Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S.<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/"> Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Acaena exigua is an extinct species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common name liliwai. It was endemic to Hawaii, where it was known from Kauaʻi and west Maui. It had not been seen or collected since 1957 and was feared extinct until 1997, when one plant was discovered in a remote montane bog on <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=maui&amp;cvid=11f593b142284a109c4b71b63cd85874&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Maui</a>. The plant died in 2000, and the species is now considered extinct.Acaena exigua A. Gray var. subtusstrigulosa Bitter: Classification. Click on a scientific name below to expand it in the PLANTS Classification Report. Rank Scientific Name and Common Name; Kingdom: Plantae – Plants Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Acaena exigua

Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Abies guatemalensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.A. guatemalensis is a conical tree growing 20 to 35 meters tall and 60 to 90 cm in girth. The branches grow largely horizontally. The <a title="Bark (botany)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bark_(botany)">bark</a> is a blackish-brown and is divided into plates. The branchlets are reddish-brown to deep blackish-red and pubescent. The <a class="mw-redirect" title="Buds" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buds">buds</a> are globular-ovoid, resinous, and roughly 5 mm in length. The <a class="mw-redirect" title="Leaves" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaves">leaves</a> are somewhat comb-like or nearly pectinate in arrangement. They are unequal and deep green above and waxy in texture underneath. They measure 1.5 to 5.5 cm long by 1.2 to 2 mm wide. <a title="Stoma" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoma">Stomata</a> are usually absent above, but appear in 8 to 10 lines below. They contain two marginal resin canals and the apex of the leaf is notched and emarginate. The female <a title="Conifer cone" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifer_cone">cones</a> are oblong-cylindric and the apex is pointed to somewhat flattened. They are yellowish-brown in colour with a violet bloom and measure 8 to 11.5 cm long by 4 to 4.5 cm wide. The scales are oblong, or broader than long. The <a title="Bract" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bract">bracts</a> are hidden, about one half the height of the scale and are cuneate-obovoid in shape. The <a title="Seed" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed">seeds</a> are a light brown nut to 9 mm in length with a wing to 1.5 cm long"

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Abies guatemalensis

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Abronia macrocarpa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

Abronia macrocarpa is a perennial herb with a hairy, glandular stem growing up to half a meter tall. The glandular oval leaf blades are up to 5 centimeters long by 3.5 wide and are borne on relatively long <a title="Petiole (botany)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petiole_(botany)">petioles</a>. The <a title="Inflorescence" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> is a cluster of up to 75 magenta or light purple flowers each up to 3 centimeters long. The tubular, strongly fragrant flowers open at dusk and are <a title="Pollination" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination">pollinated</a> by <a title="Moth" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moth">moths</a>. The winged fruit is up to 1.5 centimeters long. It is <a title="Biological dispersal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_dispersal">dispersed</a> by wind.

Its natural habitat is sandy soils with little other vegetation, often in openings of post-oak woodlands

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Abronia macrocarpa

Abronia macrocarpa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Abutilon eremitopetalum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

Abutilon eremitopetalum ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Abutilon eremitopetalum, commonly known as the hidden-petaled abutilon or hiddenpetal Indian mallow, is a species of <a title="Flowering plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant">flowering</a> shrub in the <a title="Malva" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malva">mallow</a> family, Malvaceae. It is endemic to dry forests and low shrublands on the <a title="Windward and leeward" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windward_and_leeward">windward</a> side of the island of Lānaʻi in <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. It is classified by the IUCN Red List as critically endangered by habitat destruction.The species was first discovered in 1987. Fish are gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a sister group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=051056fee95547398bc5795d84ee6725&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Abutilon eremitopetalum

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Abutilon menziesii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world. Abutilon menziesii is <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=endangered+species&amp;cvid=78d216ecaa634aeb936f4769c391ccc9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">endangered</a>.Abutilon menziesii, known as Koʻoloaʻula in Hawaiian, is an endangered species of flowering shrub in the mallow family, Malvaceae,  Malvaceae, that is endemic to Hawaii. It is a sprawling shrub that can reach up to 10 feet in height. The leaves, which range from an inch in width to about five inches, vary in their shapes. They have a velvety feel to them. The small hibiscus-shaped flowers generally hang downward. Though charming up close, the flowers can be hidden by the much larger leaves and not often visible at a distance. Although the Hawaiian name ʻula refers to the more commonly seen red color, koʻoloa ʻula

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Abutilon menziesii

Abutilon menziesii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Abutilon sandwicense NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Abutilon sandwicense, commonly known as the greenflower Indian mallow, is a species of <a title="Flowering plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant">flowering plant</a> in the <a title="Malva" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malva">mallow</a> family, Malvaceae, that is endemic to the island of Oʻahu, <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, in the <a title="United States" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States">United States</a>. It inhabits dry forests on the slopes of the Waiʻanae Range at elevations of 400–600 m (1,300–2,000 ft). Associated plants include lama (Diospyros sandwicensis), ēlama (<a title="Diospyros hillebrandii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diospyros_hillebrandii">D. hillebrandii</a>), māmaki (Pipturus albidus), kalia (Elaeocarpus <a class="new" title="Elaeocarpus bifidus (page does not exist)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elaeocarpus_bifidus&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1">bifidus</a>), āulu (Sapindus oahuensis), olopua (<a title="Nestegis sandwicensis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestegis_sandwicensis">Nestegis sandwicensis</a>), and alaheʻe (Psydrax odorata). Greenflower Indian mallow is a shrub, reaching a height of 1.5–3 m (4.9–9.8 ft). It is threatened by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_loss">habitat loss</a>.

Abutilon sandwicense

Abutilon sandwicense NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Acanthomintha ilicifolia. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

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Acanthomintha ilicifolia, known by the common name San Diego thornmint, is a rare species of flowering plant in the <a title="Lamiaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamiaceae">mint family</a>. It is native to <a title="Baja California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baja_California">Baja California</a> and <a title="San Diego County, California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_County,_California">San Diego County, California</a>, where it is a resident of the <a title="Chaparral" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaparral">chaparral</a> and <a title="Coastal sage scrub" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_sage_scrub">coastal sage scrub</a> plant communities and <a title="Vernal pool" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernal_pool">vernal pools</a>.

Acanthomintha ilicifolia has been <a title="Local extinction" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_extinction">extirpated</a> from many of the sites where it was previously noted in San Diego County. It is a federally listed threatened species in the United States. This species is also listed as endangered under the <a title="California Endangered Species Act" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Endangered_Species_Act">California Endangered Species Act</a> which means that killing or possessing the plants is prohibited within <a title="California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California">California</a> unless authorized by the California Department of Fish and Game.

Acanthomintha ilicifolia

Acanthomintha ilicifolia. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=e31edaa0953840a0af562f33e9814b78&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.  Acanthomintha duttonii is a species of annual plant endemic to San Mateo County, California in the family Lamiaceae. It is commonly called San Mateo thornmint and is found growing on serpentine soils near the Crystal Springs Reservoir in a six-mile long strip on the east side of Montara Mountain at elevations of approximately 150 to 300 meters. an annual herb that is native to California and and is endemic (limited) to California. also called Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii California Rare Plant Rank: 1B.1 ( rare, threatened, or endangered in CA and elsewhere ).

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Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii

Acanthomintha obovata ssp. duttonii. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Achyranthes mutica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/"> Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.Achyranthes mutica A. Gray – blunt chaff flower Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete protected plant list for that location.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=43301dd515c748d8ad14055801b02e2c&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.Achyranthes mutica (also called blunt chaff flower) is a species of <a title="Plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant">plant</a> in the family <a title="Amaranthaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranthaceae">Amaranthaceae</a>. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. Its natural <a title="Habitat" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat">habitats</a> are <a title="Hawaiian tropical dry forests" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_tropical_dry_forests">dry forests</a> and subtropical or tropical dry <a title="Shrubland" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrubland">shrubland</a>. It is threatened by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_loss">habitat loss</a>.

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Achyranthes mutica

Achyranthes mutica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-investigate-the-mysterious-origin-of-flowering-plants/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world. Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata Genus is derived from the Greek achyron, chaff, and anthos, flower, referring to the chaffy parts of the flower. The Latin ephithet splendens means shining

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Achyranthes splendens (ʻEwa hinahina; also called Maui chaff flower, round chaff flower, round-leaf chaff flower, or round-leaved chaff flower) is a species of flowering plant in the <a title="Amaranth" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth">pigweed</a> family, <a title="Amaranthaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranthaceae">Amaranthaceae</a>, that is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaiʻi</a>. Its natural <a title="Habitat" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat">habitats</a> are <a title="Hawaiian tropical dry forests" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_tropical_dry_forests">dry forests</a>, <a title="Hawaiian tropical low shrublands" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_tropical_low_shrublands">low shrublands</a>, and <a title="Sand" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand">sandy</a> shores. It is threatened by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_loss">habitat loss</a>. Native Hawaiians have, for centuries, considered its extract to be an effective natural cure for constipation.

Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata

Achyranthes splendens var. rotundata. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Acmispon dendroideus var. traskiae (=Lotus d. ssp. traskiae) NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Syrmatium veatchii, <a title="Synonym (taxonomy)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)">synonyms</a> Lotus dendroideus and Acmispon dendroideus, is a species of <a title="Faboideae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faboideae">legume</a> native to <a title="California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California">California</a>. It is known by the common name island broom. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Channel Islands of California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_Islands_of_California">Channel Islands of California</a>, where it grows on coastal bluffs and cliffs. It is a spreading perennial herb or erect <a title="Shrub" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrub">shrub</a> approaching 2 meters in height. It is hairless to hairy and gray-green in color. The branches lined with leaves each made up of a few oval leaflike leaflets up to 1.5 centimeters long each. The <a title="Inflorescence" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> bears up to 10 yellow pealike flowers, each roughly a centimeter long and fading red as they age

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Acmispon dendroideus var. traskiae (=Lotus d. ssp. traskiae)

Acmispon dendroideus var. traskiae (=Lotus d. ssp. traskiae) NatureServe Explorer...

