Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a 9.5-mile section of Pangong Lake on the western end of the Tibetan Plateau. The image was captured by a crew member onboard the International Space Station. 



“In this winter scene, a sheet of cracked ice tops part of the lake,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “On the left side, open water appears blue. Shallow water offshore of a delta, formed by a small, winding river, appears green."



"Parallel lines along the coastlines of bays are visible in the high-resolution version of this image. These lines indicate raised beaches, which formed in the past when lake levels were higher.”



NASA pointed out that several roads cut across the landscape, including one with switchbacks that ascends a steep slope. "These roads facilitate tourist travel from both India and China.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-birds-at-pangong-lake-nbsp">Migratory birds at Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake and its surroundings are home to numerous bird species, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-burn-unexpected-amounts-of-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>. Visitors can spot various waterfowl and waders that are rarely seen elsewhere.



“During the summer, species such as bar-headed geese and Brahminy ducks attract bird watchers to the lake, which is a major breeding ground for migrating birds,” said NASA.



Pangong Lake is one of the few places in India where the endangered black-necked crane is found during its breeding season. 



Ruddy shelduck and brown-headed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gulls-are-shifting-their-habitats-to-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gulls</a> are also frequently spotted around the lake. The ruddy shelduck is known for its striking orange-brown body and creamy white head, while the brown-headed gulls are often seen flying or swimming in the lake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangong-lake-nbsp">Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake is a stunning high-altitude lake situated in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-are-rising-unexpectedly-fast-on-the-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, extending from India to the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. It is renowned for its mesmerizing beauty and dramatic setting, with the lake lying at an elevation of about 4,350 meters.



One of the most distinctive features of Pangong Lake is its changing colors, ranging from shades of blue to green and even red, influenced by the sky's reflection and the lake's mineral content.



This saline water lake is approximately 134 kilometers long and 5 kilometers wide at its broadest point. Despite its considerable size, Pangong Lake is relatively shallow.&nbsp;



The lake gained additional popularity after being featured in several Indian films - most notably the Bollywood hit "3 Idiots." Its remote location requires a permit for visitors, especially due to its proximity to the Line of Actual Control between India and China.



Despite the geopolitical sensitivities surrounding its location, Pangong Lake remains a favorite among tourists for its unparalleled natural beauty and serene environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-altitude-lakes">High-altitude lakes</h2>



High-altitude lakes are unique bodies of water found at elevations typically above 3,000 meters (about 10,000 feet) in mountain ranges like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-glaciers-retreating-threat-is-much-worse-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, Andes, and Rockies. 



These lakes are formed either by glacial activity, where glaciers erode the earth to create depressions that fill with melted snow and rainwater, or when natural dams created by landslides or moraines trap water in valleys.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-environments">Extreme environments</h3>



The conditions at high altitudes make these lakes distinct in several ways. The climate is typically colder and harsher, with significant temperature variations between day and night. 



This extreme environment affects both the physical characteristics of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> and the types of ecosystems they support. For example, due to lower atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is reduced, which can affect the type of life that can survive in these regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-habitats">Critical habitats</h3>



Biologically, high-altitude lakes often have limited biodiversity because only certain types of plants and animals can tolerate the cold temperatures and lower oxygen levels in the water. 



Despite this, these lakes are crucial habitats for some unique species of fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also serve as important indicators of climate change, as variations in their water levels and temperatures can reflect environmental shifts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-high-altitude-lakes">Significance of high-altitude lakes </h3>



Lakes at high altitudes are often clear and pristine, due to the low density of human populations in these areas and minimal industrial activity, making them significant for ecological studies and attractive for tourism. 



However, they are sensitive ecosystems, and increased tourist activity brings challenges like pollution and habitat disruption.



High-altitude lakes are not only beautiful and scientifically significant but also hold cultural importance for local communities, often considered sacred and associated with historical and spiritual significance.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Pangong Lake on the Tibetan Plateau

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means that NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko Glacier lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall.&nbsp;



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting. 



