reservoir. 



The researchers propose practical steps: restore and maintain surface-water channels so heavy rains do not funnel into the system; monitor and control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-has-a-vital-role-in-ecosystem-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groundwater levels</a>; and, where appropriate, relieve pressure by withdrawing fluids through wells. 



Think of it like tending a radiator: keep the system from clogging or overfilling, and bleed off pressure before it blows a gasket.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-campi-flegrei-eruption-risk">Campi Flegrei eruption risk</h2>



What does that mean for eruption risk? It does not mean Campi Flegrei is safe. A <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-a-supervolcano.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supervolcano caldera</a> with Campi Flegrei’s eruptive history still sits atop a large population. Magma is still present at depth. 



The 2023 work showed that the hydrothermal system has been heating and releasing CO₂ in ways that track with ground uplift, while the 2025 work argues that pressure in the sealed geothermal reservoir can trigger swarms of shallow quakes and potentially steam-driven explosions (phreatic blasts). 



Both of those issues can be destructive, even without lava.



The new approach does not “turn off” a magmatic eruption if deep melt intrudes; it aims to prevent or reduce the kind of fluid-pressure crises that have damaged buildings and frightened residents for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-focus-and-mindset">Shifting focus and mindset</h2>



The key takeaway is a shift in mindset. For decades, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/cvo/science/volcano-monitoring" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano monitoring</a> focused on watching and warning: measure gases, track quakes, map ground motion, and be ready to evacuate. That is still essential. 



But if groundwater and surface runoff are a big part of the problem, civil engineers and geoscientists can work together on prevention.



They can unclog centuries-old drainage canals, divert stormwater, measure groundwater levels like a cardiologist tracking blood pressure, and - where science and policy align - use wells as pressure valves. 



None of this is a silver bullet for Campi Flegrei, or anywhere else. It requires careful design, community buy-in, and constant monitoring. 



But this appears to be a rare case in which a supervolcano’s most pressing threat is not an unstoppable magma surge; it is a pressure system that we might learn to regulate.



The full 2023 study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/51/4/397/620796/Discriminating-carbon-dioxide-sources-during" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



The full 2025 study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt2067" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Supervolcano shows signs of waking up, which is not a good thing, but scientists have a plan

If you live around Naples, you know the ground breathes....

News coming your way