Aconitum noveboracense. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

Aconitum noveboracense, also known as northern blue monkshood or northern wild monkshood, is a flowering <a title="Plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant">plant</a> belonging to the buttercup family (<a title="Ranunculaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranunculaceae">Ranunculaceae</a>). Members of its genus (<a title="Aconitum" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aconitum">Aconitum</a>) are also known as wolfsbane.

The <a title="United States Fish and Wildlife Service" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service">United States Fish and Wildlife Service</a> government lists it as a <a class="mw-redirect" title="Threatened" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threatened">threatened</a> species.<a class="external autonumber" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aconitum_noveboracense#endnote_ecos.fws.gov.129">[1]</a> It grows in rare portions of <a class="mw-redirect" title="New York State" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State">New York State</a> and in portions of the <a title="Driftless Area" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driftless_Area">Driftless Area</a>.

Northern monkshood is noted for its very distinctive, blue hood-shaped flowers. The flowers are about 1 inch in length, and a single stem may have many flowers. Stems range from about 1 to 4 feet in length. The leaves are broad with coarse, toothed lobes.
<ul>
 	<li>Only found in Iowa, Wisconsin, Ohio, and New York.</li>
 	<li>Typically found on shaded to partially shaded cliffs, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Algific talus slopes" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algific_talus_slopes">algific talus slopes</a>, or on cool, streamside sites. These areas have cool soil conditions, cold air drainage, or cold groundwater flowage. On algific talus slopes, these conditions are caused by the outflow of cool air and water from ice contained in underground fissures. These fissures are connected to sinkholes and are a conduit for the air flows.</li>
</ul>
FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Aconitum noveboracense

Aconitum noveboracense. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Adenophorus periens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=051056fee95547398bc5795d84ee6725&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Adenophorus periens is a rare species of <a title="Fern" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern">fern</a> known by the common name pendant kihi fern. It is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, where it is known from one population in <a title="Puna, Hawaii" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puna,_Hawaii">Puna</a> on the island of <a title="Hawaii (island)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii_(island)">Hawaii</a> and a few occurrences on <a title="Kauai" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauai">Kauai</a> and <a title="Molokai" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molokai">Molokai</a>. The fern occurs in wet mountain forests on volcanic slopes. It grows on trees. There are perhaps 2000 individual plants remaining. This is a federally listed <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a> of the United States.

This fern is easily distinguished from others in its genus, with its long, hanging fronds that may exceed 40 centimeters in length, twice as long as other Adenophorus. The leaflets on the fronds are twisted at an angle to the <a title="Rachis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachis">rachis</a> and the leaf edges are lined with unique hairs. <a title="Genetic analysis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_analysis">Genetic analysis</a> reveals that the fern has a high <a title="Genetic diversity" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversity">genetic diversity</a> for such a rare species.

Threats to the species include <a title="Lava" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava">lava</a> and <a title="Volcanic gas" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_gas">gas</a> from the volcanoes on which it grows, as well as the death of its host trees, <a title="Introduced species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduced_species">introduced species</a> including <a title="Weed" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weed">weeds</a> and <a title="Feral pig" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_pig">feral pigs</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal electricity" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_electricity">geothermal development</a>.

Adenophorus periens

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Adiantum vivesii. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plants</a>, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Adiantum vivesii is <a title="Endemism" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism">endemic</a> to <a title="Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, where it is known from a single population made up of perhaps 1000 individuals near <a title="Quebradillas, Puerto Rico" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebradillas,_Puerto_Rico">Quebradillas</a>, in the <a class="mw-redirect" title="San Juan – Caguas – Guaynabo metropolitan area" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Juan_%E2%80%93_Caguas_%E2%80%93_Guaynabo_metropolitan_area">San Juan – Caguas – Guaynabo metropolitan area</a> on the northern side of the island.The fern was discovered in 1985 and described to science as a new species in 1989. Soon after, it was listed as an <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a>. It is a putative hybrid between Adiantum obliquum and A. tetraphyllum. In 2003 a specimen that most likely represents this species was collected on Petit Morne in Martinique by botanist <a class="mw-redirect" title="Maarten Christenhusz" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maarten_Christenhusz">Maarten Christenhusz</a> collection number 2678 (BM, SP, TUR, U, UC), which means that the hybrid has occurred twice independently.

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Adiantum vivesii

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Aeschynomene virginica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Aeschynomene virginica is a rare species of flowering plant in the legume family known by the common names Virginia jointvetch and sensitive jointvetch. It is native to a small section of the East Coast of the United States, where it has a fluctuating annual global population scattered in about 20 mostly small occurrences. Counts and estimates revealed two populations in New Jersey including several thousand individuals, one population of a few hundred plants in Maryland, several variable and unstable populations in ditches in North Carolina, and several populations including about 5000 individuals in Virginia. Habitat

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Aeschynomene virginica

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Agalinis acuta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

Agalinis acuta is an annual hemiparasitic plant native to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-flooding-devastates-maryland/">Maryland</a>, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Long Island, New York. Common names include sandplain gerardia and sandplain false foxglove. It is one of about 70 species that comprise genus Agalinis. It currently resides within the family Orobanchaceae, but historically was aligned with members of the Scrophulariaceae. This was one of several re-alignments that were the consequence of the disintegration of the Scrophulariaceae as the result of conclusions based on molecular phylogeny data from the chloroplast genome. While historically regarded as a separate species, molecular phylogenetic data indicates that Agalinis acuta should be consolidated as part of the species Agalinis decemloba.

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Agalinis acuta

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Agave eggersiana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=b3d93bdc390d43a7878fe6e35c4015bf&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Agave eggersiana

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Agave eggersiana, Eggers' century plant, is an <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a> of spiky <a title="Plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant">plant</a> which grows in the <a title="Virgin Islands" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Islands">Virgin Islands</a>, in dry, exposed areas. Agave eggersiana is a perennial herb known in the wild only from the island of <a class="mw-redirect" title="St. Croix" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Croix">St. Croix</a> of the U.S. <a title="Virgin Islands" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Islands">Virgin Islands</a> (USFWS 1998a).A small number of plants remain on private land and are threatened by tourist development (USFWS 1998b). Other threats include feral pigs and goats on <a title="National Park Service" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service">National Park Service</a> land (USFWS 1998b). Research needs include distribution and abundance, general biology and ecology (USFWS 1998a). The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service requests that any interested parties (concerned government agencies, the scientific community and/or industry) submit data or suggestions concerning this species (USFWS 1998b). The plant is being cultivated at the <a title="St. George Village Botanical Garden" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._George_Village_Botanical_Garden">St. George Village Botanical Garden</a> in St. Croix U.S.V.I.(USFWS 1998a) and at <a class="mw-redirect" title="Fairchild Botanical Gardens" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Botanical_Gardens">Fairchild Botanical Gardens</a> in south <a title="Florida" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida">Florida</a>.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Agave eggersiana

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Alectryon macrococcus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north%20america&amp;qs=n&amp;form=QBRE&amp;sp=-1&amp;pq=&amp;sc=0-0&amp;sk=&amp;cvid=2A486C7EEB7F4DC9A48B1971A274D39A">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population.

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Alectryon macrococcus

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Allium munzii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world. Allium munzii is an onion that grows from a reddish-brown <a title="Bulb" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulb">bulb</a> just over a centimeter long. It produces an erect stem up to about 35 centimeters in maximum height and a single leaf which is usually a bit longer. The <a title="Umbel" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbel">umbel</a> contains up to 35 flowers each under a centimeter long. They have <a title="Tepal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepal">tepals</a> that are white with a dark green midvein, turning red with age. Pollen and anthers are yellow

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Munz’s onion is a California threatened plant species, which means that killing or possessing the plant is prohibited by the California Endangered Species Act (CESA). It is also listed as endangered under the federal Endangered Species Act.

Allium munzii

Allium munzii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Greenland’s ice-covered landscape looks like an immovable block on satellite maps. Yet the story locked beneath its center suggests a very different past, one that places future coastal cities in a tight spot. 



During the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> - the geologic chapter that began about 2.7 million years ago and ran through innumerable swings between cold and mild - the island’s ice waxed and waned in tune with global climate.



New evidence hints that those swings were more dramatic than scientists once believed.



In&nbsp;1993, drillers hauled a two‑mile‑deep ice core up from the island’s highest point and stowed the entire column in a Colorado freezer. 



The surprise awaited in the bottom three inches of sediment: perfectly preserved traces of a tundra ecosystem. 



That sliver of soil, shielded for ages by roughly 1.9 miles (3 km) of ice, now refocuses the conversation about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/">future sea level</a> and the stability of polar ice in a warming world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tundra-hidden-beneath-greenland-s-ice">Tundra hidden beneath Greenland's ice</h2>



Once the drill broke through that 1.9‑mile roof of ice, the researchers retrieved those three inches of till. 



“These fossils are beautiful,” says Paul&nbsp;Bierman, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a> who co‑led the new study with UVM graduate student Halley&nbsp;Mastro and nine other researchers.



“But, yes, we go from bad to worse,” Bierman added, referring to what this finding implies about the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indisputable-evidence-of-human-caused-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human‑caused climate change</a> on melting of the Greenland ice sheet.



The till holds poppy, spike‑moss, woody willow tissue, fungal sclerotia, insect parts, and a band of soil capped by about&nbsp;16&nbsp;inches of erratic boulders. 



This is clear evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">central Greenland</a> once lay ice‑free under a cold, dry sky where late‑lying snow lingered through early summer.



Because the material sits undisturbed, the team is confident it was not swept in from elsewhere as ice advanced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-a-deep-greenland-ice-core">Inside a deep Greenland ice core</h2>



“Once we made the discovery at Camp&nbsp;Century, we thought, ‘Hey, what's at the bottom of&nbsp;GISP2?’” Bierman recalled.