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the spiral galaxy NGC 5643, which is located roughly 40 million light-years away in the constellation Lupus.&nbsp;



NGC 5643 belongs to the Hubble classification SBc, indicating that it is a barred spiral galaxy with loosely wound arms.&nbsp;



Its orientation, nearly face-on to Earth, provides astronomers with an exceptional view of its detailed spiral structure and central bar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-5643-a-grand-design-spiral-nbsp">NGC 5643: A grand design spiral&nbsp;</h2>



“NGC 5643 is what’s known as a grand design spiral, referring to how the galaxy’s two large, winding spiral arms are clear to see,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images">ESA</a>. “The spiral arms are defined by bright blue stars, lacy reddish-brown dust clouds and pink star-forming regions.”



“As fascinating as the galaxy appears at visible wavelengths, some of NGC 5643’s most interesting features are invisible to the human eye.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-activity-in-ngc-5643">Intense activity in NGC 5643</h2>



This galaxy is notable for its Seyfert 2 nucleus, a type of active galactic nucleus (AGN). The intense activity in its core is powered by a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/awakening-of-a-black-hole-witnessed-for-the-first-time/">black hole</a> that accretes surrounding material, emitting energy across a wide range of wavelengths.&nbsp;



“When a supermassive black hole ensnares gas from its surroundings, the gas collects in a disc that heats up to hundreds of thousands of degrees. The superheated gas shines brightly across the electromagnetic spectrum, but especially at X-ray wavelengths,” said ESA.



Observations have revealed jets and outflows of material emanating from the nucleus, likely driven by the black hole’s activity.&nbsp;



NGC 5643’s AGN has been studied extensively for its role in galactic evolution, particularly in how its energetic processes interact with the galaxy’s interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-ngc-5643-x-1">The mystery of NGC 5643 X-1</h2>



However, ESA pointed out that NGC 5643’s active galactic nucleus isn’t the brightest source of X-rays in the galaxy.&nbsp;



“Researchers using ESA’s XMM-Newton discovered an even brighter X-ray-emitting object, called NGC 5643 X-1, on the galaxy’s outskirts. What could be a more powerful source of X-rays than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/">supermassive black hole</a>?”&nbsp;



“Surprisingly, the answer appears to be a much smaller black hole! While the exact identity of NGC 5643 X-1 is not yet known, evidence points to a black hole that is about 30 times more massive than the Sun.”&nbsp;



“Locked in an orbital dance with a companion star, the black hole ensnares gas from its stellar companion, creating a superheated disc that outshines the galactic center,” said ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-5643">Star formation in NGC 5643</h2>



NGC 5643 also exhibits prominent regions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/">star formation</a> within its spiral arms. These areas are rich in gas and dust - the raw materials for birthing new stars - and glow brightly in ultraviolet and infrared light.&nbsp;



Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope and the Very Large Telescope (VLT) have helped uncover the complex interplay between star formation and the galaxy's central activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extended-ionized-gas-regions-nbsp">Extended ionized gas regions&nbsp;</h2>



A defining feature of NGC 5643 is the presence of its extended ionized gas regions, which are shaped by the galaxy's AGN activity and star-forming regions.&nbsp;



These structures have been mapped through optical spectroscopy, revealing intricate patterns that help astronomers understand the physical conditions of the gas, such as density, temperature, and composition.



The galaxy also has a dust lane that crosses its nucleus, partially obscuring direct observations of the central region in visible light.&nbsp;



Overall, NGC 5643 offers a fascinating glimpse into the dynamics of barred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/">spiral galaxies</a> with active nuclei, serving as a valuable resource for studying the interactions between supermassive black holes, star formation, and galactic evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-lupus">The constellation Lupus</h2>



Lupus is a constellation located in the southern sky, its name meaning "wolf" in Latin. It has been known since antiquity and was cataloged by the Greek astronomer Ptolemy.&nbsp;



Once part of the larger constellation Centaurus, Lupus was later recognized as a distinct constellation. It is relatively faint but holds historical significance in mythology, often associated with a sacrificial wolf in ancient stories.



Lupus is bordered by other constellations like Scorpius, Centaurus, and Libra. Its stars do not form a particularly striking pattern, but it contains a variety of interesting astronomical features. Among them are numerous double stars, globular clusters, and other deep-sky objects, visible through telescopes.&nbsp;



For observers in the Southern Hemisphere, Lupus is best seen in the winter and spring months, while it appears closer to the horizon for those in northern latitudes.



This constellation also lies along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/">Milky Way</a>, offering a rich field of stars and nebulae for stargazers. Despite its modest brightness, Lupus holds a special place in the science of astronomy.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope



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NGC 5643: Secrets of a spiraling galactic powerhouse

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an astronaut view of Mount Nemrut, a volcano located in eastern Turkey near Lake Van.



Mount Nemrut is notable for its immense caldera, which was formed through a series of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a>. The caldera, one of the largest in the world, now contains several lakes such as Lake Nemrut.&nbsp;



"The eastern half of the caldera is partially filled by solidified lava flows from past eruptions. Snow cover present at the time of this photo accentuates pressure ridges that formed as the lava was flowing and cooling," noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"These pressure ridges vary in size, thickness, and orientation due to the varying viscosity and flow direction of the lavas during eruptions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-lake-nemrut">Formation of Lake Nemrut</h2>



"Lake Nemrut (Nemrut Gölü) occupies the western half of the caldera, creating a rough crescent shape that partially submerges the old lava flows," said NASA.



"This freshwater lake, reaching up to 176 meters deep, is accompanied by a smaller lake at the upper-center of the caldera."



The lake was formed after the collapse of the Nemrut volcano's summit. This collapse created a massive crater, which gradually filled with water over time, forming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unesco-world-heritage-site">UNESCO World Heritage Site </h2>



Mount Nemrut and its surroundings are part of a protected UNESCO World Heritage Site due to their ecological and geological significance.



The site is home to diverse wildlife, including various bird species that use the lake as a stopover during migration. The caldera also contains smaller lakes and wetlands, adding to the area's biodiversity.



Lake Nemrut is a popular destination for tourists, hikers, and nature enthusiasts, offering stunning views of the volcanic landscape.



Despite its popularity, the lake remains relatively remote and unspoiled, contributing to its appeal as a natural wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mount-nemrut-has-shaped-the-landscape">Mount Nemrut has shaped the landscape</h2>



Geologically, Mount Nemrut is interesting because its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a> have played a key role in shaping the local landscape. 



Its last major eruption occurred around 1441 AD, which indicates that it's not currently active but is considered dormant.



The area around Nemrut is known for its geothermal activity, including hot springs and fumaroles, suggesting that there is still significant heat beneath the surface.



Over thousands of years, various civilizations have inhabited the region around Nemrut, leaving behind a wealth of archaeological sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tribute-to-a-king">Tribute to a king</h2>



The summit of Mount Nemrut is dominated by a vast funerary mound constructed by King Antiochus I Theos, who ruled the Kingdom of Commagene in the 1st century BCE. 



The site was intended to serve as his tomb sanctuary and a place to commemorate the king's vision of divine kingship and unity between Eastern and Western cultures.



The mound, made of loose crushed stones, measures about 50 meters (164 feet) in height and spans a diameter of 150 meters (492 feet), creating an imposing feature visible from afar.



Surrounding the mound are terraces on the eastern, western, and northern sides, each adorned with colossal statues and reliefs. The statues, ranging in height from 8 to 10 meters (26 to 33 feet), represent various deities, including Zeus, Apollo, Hercules, and the goddess Tyche, alongside King Antiochus himself. 



The heads of the statues, many of which have toppled over due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a> and erosion, lie scattered around the site, creating an iconic and enigmatic scene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiritual-and-religious-practices">Spiritual and religious practices</h2>



In addition to the statues, inscriptions at Mount Nemrut provide valuable historical information about the kingdom, the king's lineage, and the religious practices of the time.



The site is not only a marvel of ancient engineering but also a spiritual and astronomical center. Scholars believe the terraces were aligned with celestial events, serving as an observatory for solstices and equinoxes.



In addition to its natural and historical significance, the Nemrut volcano has been the subject of scientific study, as researchers aim to understand more about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> in the region, the history of its eruptions, and the potential risks it may pose in the future.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Mount Nemrut: Ancient mysteries and natural marvels 

Space can surprise even those who spend their lives studying it. People often think of our solar system as just a few planets and a bunch of empty space. 



Yet new observations suggest we have been living inside a hot, less dense region, and that there may even be a strange cosmic channel connecting us to distant stars.