High‑energy isotope ratios show that the summit last saw open air within the past 1.1 million years, while argon trapped in overlying clear ice indicates at least 250,000 years of continuous cover since then. 



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-47351-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Basal ice</a> at another drilling site about 19 miles away is roughly 1 million years old.



A separate core from Camp&nbsp;Century <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-under-the-ice-secret-base-camp-found-in-greenland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near the coast</a> yielded plant remains no older than&nbsp;416,000&nbsp;years, underscoring the ice sheet’s flickering presence across the Pleistocene. 



These findings draw on material that had been stored at the National Science Foundation <a href="https://icecores.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Core Facility</a> in Lakewood, Colorado, for three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-divulge-a-warmer-greenland">Fossils divulge a warmer Greenland</h2>



Under the microscope, what had looked like no more than specks floating on the surface of the melted core sample was, in fact, a window into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-transformation-ice-melt-plant-growth-vegetation-cascading-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tundra landscape</a>. 



“It was amazing,” Mastro exclaimed. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/greenland-ice-core_soil-sample_fossils_recently-melted-ice_credit-UVermont_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/greenland-ice-core_soil-sample_fossils_recently-melted-ice_credit-UVermont_1s.webp" alt="Willow bud scale, arctic poppy seed, fungal bodies, and rock spikemoss megaspores found in the GISP2 soil sample viewed under a microscope at the University of Vermont. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Halley Mastro/University of Vermont" class="wp-image-1977508"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Willow bud scale, arctic poppy seed, fungal bodies, and rock spikemoss megaspores found in the GISP2 soil sample viewed under a microscope at the University of Vermont. Click image to enlarge. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Halley Mastro/University of Vermont</figcaption></figure>



Mastro and colleagues picked out spores of spike‑moss, the bud scale of a young willow, and the compound eye of an insect - life‑forms adapted to chilly air and long summer daylight.



“And then we found Arctic poppy - just one seed of it. That is a tiny flower that's really good at adapting to the cold. It lets us know that Greenland's ice melted and there was soil, because poppies don't grow on top of miles of ice,”&nbsp;Mastro continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-risks-for-global-coasts">Sea‑level risks for global coasts</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-corals-reveal-that-sea-level-rise-occurs-in-rapid-bursts/">Sea level today</a> is rising more than an inch each decade. “And it's getting faster and faster,” said Bierman. The extra water comes from a warming ocean that expands as well as from melting glaciers worldwide.



Near‑complete melting of Greenland’s ice over the next centuries to a few millennia would lead to some&nbsp;23&nbsp;feet of sea‑level rise. 



“Look at Boston, New&nbsp;York, Miami, Mumbai, or any other coastal city around the world, and add&nbsp;20‑plus feet of sea level. It goes underwater. Don't buy a beach house," Bierman advised.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea level</a> is likely to be several feet higher by the end of this century, when today’s children are grandparents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-s-fragile-ice-fortress">Greenland's fragile ice fortress</h2>



Richard Alley, a leading climate scientist at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a>, reviewed the new research.



“This new study confirms, and expands upon earlier evidence, that significant sea‑level rise occurred at a time when the causes of warming were not especially extreme, providing a warning of the damage we might cause if we continue to warm the climate," Alley noted.



“We now have direct evidence that not only was the ice gone, but that plants and insects were living there,” Bierman concluded. “And that's unassailable. You don't have to rely on calculations or models.” 



The fossil soil at Greenland’s summit, locked beneath nearly two miles of ice, speaks plainly: polar ice sheets can retreat far and fast when the climate tips, and the coastlines of the future will trace that story in real time. 



Whether that warning is heeded remains a decision for policy makers and citizens alike.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2407465121#supplementary-materials" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Greenland ice discovery stuns and worries scientists: "Don't buy a beach house"

Greenland’s ice-covered landscape looks like an immovable block on satellite...

Seeds provide most of the calories humanity eats, yet the cells that decide how big each seed becomes have remained a mystery. Now, however, a new study from <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> has revealed a hidden gateway inside those cells that can push seed size up by 16 percent. 



The <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822%2825%2900345-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a>, led by <a href="https://www.itbm.nagoya-u.ac.jp/en_backup/members/r-kasahara/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryushiro Kasahara</a> and <a href="https://bbc.agr.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~graft/member2.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michitaka Nodaguchi</a>, maps the first new plant tissue described in 160 years. Kasahara is a plant biologist at Nagoya University’s Institute of Transformative Bio‑Molecules.



“Nobody was looking where I was looking,” said Kasahara, the scientist who first noticed a strange fluorescent ring on the wrong side of the ovule while tracking callose stains. Callose, a mesh of glucose chains, blocks the gateway whenever an ovule misses fertilization.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-stain-that-changed-course">A stain that changed course</h2>



Kasahara’s observation came while he was simply verifying previous work on <a href="https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/arabidopsis/thaliana/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis thaliana</a>. The unexpected ring turned out to be the entrance to the nutrient highway that runs from mother plant to seed.



The ring forms at the base of the hypocotyl, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hemp-seeds-could-be-a-game-changer-as-an-alternative-protein-source/">seed</a>’s embryonic stem, and it looks like a crouching rabbit under the microscope. 



Its shape gave the researchers an easy visual cue to follow as they charted the structure’s life cycle from closed to open state.



Historic plant anatomists cataloged most tissues by 1860, yet this ring escaped notice because it lies opposite the pollen entry point. 



That oversight highlights how much biology can still hide in plain sight when everyone points their lens in the same direction.



Because the ring fluoresces only when stained for callose, it took a dye meant for another purpose to bring the gateway to light. 



Chance favored the trained eye that chose to look where textbooks said nothing interesting should be happening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-seeds-and-the-kasahara-gateway">Plant seeds and the Kasahara gateway</h2>



The gateway sits at the chalazal end of the ovule, exactly where maternal phloem strands terminate. Genetic scans showed that a single gene, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17270015/">β-1, 3‑glucanase AtBG_ppap</a>, spikes in activity right after successful fertilization and digests the callose plug.



Central-cell fertilization, which seeds the endosperm, is the real trigger. When only the egg cell fuses, the gate stays closed; when the central cell fuses, the callose melts within a day and sugar rushes in.



The enzyme works like molecular scissors, shaving away callose strands to create a doughnut‑shaped aperture less than one-thousandth of an inch across. 



Once open, that aperture stays clear for the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amaranth-seeds-rich-in-calcium-and-iron-prevents-tumors-and-keeps-bones-strong/">seed</a>‑filling period unless new callose is laid down in response to stress.



Because the gateway is made of living cells rather than <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9394918/">lignified</a> walls, the plant can rebuild the plug if conditions warrant. Such reversibility suggests a broader role in resource triage during drought or pathogen attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boosting-plant-seed-growth">Boosting plant seed growth</h2>



Opening the gate has immediate effects on sugar flow. Live‑cell imaging with fluorescent tracers <a href="https://keio.elsevierpure.com/ja/publications/fertilization-dependent-phloem-end-gate-regulates-seed-size">showed</a> sucrose streaking into fertilized ovules but stopping dead at the plug in unfertilized ones.



When researchers crossed overexpression lines with fertilization‑defective pollen, the seeds still grew larger than controls, proving that keeping the gate open can bypass normal fertility signals. 



That result hints at a new route to bigger grains that does not tamper with hormone pathways or embryo genetics.



Previous yield‑boosting tricks often revolved around delaying flowering or altering hormone balances, strategies that can backfire under field stress. 



By contrast, controlling a gateway that governs the final delivery of nutrients lets breeders stack gains on top of existing varieties without lengthening the growing season.



The strategy also behaves additively with other nutrient transport genes. Plants missing the amino acid transporter <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284717967_Amino_Acid_Export_in_Developing_Arabidopsis_Seeds_Depends_on_UmamiT_Facilitators">UmamiT</a> produce seeds twelve  percent smaller, underscoring how critical maternal supply lines are to final weight.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-discovery-matters">Why the discovery matters</h2>



By 2050 the world will need roughly 50 percent more plant‑based food to feed almost 10 billion people. Traditional breeding has already squeezed much of the easy gain out of photosynthesis and field management.



A single-gene edit that enlarges seeds by a tenth could reclaim tonnes of grain per acre without additional fertilizer or water. 



Early greenhouse trials in rice suggest the boost holds across diverse backgrounds, though large‑scale field tests are still pending.



Commercial deployment would involve editing native <a href="https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/documents/polymerase-proofreading-associated-polyposis/">PPAP genes</a> rather than importing foreign DNA, a distinction that could ease regulatory hurdles in markets that accept CRISPR crops. 



Seed companies are already screening elite wheat lines for gateway variants that naturally leak more nutrients.



Because the mechanism is conserved across angiosperms, it could be used in maize, sunflower, and many fruit crops without wholesale redesign of their genomes. 



The approach also promises benefits in orphan crops such as teff, where modest increases in kernel size translate directly into less labor for threshing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-callose-seeds-and-the-big-picture">Callose, seeds and the big picture</h2>



The gateway also explains an evolutionary puzzle: flowering plants dominate today’s flora partly because they avoid wasting energy on unfertilized ovules. 



By blocking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeds-rich-in-protein-and-magnesium-help-grow-muscle-mass-fenugreek/">nutrient flow</a> until the central cell confirms fertilization, the gateway lets the plant invest only in seeds that can finish the job.



Researchers now want to follow the signal upstream to learn how the endosperm tells the gateway to open. They also hope to explore whether similar callose plugs direct nutrient traffic in other plant organs, as callose is known to regulate plasmodesmata permeability throughout the plant body.&nbsp;



Future projects aim to map the three‑dimensional structure of <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.07.23.550179v1.full.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AtBG_ppap</a> to design small molecules that might modulate its activity in the field. 



Others plan to combine always‑open gateways with carbon‑fixing traits to see whether the plant can keep pace with the heightened demand.



The discovery also invites work on reversible gating to guard against pathogens that hijack sugar streams. If researchers can toggle the plug in response to infection, crops might starve out invading microbes without chemical sprays.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982225003458" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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New plant tissue discovered that increases seed size by up to 16%

Seeds provide most of the calories humanity eats, yet the...

Planting trees is a simple idea, yet the details - from which species are used to how they’re arranged within a forest - shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-devastate-global-food-production/">climate</a> benefits we reap. 



Advanced computer models make it possible for scientists to peer inside virtual forests. They can test every possible arrangement before a single sapling goes into the ground.



A new <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61389-7">study</a> used those models to show that layout matters almost as much as species choice. The research was led by Rémy Beugnon at the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/">German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv)</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixing-trees-boosts-growth">Mixing trees boosts growth</h2>



Researchers call the fine‑grained mix of species in a stand <a href="https://taylorandfrancis.com/knowledge/Engineering_and_technology/Engineering_support_and_special_topics/Spatial_heterogeneity/">spatial heterogeneity</a>. When that mix is high, neighboring trees draw different nutrients, share light, and leave a patchwork of leaf litter that fuels underground life.



Beugnon’s team modeled eight subtropical species in thousands of simulated plots and compared designs ranging from single‑species blocks to fully shuffled grids. 



The models predicted that random layouts move <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/">nutrients</a> faster through the system, lifting both growth and recycling.



“The models show that random planting designs increased tree biomass by 11 percent compared to clustered layouts,” said Rémy Beugnon, first author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-random-forest-designs-pay-off">Random forest designs pay off</h2>



Across the forest simulations, shuffling species raised aboveground biomass by 11 percent over block plantings, even though every plot carried the same number of stems. 



The extra wood comes from chance neighbors; tall shade‑tolerant trunks share space with shorter sun‑lovers, wasting less light and soil.



A 2023 global <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adi2362">analysis</a> of more than 10,000 plots found a similar pattern, reporting that each additional tree species added roughly one‑third of a ton of extra wood per acre by boosting canopy complexity.



For managers locked into mechanical harvesting, random layouts can be intimidating. Yet the payoff shows why many reforestation guides now favor flexible rows or small patches over the classic monoculture block.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-trees-enrich-soil">Mixed trees enrich soil</h2>



Dead leaves are not waste; they drive litter decomposition that returns nitrogen and carbon to roots. In the models, mixed canopies dropped litter more evenly across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-trees-in-forest-streams-hold-more-carbon-than-expected/">forest floor</a>, smoothing out nutrient hot and cold spots.



Carbon loss from litter after nine months climbed from 36.5 percent in block plantings to 47.1 percent in random mixes, a jump big enough to shift the soil’s entire carbon budget.



Field experiments in subtropical China showed that doubling tree species richness sped up decomposition by up to 25 percent through thicker, more varied leaf fall. 



Faster turnover does not mean carbon is lost. Instead, it channels organic matter into microbial pathways that lock it deeper in the soil profile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tidy-path-to-forest-diversity">A tidy path to forest diversity</h2>



The Leipzig group tested a middle ground called “line planting,” alternating single or double rows of different species. Lines keep machinery lanes clear while still mixing neighbors along their edges. 



Their simulations showed that line layouts decomposed 40.4 percent of litter carbon in nine months -halfway between blocks and fully random, yet easy to mark out with a tape measure.



“We can leverage biodiversity in forests if we arrange it in the right way,” said Nico Eisenhauer, professor at <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/">Leipzig University</a> and iDiv group leader.



For many operational foresters, that design tweak may be the cheapest route to healthier soils - without rewriting the entire planting manual.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planting-diversity-fuels-forest-gains">Planting diversity fuels forest gains</h2>



Layout is only half of the equation; adding species amplifies its effect. In mixed stands, each extra species multiplied the layout benefit, but in block designs the diversity effect nearly vanished. 



When eight species were scattered randomly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/balancing-act-microbes-speed-up-plant-decomposition-in-a-warming-world/">decomposition</a> leapt by more than ten percentage points compared with similar blocks. In contrast, two‑species plots barely budged.



A pan‑American census reported that forests holding a wider spread of life‑history strategies stored more carbon over time, even after accounting for climate. Thus, thinking in two dimensions - what trees and where - can stretch every acre planted toward national carbon targets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-goals-need-forest-designs">Climate goals need forest designs</h2>



Beugnon and colleagues plan long‑term field tests to see how windthrow, pests, and thinning interact with mixed layouts over decades. 



Policymakers drafting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/">reforestation</a> incentives could build spatial criteria into grant rules, rewarding forest designs that mix species at the row scale rather than the stand scale.



With roughly 470 million acres already pledged for restoration worldwide, even a 10 percent biomass lift adds up. That increase translates into gigatons of extra carbon locked away.



Choosing the right forest design from the start costs nothing yet pays dividends for centuries, making it one of the simplest levers in the climate toolkit.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61389-7">Nature Communications</a>.



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Smarter forest design can help fight climate change

Planting trees is a simple idea, yet the details -...

'Zombie' fungi that hijack insects are not just a modern forest horror story. A pair of tiny fossils locked in Burmese amber shows that these parasites stalked ants and flies nearly 100 million years ago in what is now Myanmar.



The newly described fungi, Paleoophiocordyceps gerontoformicae and Paleoophiocordyceps ironomyiae, sprouted from their long‑dead hosts, just like today’s entomopathogenic relatives. This gruesome strategy has clearly been in play since ancient times. 



Study co‑author <a href="https://www.biotaxa.org/pe/article/view/palaeoentomology.5.3.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Edmund Jarzembowski</a> of the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology (<a href="http://english.nigpas.cas.cn/">NIGPAS</a>) and London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> helped craft the formal description.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-outbreak-of-parasitic-fungi">Ancient outbreak of parasitic fungi</h2>



Amber from the Hukawng Valley captures an ant pupa with a slender fungal stalk, and a fly pierced by a second projectile‑like stroma. 



The position of each growth mirrors the way that modern zombie fungi erupt from soft joints after the host’s last breath.



Palaeontologists reconstructed the scene and noted that the ant appears to have been dragged away from the nest before the infection reached its spore‑spraying stage. Social insects often quarantine sick kin, a behaviour already in place during the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/the-cretaceous-period.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a>.



“It’s fascinating to see some of the strangeness of the natural world that we see today was also present at the height of the age of the dinosaurs,” said Jarzembowski, reflecting on the familiar menace that infected the ancient insects.



The research team counted flask‑shaped perithecia, the microscopic chambers where sexual spores mature, on the fossilized stalks. 



Their arrangement ties the ancient genus to living Ophiocordyceps, even though the lineage split more than 130 million years ago.



Very few fossil pathogens display intact reproductive parts. This makes every new specimen a potential window into deep‑time disease ecology. 



The rarity arises because fungi are soft and because an insect corpse rarely fossilizes side by side with its killer, scientists noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-a-fungus-a-zombie">What makes a fungus a zombie</h2>



Members of <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1005037" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ophiocordyceps</a> start with a pin‑sized spore that germinates. It drills through the exoskeleton of a living insect, and sets up shop in the haemolymph. 



Chemical signals then steer the victim to a perch that maximizes wind exposure for the dispersal of spores released after death.



A genome survey of ant‑infecting species uncovered dozens of genes that code for enterotoxin‑like proteins. This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-fungus-aspergillus-that-can-eat-you-from-the-inside-out-is-quietly-spreading-around-the-world/">fungus</a> rewires muscles and nerves using the same tricks that bacteria use to upset mammalian guts.



Transcript <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/accumulating-glitches/how_fungus_makes_ant_zombies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show that as the infection peaks, genes tied to serotonin and dopamine pathways in the ant surge or plunge, matching the precise timing of the so‑called death grip.



Today more than 1,500 insect‑killing <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/understanding-fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a> are catalogued, yet only a handful make headlines. Specialists target beetles that bore into crops or mosquitoes that spread malaria, demonstrating the ecological punch of these microbes, even outside tropical forests.



Their life cycle is a masterclass in recycling nutrients: the mycelium consumes host tissues from within, then the emergent stalk spreads fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-living-plastic-contains-bacterial-spores-that-break-it-down/">spores</a> that restore carbon and nitrogen to soil food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amber-as-nature-s-time-capsule">Amber as nature's time capsule</h2>



Tree resin entombs soft bodies in minutes and hardens into amber that resists water, oxygen, and microbial decay. 



That airtight seal lets researchers inspect insect cuticles along with fungal filaments that are thinner than a human hair.



Kachin amber is celebrated for its clarity, but the deposit also raises ethical concerns because mining revenues can fund armed conflict. International guidelines now press museums to verify provenance before accepting new pieces.



Gem cutters often discard cloudy chunks, yet those fragments may shelter the best biological inclusions. Researchers therefore sift mine tailings for overlooked specimens, rather than fueling fresh extraction.



Because resin flows layer over layer, a single piece can trap snapshots separated by hours. That layering helps date biological events with unusual precision when volcanic ash beds bracket the deposit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-give-clues-to-insect-evolution">Fungi give clues to insect evolution</h2>



Comparative anatomy and molecular clocks place Paleoophiocordyceps on a branch that diverged from the modern zombie‑ant fungus during the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392592127_Cretaceous_entomopathogenic_fungi_illuminate_the_early_evolution_of_insect-fungal_associations" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early Cretaceous</a>. this was at the time that flowering plants began reshaping terrestrial food webs.



The study’s host‑switch analysis flagged a likely jump from beetles to flies and ants, mirroring the radiation of pollinators and social insects. Such leaps underline how a parasite’s fate is tied to the fortunes of its preferred prey.