After years of careful mapping, a new analysis reveals what appears to be a channel of hot, low-density plasma stretching out from our solar system toward distant constellations. Astronomers from the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a> recently confirmed it using data from the <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2021/03/aa39313-20/aa39313-20.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eRosita instrument</a>. Dr. L. L. Sala, lead researcher, and colleagues shared these findings in a paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/10/aa51045-24/aa51045-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-familiar">Looking beyond the familiar</h2>



For a long time, scientists have known that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-space-station-observes-something-unknown-55-miles-above-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> sits within a peculiar region of space called the <a href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/11550" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Local Hot Bubble</a>. 



This area, estimated to be <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">about 300 light years across</a>, formed as a result of powerful stellar explosions called supernovas. They heated the surrounding gas, producing a low-density, high-temperature environment. Traces of these distant events still linger as wispy distributions of hot plasma. “We find the temperature of the LHB exhibits a north-south dichotomy at high latitudes,” stated Dr. L. L. Sala, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-x-ray-explorer">A cosmic X-ray explorer</h2>



To better understand this environment, scientists turned to eRosita. This X-ray observatory, launched as part of the <a href="https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/srg/#:~:text=The%20scientific%20spacecraft%20%22Spectrum%2DRoentgen,of%20galaxies%20will%20be%20marked." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spectrum-Roentgen-Gamma mission</a>, scoured the sky to capture soft X-ray emissions. One of eRosita’s goals is to chart hot gas in space, learn about supernova remnants, and investigate the surroundings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-anticipated-comet-of-2024-returns-this-weekend-after-80000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our neighborhood</a>. 



By combining these results with older data from <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/rosat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ROSAT</a>, another X-ray survey, astronomers have pieced together a more detailed picture of our local region. They took on the challenging <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2013/10/aa22221-13/aa22221-13.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">task</a> of dividing the sky into thousands of bins, extracting subtle signals of warm gas, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/502/4/5779/6131844" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust cavities</a>, and interstellar structures. This painstaking approach helped isolate the faint glow of the surrounding plasma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzling-cosmic-channel">Puzzling cosmic channel</h2>



What stands out is the detection of a channel, or “tunnel,” that appears to stretch toward the <a href="https://www.constellation-guide.com/constellation-list/centaurus-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centaurus constellation</a>. This feature seems to punch through the hot material, connecting our neighborhood to distant star systems.&nbsp;



Another such pathway appears to link toward the vicinity of <a href="https://www.constellation-guide.com/constellation-list/canis-major-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canis Major</a>. Data hints these might be just one part of a larger, branching network of channels that run between star-forming regions and pockets of heated gas.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/milky-way_local-hot-bubble_eRosita_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/milky-way_local-hot-bubble_eRosita_1s.webp" alt="3D map of the Milky Way’s Local Hot Bubble (LHB) created from eROSITA data reveals a low-density region around the solar system, heated by ancient supernovas. The bubble shows temperature gradients and an interstellar “tunnel” toward Centaurus, likely formed by young stars’ winds. This bubble may connect to other superbubbles, shaping the Milky Way’s structure. The solar system entered the LHB a few million years ago, adding to our understanding of its cosmic neighborhood. Credit: Max Planck Institute" class="wp-image-1953925"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">3D map of the Milky Way’s Local Hot Bubble (LHB) created from eROSITA data reveals a low-density region around the solar system, heated by ancient supernovas. The bubble shows temperature gradients and an interstellar “tunnel” toward Centaurus, likely formed by young stars’ winds. This bubble may connect to other superbubbles, shaping the Milky Way’s structure. The solar system entered the LHB a few million years ago, adding to our understanding of its cosmic neighborhood. Credit: Max Planck Institute</figcaption></figure>



Each route may represent a kind of interstellar backroad, a path carved out by dynamic processes and influenced by the long-ago actions of exploding stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remembering-old-theories-on-cosmic-channels">Remembering old theories on cosmic channels</h2>



Ideas about a network of hot, low-density channels are not new. 



Decades ago, some <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/381679E86154865FF68FE884DA62F1D4/S0074180900089348a.pdf/div-class-title-the-structure-of-the-interstellar-medium-div.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> speculated that the space around us could hold labyrinths of connected cavities. But there was never enough data to be sure. Instruments like eRosita have now provided that clarity. By showing tunnels and pockets filled with hot plasma, the findings confirm at least one piece of these older theories. 



The presence of dust cavities packed with hot gas supports the notion that supernova events shaped a connected patchwork of interstellar matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-empty-space">Not just empty space</h2>



It is tempting to think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> as nothingness, but that is misleading. 