Beetles already thrived in decaying wood, an environment humid enough for fungal spores, while the rise of canopy flowers led <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swarm-intelligence-ants-can-anticipate-obstacles-and-plan-ahead/">ants</a> to exploit new niches. The fungus followed its insect food, so to speak, adapting its toolkit for each cuticular landscape.



Host regulation may have checked insect booms long before birds or bats evolved sophisticated appetites for six‑legged prey. 



That invisible policing force could explain relatively stable herbivore damage in Cretaceous leaf fossils, despite soaring insect diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-familiar-to-modern-forests">A tale familiar to modern forests</h2>



Field surveys in Thailand show that fungus-infected ant graveyards form in patches where humidity hovers near 95 percent, suggesting the parasite needs microclimates as well as hosts.



Timing is equally precise. Infected carpenter ants bite down at solar noon more often than chance predicts, hinting that fungal circadian genes sync with the host’s biological clock.



When <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0004835" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cadavers</a> pile up, each fungal stalk releases millions of spores, yet infections remain patchy. Colony grooming, corpse removal, and antimicrobial secretions keep outbreaks from wiping out entire nests.



Lab trials with generalist insect fungi show a trade‑off between killing speed and spore burden, meaning parasites that act too quickly may sacrifice dispersal success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters-today">Why it matters today</h2>



Entomologists already deploy fungal <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/what-are-biopesticides" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bio‑pesticides</a> against insects such as locusts and crop‑boring moths. 



This method of control targets the insects without drenching fields in chemicals. Lessons from ancient lineages could sharpen that strategy by revealing how host jumps evolve.



Climate models predict that warmer nights and shifting rainfall will widen the habitat for many fungal pathogens. 



Tracking their evolutionary playbook helps forecast which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/">insect</a> groups, helpful or harmful, might feel the heat next.



The fossils nevertheless remind us that even tiny microbes leave fingerprints on evolution, shaping who thrives and who fails. 



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rspb.2025.0407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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'Zombie' fungus that lived almost 100 million years ago found preserved in amber

'Zombie' fungi that hijack insects are not just a modern...

Soybean,Grain,In,A,Hands,Of,Successful,Farmer,,In,A

Many countries already add lanthanides, a group of rare earth metals, to fertilizers to support crop growth. Yet despite their widespread agricultural use, researchers still didn’t fully understand how plants absorb these elements or how they influence essential processes like photosynthesis.



But recent research offers new insight into how these elements operate inside plants - and how they might be used more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-earth-metals-in-farming">Rare earth metals in farming</h2>



Scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>) have found that a single nanoscale dose of lanthanides applied to seeds can help some of the world’s most widely grown crops resist damage from ultraviolet (UV) light.



Their work shows that these rare earth metals can interact with <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/photosynthetic-cells-14025371/">chlorophyll</a> - the pigment that powers photosynthesis - by replacing the magnesium at its center. This replacement strengthens the pigment and improves the plant’s response to UV stress.



“This is a first step to better understand how these elements work in plants, and to provide an example of how they could be better delivered to plants, compared to simply applying them in the soil,” said Associate Professor Benedetto Marelli, who conducted the study with postdoc Giorgio Rizzo. 



“This is the first example of a thorough study showing the effects of lanthanides on chlorophyll, and their beneficial effects to protect plants from UV stress.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metals-do-more-than-grow-food">Metals do more than grow food</h2>



Lanthanides aren’t just for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-adopt-regenerative-agriculture-better-soil-health/">agriculture</a>. They’re also used in a variety of industrial and medical applications, from contrast agents in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16729149/">MRI scans</a> to components in solar cells, lasers, and LED lights.



The rare earth metals now play a much larger role in crop production. In <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12109484/">China</a> especially, farmers apply lanthanide-enriched <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fertilizer-reduces-plant-damage-caused-by-droughts/">fertilizers</a> to nearly 4 million hectares of farmland each year.



“Lanthanides have been considered for a long time to be biologically irrelevant, but that’s changed in agriculture, especially in China,” confirmed Rizzo. 



“But we largely don’t know how lanthanides work to benefit plants - nor do we understand their uptake mechanisms from plant tissues.”



Some recent studies suggest that these elements can promote growth, root development, hormone synthesis, and stress tolerance. However, too much lanthanide can be harmful.



The trick is finding the right balance - and that means understanding how they move through plant tissues and interact with the cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-re-greening-crops-with-lanthanides">Re-greening crops with lanthanides</h2>



To explore this, the MIT team used a seed coating and treatment method they had previously developed. This allowed them to study the interaction between chlorophyll and lanthanides both inside and outside the plant.



Chlorophyll is vital to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-cleverly-adapt-their-photosynthesis-to-changes-in-light/">photosynthesis</a>. But when the pigment loses the magnesium ion at its core, it can no longer absorb light efficiently.



The researchers discovered that certain lanthanides can take the place of magnesium. This substitution helps chlorophyll regain some of its functional ability - a process called “re-greening.”



“We found that lanthanides can boost several parameters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-sensor-remotely-tracks-plant-health-in-real-time/">plant health</a>,” Marelli said. “They mostly accumulate in the roots, but a small amount also makes its way to the leaves, and some of the new chlorophyll molecules made in leaves have lanthanides incorporated in their structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metal-offers-sun-defense-for-crops">Metal offers sun defense for crops</h2>



The team also discovered something surprising: lanthanides increased the plants’ ability to withstand UV stress - something no one had anticipated.



“Chlorophylls are very sensitive pigments,” Rizzo explained. “They can convert light to energy in plants, but when they are isolated from the cell structure, they rapidly hydrolyze and degrade."



"However, in the form with lanthanides at their center, they are pretty stable, even after extracting them from plant cells.”



Using advanced spectroscopic tools, the researchers tested their findings on several staple crops - including chickpea, barley, corn, and soybeans. The benefits held across all of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lanthanides-could-protect-food-security">Lanthanides could protect food security</h2>



With extreme heat and more frequent climate events threatening global food systems, solutions like this could become increasingly important.



“As we move into an environment where extreme heat and extreme climate events are more common, and particularly where we can have prolonged periods of sun in the field, we want to provide new ways to protect our plants,” Marelli said. 



“There are existing agrochemicals that can be applied to leaves for protecting plants from stressors such as UV, but they can be toxic, increase microplastics, and require multiple applications. This could be a complementary way to protect plants from UV stress,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cheap-lanthanides-shows-big-potential">Cheap lanthanides shows big potential</h2>



Among the lanthanides studied, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/lanthanum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lanthanum</a> - a relatively large and low-cost element - stood out for its effectiveness in strengthening chlorophyll.



Mining operations typically view lanthanum as a low-value byproduct of extracting rare earth elements. But this new use could turn that status around.



“This study shows what we could do with these lower-value metals,” Marelli said. “We know lanthanides are extremely useful in electronics, magnets, and energy."



"In the U.S., there’s a big push to recycle them. That’s why for the plant studies, we focused on lanthanum, being the most abundant, cheapest lanthanide ion.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-stop-greenhouses-and-beyond">Next stop: greenhouses and beyond</h2>



The team isn’t stopping with plants. They also plan to look into how lanthanides interact with other biological molecules, including proteins in the human body.



On the agricultural side, their next step is to test their findings in greenhouses and experimental farm settings, scaling up their work and exploring how different crops respond to metal-based<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uv-radiation-played-a-role-in-earths-largest-mass-extinction/"> UV</a> protection.



“Lanthanides are already widely used in agriculture,” Rizzo said. “We hope this study provides evidence that allows more conscious use of them and also a new way to apply them through seed treatments.”



The full study was published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.5c07071" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>.



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This cheap metal could be the key to growing stronger and healthier crops

Many countries already add lanthanides, a group of rare earth...

Rainforests thrive on delicate relationships. Plants, animals, and insects like ants constantly interact, creating a web of survival and competition. Amid this chaos, unexpected harmony sometimes blooms.



In the tropical rainforests of Fiji, scientists uncovered a fascinating story of peacekeeping. It is not a tale of advanced creatures or complex brains. Instead, it centers around a plant with an unusual design. 



This plant has developed a surprisingly simple strategy to solve conflict among aggressive ants.



This discovery from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> reshapes our understanding of cooperation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">nature</a>. It shows how something as basic as plant architecture can manage aggression and encourage mutual support. 



The study reveals that, sometimes, structure itself can shape behavior and nurture harmony among rivals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-and-plants-team-up">Ants and plants team up</h2>



The plant at the center of this story belongs to the genus Squamellaria. It is part of the Rubiaceae family, also known as the coffee family. These plants grow on the branches and trunks of rainforest trees.



The plants form large, bulbous structures called domatia. These domatia are not just growths - they serve as homes for ants. In return for shelter, ants provide the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">plant</a> with essential nutrients from their waste.



However, the ants that live in these plants are not naturally friendly neighbors. Many of them are highly aggressive and often engage in violent fights with other species. 



This raises an important question: how can so many aggressive species coexist peacefully inside a single plant?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-walls-keep-rivals-apart">Walls keep rivals apart</h2>



The answer lies in the design of Squamellaria’s domatia. Professor Guillaume Chomicki of Durham University led an international team to investigate the mystery. 



Using high-resolution 3D CT scans, the researchers explored the inner structure of the plant’s domatia. What they found was remarkable. The plant creates domatia with multiple chambers, each completely sealed off from the others inside.



Every chamber has its own entrance, but inside, walls separate them from their neighbors. This design prevents physical contact between ant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">species</a>. It is as if the plant built a miniature apartment complex, with each species living in its own secure unit.



This clever separation prevents fights and keeps the peace within the plant. It is not a chemical trick or behavioral adaptation by the ants. The plant’s architecture itself enforces harmony.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-plant-many-ants">One plant, many ants</h2>



To test the effectiveness of this system, the researchers conducted extensive fieldwork. They observed Squamellaria plants on three Fijian islands for over a decade.



The team's observations revealed that a single Squamellaria <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-could-soon-talk-to-farmers-and-listen-too/">plant</a> could house as many as five different ant species simultaneously. Despite their natural tendency to fight, the ants coexisted peacefully.