Even the void between stars contains various materials. The Local Hot Bubble is one example of how dramatic events can sculpt gas into unexpected forms.



Supernovas push out matter and energy that heat and churn the interstellar medium. Over millions of years, these actions create differences in density, temperature, and composition. 



The interplay of dust, plasma, radiation, and magnetic fields leads to an environment with far more complexity than a simple vacuum. The Max Planck Institute’s recent <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/10/aa51045-24/aa51045-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> argues that the average thermal pressure in this bubble is lower than expected, indicating that it might be open in some directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-channels-the-evidence">Cosmic channels: The evidence</h2>



While researchers have mapped parts of this hot region and uncovered these unusual passages, not every aspect is understood. 



Some star lines seem supported by a series of linked cavities. Other regions appear more blocked. The complexity of these patterns requires more sensitive data and further analysis. With time, better models may explain how these structures formed and how they continue to evolve.



Space’s calm appearance is deceiving. Over the past millions of years, our solar system drifted into the Local Hot Bubble. 



At roughly the same time, supernovas occurred nearby. The timing is not a coincidence. Those <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient blasts</a> likely shaped the conditions we find today. The fact that our Sun now sits near the bubble’s center is simply chance, but it makes for an interesting perspective. It is as if we arrived late to a party, only to find a lingering aftermath of dramatic events that took place long before humans even existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-inside-a-hidden-structure">Peering inside a hidden structure</h2>



Continuing to explore these cosmic channels will require increasingly sensitive instruments. New X-ray missions, deeper surveys, and refined models of hot gas distribution will improve our understanding. Over time, astronomers hope to fill in more of this cosmic map and explain how these tunnels affect everything from local cosmic rays to dust flow patterns and stellar wind dynamics.



The discovery of these hidden routes and temperature differences offers a reminder that even our own cosmic backyard holds surprises. 



These channels challenge old assumptions and add complexity to the picture of what lies between our Sun and the nearest stars. 



As technology advances and new methods improve, these discoveries are bound to raise even more questions. 



Every new piece of evidence will bring us closer to understanding both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curvature-propulsion-warp-drive-krasnikov-tube-future-intergalactic-space-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> we inhabit today and the ancient events that shaped it.



What once seemed distant and unknowable may soon reveal connections that redefine our place in the cosmos.



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Interstellar 'tunnel' found that connects our solar system to other stars

Space can surprise even those who spend their lives studying...

The quantum realm is full of theories and concepts that are impossible for most people to understand, and numbers that are both so large and so small they are equally difficult for our minds to grasp. 



Google's recent breakthrough announcement touches all of those angles, and does not disappoint in any of these "mind-blowing" categories. 



They announced last week that their new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-artificial-intelligence-ai-to-make-quantum-computers-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum AI chip</a> solved an equation in just five minutes that would take a normal computer one-septillion years of non-stop work to complete.



One septillion equals 1 followed by 24 zeros. So, it looks like this: 



1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000



To put that into perspective, if you tried to count to a septillion, it would take you billions of years -- way longer than the age of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-this-a-big-deal">Why is this a big deal?</h2>



Quantum computing, as cool and cutting-edge as it sounds, has always struggled with instability. 



Tiny particles don't follow the same tidy rules that govern everyday objects, and even the most advanced chip can fail as their fragile states fall apart with the slightest disturbance.



Researchers have tried to harness this wiggly behavior for decades, hoping to use it for computations that regular machines would never finish. 



There have been many promises, yet each attempt runs into the same stumbling block. Errors pile up faster than anyone can correct them, stalling progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-google-plays-in-the-quantum-world">Google plays in the quantum world</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-quantum-computers-just-got-easier-with-new-technique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum</a> error correction offered a possible solution but came with its own complications. It demands spreading information across multiple qubits, which are the fundamental units of quantum data. That sounds simple in theory, but in practice, it creates a juggling act. If too many qubits are involved, keeping the error rate below a certain critical threshold becomes tough. Until recently, no one had managed to show that error rates could dip beneath that crucial point for a code specifically designed to scale. This changed with a demonstration on a new quantum chip architecture. 