The researchers also performed nutrient labeling experiments using nitrogen isotopes. These experiments confirmed that all of the ant species provided valuable nutrients to the plant. 



Each ant colony contributed to the plant’s well-being, making the relationship mutually beneficial for all involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-peace-breaks-down">When peace breaks down</h2>



To truly understand the importance of separation, the researchers conducted a bold experiment. They surgically removed the internal walls between the chambers of the domatia.



The results were immediate and violent. Ant species that had previously lived peacefully erupted into fierce battles. These fights led to many ant deaths on both sides.



In contrast, plants with intact chambers saw no such conflict. Even outside the plant, ants shared food sources without issue. This highlights the importance of physical separation inside the plant.



“It is incredible how such an odd group of organisms, restricted to a couple of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-warning-sea-level-rise-in-pacific-island-nations-is-irreversible/">Fijian islands</a>, can provide general insights into the stability of cooperation between species,” noted Professor Chomicki.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-plant-that-solves-conflicts">A plant that solves conflicts</h2>



The team also created mathematical models to further explore the plant’s strategy. The models confirmed that compartmentalization helps maintain long-term partnerships. 



The system prevents fights during the early stages of colony establishment. This allows each chamber to develop into a stable, nutrient-contributing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-few-ants-can-change-an-entire-colonys-social-structure/">colony</a>.



Even in situations where only a small fraction of arriving ants were aggressive, the models showed that compartmentalized domatia performed better than single-chambered ones.



This shows that separating rivals is not just a short-term solution. It has lasting benefits for both the plant and its ant residents. The architecture ensures that mutualism remains stable over time, providing security and resources for all involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-harmony-in-nature">Hidden harmony in nature</h2>



This discovery helps solve a long-standing mystery in ecology. Scientists have wondered how unrelated and sometimes hostile species manage to maintain cooperation.



The findings suggest that physical separation could be a widely used strategy in nature. Many organisms may rely on similar methods to prevent conflict and maintain beneficial relationships.



The study of Squamellaria shows that architecture alone can shape ecosystems. It highlights the hidden power of structural design in keeping peace among species that would otherwise be at odds.



In the rainforests of Fiji, a simple plant demonstrates that sometimes, the best way to manage conflict is to keep your neighbors at a safe distance.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu8429" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Some plants have a strategy to prevent violent ant fights

Rainforests thrive on delicate relationships. Plants, animals, and insects like...

Mycorrhizal,Symbiosis,Between,Mushroom,And,Green,Plant.,Digital,Illustration.

Plants do not wave warning flags when a hungry caterpillar shows up. Yet for years scientists wondered if roots guide underground networks that let one plant alert its neighbors before the first bite lands.



A modeling study released in January, 2025 suggests the picture is far less neighborly. Lead author <a href="https://www.biology.ox.ac.uk/people/thomas-w-scott" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr Thomas Scott</a> of the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> argues that most plants would lose more than they gain by sounding a genuine alarm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-plants-play-tricks">Why plants play tricks</h2>



Natural selection rewards thrift, so every calorie sunk into defense is a calorie that cannot go into growth or seeds. Because neighbors compete for the same sunlight and minerals, helping them makes little evolutionary sense.



The models draw on the idea of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/kin-selection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kin selection</a>, the notion that genes “care” about relatives who share those genes. When the same genetic relatives also fight for the same patch of soil, the benefit of warning kin evaporates.



Simulations showed that honest signals kept disappearing from the virtual population. False alarms, however, sometimes stuck around long enough to handicap competitors by pushing them into needless chemical warfare.



“Our results indicate that it is more likely that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-defy-gravity-when-water-is-scarce/">plants</a> will behave deceptively toward their neighbours, rather than altruistically, even when no herbivore is present,” said Dr Scott, adding that a plant might fake an attack draining rivals of resources in the process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungus-helps-plants-communicate">Fungus helps plants communicate</h2>



Much of the debate centers on the mycorrhizal fungi that lace through the soil, forming what ecologists nickname the “<a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/wood-wide-web-underground-network-microbes-connects-trees-mapped-first-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wood wide web</a>.” 



These threads trade phosphorus and nitrogen for plant‑made sugars and can physically link roots from different species.



Laboratory work with Solanum lycopersicum showed that when one tomato in a shared fungal network met a caterpillar, connected tomatoes cranked up four defense enzymes within hours. The reaction happened even though the “listener” plants never touched the insect.



Defensive cues may move as <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/what-are-volatile-organic-compounds-vocs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volatile organic compounds</a> drifting through the hyphae or leaking from wounded roots. 



Scott’s team argues that such cues are hard to suppress completely, creating an involuntary “tell” rather than an intentional SOS.



Model runs where the victim plant tried to hide the cue found that full suppression was rarely worth the metabolic fee. That fits the tomato result, where receivers benefitted even though senders paid the cost of damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungus-as-mediators-between-plants">Fungus as mediators between plants</h2>



If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-build-their-cell-walls-is-seen-by-scientists-for-the-first-time-ever/">plants</a> are unlikely whistle‑blowers, someone else must be moving the news. The models showed that the fungi themselves could profit by monitoring each host and relaying danger to all partners.



A healthy green plant pumps more sugar into the network than a chewed‑up one. By nudging the rest of the network into pre‑emptive defense, the fungus protects its own carbon income.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/plants_information-transfer_fungal-networks_illustration_credit-PNAS_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/plants_information-transfer_fungal-networks_illustration_credit-PNAS_1s.webp" alt="Hypotheses for information transfer in plant–fungal networks. Two plants are connected via a mycorrhizal network. One plant is under attack (e.g., by aphids), and this information may be transferred via the mycorrhizal network to the other plant, allowing it to up-regulate its defense mechanisms. There are three hypotheses regarding how this information is transferred: (blue) signaling by the attacked plant; (cyan) cues, which are potentially vulnerable to suppression by the attacked plant; and (orange) monitoring and signaling by the mycorrhizal network. Credit: PNAS" class="wp-image-1977443"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Hypotheses for information transfer in plant–fungal networks. Two plants are connected via a mycorrhizal network. One plant is under attack (e.g., by aphids), and this information may be transferred via the mycorrhizal network to the other plant, allowing it to up-regulate its defense mechanisms. There are three hypotheses regarding how this information is transferred: (blue) signaling by the attacked plant; (cyan) cues, which are potentially vulnerable to suppression by the attacked plant; and (orange) monitoring and signaling by the mycorrhizal network. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PNAS</figcaption></figure>



“Maybe it is the fungal networks themselves that are sending the warning signals,” Dr Scott suggested. Co-author <a href="https://www.spun.earth/team-members/dr-toby-kiers#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Toby Kiers</a> added that a neighbor may simply be “eavesdropping,” not altruistically sharing information.



Unlike deceptive plants, a cheating fungus would only hurt its paycheck. That steers evolutionary pressure toward honest fungal monitoring, at least until someone proves otherwise in field trials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-farms-and-forests">What this means for farms and forests</h2>



Agronomists dream of crops that switch on defenses before pests build an army. If fungi, not plants, drive advance warning, inoculating fields with the right spores might someday cut pesticide use.



The new study also tempers popular stories claiming that old trees “care” for their sapling offspring. Mutual benefit can still happen, but the math says it must be weighed against relentless competition for limited light.



Some breeders already select <a href="https://treefruit.wsu.edu/varieties-breeding/rootstocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rootstocks</a> that recruit efficient fungal partners. Future programs may screen those partners for their talent at early pest detection instead of simple nutrient delivery.



Forest managers experimenting with assisted migration should remember that uprooted seedlings leave their native fungal counselors behind. Re‑establishing key networks could be as vital as matching temperature or rainfall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-plant-behavior-in-evolution">Rethinking plant behavior in evolution</h2>



These findings challenge the common tendency to describe plants using human social terms like friendship, cooperation, or mutual aid. 



Such language can oversimplify complex ecological relationships shaped by evolutionary tradeoffs rather than intentional kindness.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/plants_communication_fungal-network_underground_illustration_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/plants_communication_fungal-network_underground_illustration_1s.webp" alt="Fungal networks help plants communicate and sometimes play &quot;referee&quot; to settle disputes" class="wp-image-1977466"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fungal networks help plants communicate and sometimes play "referee" to settle disputes. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Plants don't choose to help or harm. They respond to selective pressures based on survival and reproduction. 



What might look like generosity from a distance could be a side effect of unavoidable signaling, or an outcome that benefits fungi more than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">plants</a> themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-questions-for-researchers">Next questions for researchers</h2>



The models assume costs and benefits averaged over many generations. Field ecologists now need to tag real roots, real caterpillars, and real fungi to test whether the numbers hold up outside a computer.



One way is to pair isotope tracing with microelectrodes in split‑root systems, watching exactly who sends which molecule where. 



Another is to compare fungal genomes for genes that sense host stress chemicals, a clue that selection favors monitoring hardware.



If dishonest plant signals do occur, greenhouse arenas seeded with mixed genotypes should reveal which seed families bluff the most. 



Researchers may also seek fungal “referees” that penalize plants that persistently cry wolf. The soil is telling a subtler story than simple plant friendship.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2420701122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Scientists change their minds about 'friendship' and cooperation between plants

Plants do not wave warning flags when a hungry caterpillar...

Diseño sin título - 1

Botanists confirmed recently that a towering tree discovered in Tanzania’s Udzungwa Mountains is an entirely new species, Tessmannia princeps.



The research team is led by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrea-Bianchi-10" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andrea Bianchi</a>, a horticulturist and researcher at <a href="https://www.muse.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Muse Science Museum</a> in Trento, whose group worked with Tanzanian experts to document the species and its remote habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-tessmannia-princeps">Discovering Tessmannia princeps</h2>



Bianchi and local plant specialists were mapping plants in the Boma la Mzinga and Uluti Village Land Forest Reserves in 2019 when they nearly walked into a gray‑barked giant they could not name.



“This was already quite a shiver‑down‑your‑back moment because if they didn’t know [the species], it could have been something interesting,” Bianchi recalls. 



Follow‑up surveys in the <a href="https://arts.psu.edu/assets/uploads/documents/studyabroad-a_web_strategy_for_umnp-_2010_student_project.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Udzungwa Mountain</a> region revealed only about one hundred mature individuals scattered across two steep valleys, each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-trees-decide-between-growing-and-breathing/">tree</a> crowned well above the surrounding canopy.



The specific name princeps, Latin for “most eminent,” nods to crowns that poke above neighboring foliage and to thick, consecutively buttressed trunks that command the landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-old-and-how-tall">How old and how tall</h2>



The largest measured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/">trees</a> rise roughly 130 feet and carry trunks close to nine feet across, with extra girding from three‑foot‑deep buttresses. 



Cross‑sections from a naturally fallen trunk revealed 12-15 growth rings in a single centimeter, a pace so slow it suggests an age of 2,000-3,000 years for the biggest survivors.



Bianchi describes counting those rings as “patient work that feels like peering back through the lifetimes of civilizations,” a statement he shared while discussing the discovery with colleagues. 



Such longevity places Tessmannia princeps alongside bristlecone pines and giant sequoias on the shortlist of the planet’s most durable trees, although the new species lives in humid rainforest rather than the drier mountain slopes that old bristlecones prefer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tessmannia-princeps-anatomy">Tessmannia princeps anatomy</h2>



Scientists classify the tree as a canopy emergent species, meaning its crown stands above the general forest roof, harvesting full sunlight while shaping micro‑climates below. 



Immense buttress roots fan from the base, some arching more than 49 feet high and channeling mechanical stress into the shallow rainforest soil.



Glossy leaves carry dozens of leaflet pairs, and the creamy white petals tipped with yellow glands emit a fragrance that local guides notice long before the trunk comes into view. 



Despite its stature, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-unique-fungi-partnerships-that-help-them-survive/">tree</a> is unarmed, no thorns or spines, relying instead on sheer size and chemical defenses yet to be cataloged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-they-stayed-hidden">Why they stayed hidden</h2>



The Udzungwa mountain mass sits within the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6658/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eastern Arc Mountains</a>, an ancient chain famed for pockets of endemism created by rugged topography and long‑lasting climate stability. 



Many villages in the chain lie at valley floors, while the discovered grove perches between 4,200 and 5,000 feet in elevation, far from cultivated plots and traditional footpaths.



Frequent cloud cover, steep ridges, and legally protected status after 2016 limited timber scouts and poachers, allowing the slow‑growing population to mature undisturbed. 



Until the 2019 trek, even seasoned local botanists believed all large legumes in the region had been recorded, a reminder of how easily towering organisms can evade science in dense rainforest. 



Discovering Tessmannia princeps there was a surprise to everyone, even the locals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-tessmannia-princeps-alive">Keeping Tessmannia princeps alive</h2>



The newly described species meets International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) criteria for “Vulnerable” status, owing to its tiny range and fewer than 1,000 estimated individuals. 



Logging is banned inside the reserves, yet nearby farms, bush‑meat hunting trails, and potential road upgrades pose indirect threats through soil compaction and fire risk.



<a href="https://research-nexus.net/author/1002222169/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arafat Mtui</a> of the <a href="http://www.udzungwacentre.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Udzungwa Ecological Monitoring Center</a> notes that each fresh discovery “prioritizes urgent study on ecology, distribution, and threats,” underscoring the tree’s role as a flagship for corridor restoration. 



Community‑based programs that compensate landowners for forest protection now cite T. princeps as evidence that conserving narrow habitat strips can safeguard irreplaceable biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-ancient-trees-teach-us">What ancient trees teach us</h2>



Longevity in wet tropics is rare because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-psilocybin-from-magic-mushrooms-delays-aging-and-significantly-extends-lifespan/">fungi</a>, insects, and storms accelerate decay, so the endurance of these trunks sparks new questions about wood chemistry and dendrochronology in humid settings.



Comparisons with the 4,800‑year‑old bristlecone pine <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pinlon/all.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pinus longaeva</a> highlight convergent survival strategies: dense wood, slow metabolism, and strategic growth spurts that coincide with favorable decades. 



By storing prodigious amounts of carbon for millennia, each Tessmannia princeps stabilizes soils, seeds understory diversity, and chronicles regional climate swings in its tightly packed rings.



Researchers now plan radiocarbon dating on live cores to refine age estimates and test whether rainfall patterns leave identifiable chemical signatures, data that could sharpen regional climate models.



The study is published in <a href="https://phytotaxa.mapress.com/pt/article/view/phytotaxa.694.2.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytotaxa</a>. Photo credit: Bianchi, Tomasi, et al/Phytotaxa.



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Scientists discover giant 3,000-year-old trees never before seen by humans

Botanists confirmed recently that a towering tree discovered in Tanzania’s...

We hear a lot about how climate change affects food production, especially in terms of crop yields. But a growing body of research points to a quieter, less visible threat: the nutritional quality of our food is changing - and not for the better.



New findings from researchers at <a href="https://www.ljmu.ac.uk/">Liverpool John Moores University</a> suggest that rising levels of CO2 and hotter temperatures are altering the chemistry of common crops. The result? Plants may look healthy and grow fast, but they’re packing fewer essential nutrients.



That has major implications for public health, especially in countries already battling food insecurity and chronic diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-vegetables-for-tomorrow">Testing vegetables for tomorrow</h2>



“Our work looks beyond quantity to the quality of what we eat,” said Jiata Ugwah Ekele, a PhD student at Liverpool John Moores University.



Ekele’s research focuses on how environmental stressors - from increased carbon dioxide to rising temperatures - change the nutritional makeup of food crops. 



Her team grows popular leafy vegetables like kale, rocket, and spinach inside climate-controlled chambers at the university. Researchers adjust the CO2 levels and temperatures to reflect the UK’s future climate projections.



“These environmental changes can affect everything from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/">photosynthesis</a> and growth rates to the synthesis and storage of nutrients in crops,” said Ekele.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-plant-activity">Tracking plant activity</h2>



The research takes a closer look at what’s happening inside the plants. Scientists track photosynthetic activity as the plants grow, using chlorophyll fluorescence and quantum yield measurements



At harvest, the team measures yield and biomass, then runs chemical tests to see what nutrients are present. 



Using high-performance liquid chromatography and X-ray fluorescence, they analyze sugars, proteins, flavonoids, vitamins, and antioxidants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-crops-fewer-nutrients">Bigger crops, fewer nutrients</h2>



The early data shows that crops do grow bigger under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">higher CO2 levels</a>. But that doesn’t mean they’re healthier.



“After some time, the crops showed a reduction in key minerals like calcium and certain antioxidant compounds,” Ekele said.



And when heat is added to the mix, things get worse. According to Ekele, the interaction between CO2 and heat stress has complex effects - the crops do not grow as big or fast and the decline in nutritional quality intensifies.



One surprising twist in the results was that not all vegetables responded the same way. Some showed sharp declines in nutrients, while others were more resilient.



“This diversity in response highlights that we can’t generalize across crops. This complexity has been both fascinating and challenging and reminds us why it's important to study multiple stressors together,” Ekele said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-may-fuel-disease">Crops may fuel disease</h2>



A key concern is what happens when crops lose essential nutrients. Elevated CO2 can increase the sugar content in fruits and vegetables - but it often lowers levels of protein, vitamins, and minerals.



“This altered balance could contribute to diets that are higher in calories but poorer in nutritional value,” Ekele said. 



“Increased sugar content in crops, especially fruits and vegetables, could lead to greater risks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/">obesity</a> and type 2 diabetes - particularly in populations already struggling with non-communicable diseases.”



When people eat food that lacks protein, iron, calcium, or other essential nutrients, it can weaken their immune system and worsen existing health conditions. This hits hardest in low- and middle-income countries where food choices are limited.



“It’s not just about how much food we grow, but also what’s inside that food and how it supports long-term human well-being,” said Ekele.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-systems-face-global-stress">Food systems face global stress</h2>



Even though the study simulates future UK climate conditions, the findings echo far beyond British borders.



“Food systems in the Global North are already being challenged by shifting weather patterns, unpredictable growing seasons, and more frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heatwaves</a>,” noted Ekele.



“In tropical and subtropical regions, these areas also contend with overlapping stressors such as drought, pests, and soil degradation – and are home to millions who depend directly on agriculture for food and income.”



Ekele hopes this work inspires more research and cross-disciplinary collaboration. She said that food is more than just calories - it’s a foundation for human development and climate adaptation.



Connecting plant science to broader issues of human well-being is essential, especially as the climate changes and nations work toward building a food system that supports not just productivity, but also health, equity, and resilience.



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Climate change is making our food less nutritious

We hear a lot about how climate change affects food...

Trees are among nature’s most effective tools for capturing carbon dioxide. They absorb this heat-trapping gas as they grow, making forests key allies in the fight against climate change.



But what happens when winters get warmer and snow becomes scarce? That’s the question <a href="https://www.bu.edu/">Boston University</a> scientists set out to answer in a long-term forest experiment. 



The researchers used underground cables to simulate warmer soil and removed snow to mimic shifting winters. The results suggest that future forest growth - and the carbon storage it brings - might not be as strong as we hope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-snow-slows-forest-growth">Lack of snow slows forest growth</h2>



In a recent study, BU researchers showed that warmer summers do boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-still-have-much-to-learn-about-tree-growth/">tree growth</a>. But there's a catch: when snowpack is reduced in winter, that growth slows significantly. Forests may grow faster in heat, but they struggle without a protective blanket of snow.



“We know from past work that there are several negative effects of lessening snowpack, and we know that temperatures are warming and the snowpack is shrinking,” said study co-author Professor Pamela Templer. 



“We wanted to look at the interactions between climate change across the year, and we wanted to be as realistic as possible about the future climate our forests will experience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-loss-harms-tree-roots">Snow loss harms tree roots</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-droughts-could-quadruple-by-2100-harming-water-supplies/">Snow</a> insulates the forest floor. With less snow, the soil freezes more often, damaging roots and disrupting the delicate balance trees rely on.



Instead of a steady cold, the ground experiences freeze-thaw cycles that can be stressful for the plants.



At the same time, warmer summers speed up decomposition in the soil, which can help trees grow faster at least on the surface.



“When we think about climate change, it’s not just warmer temperatures in the summer or warmer temperatures overall," said Emerson Conrad-Rooney, a PhD student in Templer’s lab and lead author of the paper.



"We need to account for these changes throughout the year that can differ from season to season.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-removal-shrinks-forest-gains">Snow removal shrinks forest gains</h2>



The BU team set up six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-provide-different-health-benefits-based-on-their-structure/">forest</a> plots, each about the size of a small classroom. Four of them had underground cables that warmed the soil by 5 degrees Celsius (9 degrees Fahrenheit). Two of those were also cleared of snow in the winter. The last two were left alone for comparison.



Year after year, the team returned to measure tree growth using dendrometer bands - spring-loaded metal rings wrapped around trunks that track expansion. These readings allowed them to estimate how much carbon each tree was storing.



Trees in the plots where the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-soil-is-now-the-worlds-biggest-plastic-dumping-ground/">soil</a> was artificially warmed and snow was left untouched grew 63 percent more than the trees in the unaltered plots. 



But when snow was removed - triggering repeated freeze-thaw cycles - the growth benefit dropped. Those trees only grew 31 percent more than the controls over the same period. 



In other words, the lack of snow cut the positive effects of warmer temperatures on tree growth by about half.



“Many Earth system models, which predict how much carbon forests can store, aren’t incorporating the complexities of winter climate change that we’re highlighting here,” said Conrad-Rooney. “This means that models might be overestimating the carbon capacity of these temperate forests.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-happening-beneath-the-ground">What’s happening beneath the ground?</h2>



Now, the team is turning its attention underground. Templer suspects that repeated freezing and thawing takes a toll on tree roots, which are adapted to the stable cold of snowy winters. 



In 2023, Conrad-Rooney buried mesh cylinders called root ingrowth cores to track how roots are growing in each plot. The results are expected by the end of this year.



“We’re going to keep this work going as long as we can,” said Templer. “We’re so fortunate to have this long-term study because we learn so much the longer we keep going." 



"Right now, we see a warming-induced response from the trees, but maybe that’s temporary - maybe the trees will acclimate and their growth will slow down. We don’t know. That’s really the value of having long-term data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-puzzle-with-many-pieces">A climate puzzle with many pieces</h2>



This study is one part of a much larger puzzle. Researchers are also looking at how trees behave in cities, along forest edges, and under threats like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-people-die-from-air-pollution-each-year-yet-theres-still-a-lack-of-monitoring/">air pollution</a>, insect loss, and diseases. 



But pulling all these pieces together into one clear forecast for forests remains a huge challenge.



“There are so many global changes happening at the same time,” said Templer. “It’s impossible to get at everything all at once, so we each do what we can."



"The reason we could do this work at all is because others before us monitored the climate. Getting to contribute to long-term science with this study is just amazing.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2412873122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Forests will struggle without winter snow

Trees are among nature’s most effective tools for capturing carbon...

A single teaspoon of healthy soil can hold as many as a billion bacteria, yards of fungal threads, and a menagerie of microscopic grazers. These organisms form the root microbiome, which helps keep plants fed, watered and defended against drought and disease.



New <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> now argues that plants are not just passive tenants in this world but active managers that build hand‑picked below‑ground crews, a process the authors call functional team selection (FTS).



The <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> is led by Regents’ Professor <a href="https://directory.nau.edu/faculty?name=nancy%20johnson&amp;person=nj4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Collins Johnson</a> of Northern Arizona University, working with <a href="https://www.ust.cl/personas/curriculum/cesar-marin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">César Marín</a> of Universidad Santo Tomás in Chile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-create-microbiomes">How plants create microbiomes</h2>



A <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> is the collective genomes and activities of bacteria, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-talk-through-fungal-networks/">fungi</a>, viruses, and other tiny life forms that live in and around a host. 



In plants the action centers on the rhizosphere, the thin <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2023-04/NRCS_Healthy%20Soils%20at%20Home_12_22_FINAL%20sent%20to%20printers.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shell of soil</a> that sticks to roots and hums with chemical chatter.



Microbes in this region swap nutrients, growth hormones, and signals with their hosts, often trading nitrogen or phosphorus for sugars. 



Under drought conditions, some bacteria exude sticky <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1253735/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofilms</a> that help roots hang on to water, improving crop yields in experimental fields.



Yet the community is no free‑for‑all; opportunistic pathogens lurk, and beneficial species can be crowded out by chance or by a sudden fertilizer surge. 



Understanding how plants steer the mix in the root microbiome is therefore critical for sustainable farming.



Scientists <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2644" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sequence</a> the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/16s-ribosomal-rna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">16S rRNA gene</a> from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/rhizosphere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rhizosphere</a> samples and routinely detect more than 5,000 operational taxonomic units on a single maize plant. 



That microbial diversity rivals the entire bacterial roster of many animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-gut-microbiome-is-shaped-by-what-we-eat/">gut microbiomes</a>, underscoring how much genetic potential lies just outside a root tip.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-microbiomes-shaped-by-stress">Plant microbiomes shaped by stress</h2>



Johnson’s earlier field <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1942106" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> showed that adding chemical fertilizer for eight years shifted <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/arbuscular-mycorrhiza" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi</a> toward strains that taxed big bluestem grass more than they helped it. 



The finding hinted that low‑nutrient stress is not just tolerated but needed to keep the symbiosis honest.



Other <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2020.622926/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> echo the pattern: under conditions of water scarcity, maize roots release flavonoids that attract drought‑tolerant microbes, whereas well‑watered plants skip the recruitment drive. 



Selective pressure, in other words, acts like an admissions test for the root community.



This ecological sorting sets the stage for evolution, because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/">microbes</a> that pass the test multiply and share genes for the traits the plant needs. Over time the soil becomes a living memory of past hardships.



Plants secrete up to 40 percent of the carbon they fix as root exudates, a spill that serves as both payment and message to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2021.753474/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a>. 



Compounds such as malic acid call in growth‑promoting <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7699/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacillus</a>, while terpenes can ward off unwanted invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-team-selection-fts-idea">Functional team selection (FTS) idea</h2>



Johnson and Marín propose that four ingredients - selection force, host constitution, microbial diversity, and time - determine whether a functional team selection <a href="https://ecoevorxiv.org/repository/view/6944/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(FTS) pathway</a> opens. 



When the mix is right, a plant and its hand‑picked allies act as one adaptive system rather than as separate parts.



“Functional teams are unlikely to evolve in benign environments with no stress and ample resources because they lack the selection pressure that is required to curate the composition of the microbiome,” Johnson said. 



Her remark underlines why crop inoculants bought off the shelf often disappoint farmers who apply them to fertile, irrigated soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-microbiomes-and-fts">Plants, microbiomes, and FTS</h2>



The framework leans on the recently articulated <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2310223120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Law of Increasing Functional Information</a>, which holds that complex systems tend to explore ever more effective configurations when variation meets selection. 



Roots and microbes, stars and minerals all follow comparable rules, differing only in the building blocks they shuffle.



<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2310223120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hazen and colleagues</a> illustrated the law with examples that range from heavy‑element synthesis in stars to enzyme evolution on Earth, arguing that a drive toward functional novelty bridges physics and biology. 



By situating FTS within that broader law, Johnson’s team claims no special exemption for life; they simply place roots and their microbiomes on the same playing field as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/">galaxies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-agriculture">Lessons for agriculture</h2>



Worldwide sales of <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2021.606815/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial biofertilizers</a> are booming, yet meta‑analyses show that many products fail to colonize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/">roots</a> or boost yields once they leave the greenhouse. 



FTS suggests that success will improve when products are matched to the stresses and nutrient limits of specific root microbiomes rather than offered as universal cures.



Breeders could also select crop varieties that reward resident mutualists instead of favoring short‑term fertilizer responses. 



That shift would align genetic improvement with the slow buildup of local microbial teams instead of tearing them down each season.



Adopting FTS thinking could also cut greenhouse‑gas emissions because successful microbial teams often help plants capture nitrogen from air and recycle soil carbon, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00253-024-13347-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trimming demand</a> for energy‑intensive fertilizer. Lower fertilizer demand translates to fewer nitrous oxide emissions, a potent greenhouse gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fts-from-soil-to-other-systems">FTS from soil to other systems</h2>



The authors argue that FTS can illuminate animal guts, coral reefs, and even human‑made bioreactors because each hosts a crowd whose joint output beats any single member. 



Testing the idea across systems may reveal design rules for building resilient microbiomes in medicine and industry.



A similar logic already guides fecal microbiota transplants that restore healthy gut ecosystems after recurrent infections, proving that designed consortia can outperform single‑strain probiotics. 



Cross‑talk between fields may speed the jump from proof of concept to routine practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-research-goes-next">Where research goes next</h2>



Johnson and Marín want field trials that run for multiple plant generations, use minimal fertilizer, and track microbial genomes alongside plant performance. 



Such studies would put FTS to the test by asking whether curated teams stay stable and beneficial when weather and management shift.



Meanwhile ecologists are building network models that predict which microbes form keystone partnerships under drought, salinity, or heat waves. 



If those models hold, future crops may come with recommended microbial seed mixes tailored to local stress profiles instead of chemical input schedules.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The ISME Journal</a>.



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