This accomplishment was shared by <a href="https://research.google/people/hartmutneven/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hartmut Neven</a>, quantum scientist and founder of Google's Quantum AI lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accessing-parallel-universes">Accessing parallel universes?</h2>



Neven called Willow's performance "astonishing." He added that its high-speed results "lend credence to the notion that quantum computation occurs in many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parallel universes</a>." 



Neven gave a shoutout to <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford University</a> physicist David Deutsch for coming up with the idea that successfully developing quantum computers could support the "many worlds interpretation" of quantum mechanics and the existence of a multiverse. 



Since the 1970s, Deutsch has become a pioneer in quantum computing, not so much for the technology itself, but to test his multiverse theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-parallel-universe">What is a parallel universe?</h2>



Also known as alternate or multiple universes, parallel universes are the idea that there could be other realities existing side by side with our own. 



Imagine our universe as just one bubble in a vast cosmic foam, where each bubble is a different universe with its own unique laws of physics, histories, and even versions of ourselves. 



Scientists explore this concept through theories like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-the-theories-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multiverse</a>, which suggest that there might be countless other universes out there, each with its own set of possibilities. 



While we haven’t found concrete evidence for parallel universes yet, the idea sparks fascinating discussions about the nature of reality and what might lie beyond what we can currently see and understand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dissenting-opinion-but-praise-nonetheless">Dissenting opinion, but praise nonetheless</h2>



However, astrophysicist-turned-writer Ethan Siegel didn't agree with Google’s take. He accused them of "conflating unrelated concepts, which Neven also ought to know." 



Siegel explained that Neven was mixing up the mathematical space where quantum mechanics happens with the idea of parallel universes and a multiverse.



According to Siegel, even if quantum computers succeed, they don’t prove the existence of parallel universes. 



Despite his disagreements, Siegel praised Google's achievement with Willow, calling it "a truly excellent step forward in the world of quantum computation." 



He believes that this breakthrough could help solve some of Earth’s biggest problems, like discovering new medicines, designing better batteries for electric cars, and advancing fusion and new energy sources. 



Neven echoed this optimism, saying, "Many of these future game-changing applications won’t be feasible on classical computers; they’re waiting to be unlocked with quantum computing."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-google-s-quantum-willow-chip">Google's quantum Willow chip</h2>



<a href="https://blog.google/technology/research/google-willow-quantum-chip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Willow chip</a> is the newest superconducting processor designed by a team at Google Quantum AI.



Unlike older devices that struggled to manage errors, Willow pushes performance into a new zone that supports techniques intended to make quantum error correction actually live up to its promise. This system meets the conditions for a particular approach known as the surface code. Past attempts ran into snags as more qubits were added, but here, Willow moves beyond that barrier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-code-distances-and-google-s-quantum-chip">Code distances and Google's quantum chip</h2>



Quantum error correction frameworks often refer to something called code distance. In simple terms, this represents how many qubits are used to safeguard a chunk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-instead-of-oil-or-coal-powers-a-new-kind-of-engine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum data</a>. 



Larger distances, like moving from a code distance of three to five to seven, are supposed to reduce the overall probability of failure if certain conditions are met. On this new device, each step up in distance chops the logical error rate <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in half</a>. That kind of improvement had long been a major goal for researchers in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-giant-leap-forward-breakthrough-ultra-pure-silicon-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum computing</a>. According to the <a href="https://blog.google/technology/research/google-willow-quantum-chip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> findings, “Willow performed a standard benchmark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-survives-in-quantum-superposition-for-a-record-shattering-23-minutes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">computation</a> in under five minutes that would take one of today’s fastest supercomputers 10 septillion years,” said Hartmut Neven, quantum scientist and founder of Google's Quantum AI lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-and-steady-marathon-pace">Slow and steady marathon pace</h2>



Running a test for only a few cycles might not reveal the full story of a system's stability. Google's new quantum chip overcomes this by pushing performance for up to a million cycles. The device keeps its below-threshold performance intact across a timescale that would normally leave other systems gasping for air. Maintaining real-time <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7979" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decoding accuracy</a> over such an extended period is no small feat. The team behind Willow arranged their operations so that corrections could be applied on the fly. That sort of approach ensures the chip can avoid drifting off track. “We see Willow as an important step in our journey to build a useful quantum computer,” said <a href="https://blog.google/authors/sundar-pichai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sundar Pichai</a>, CEO of Google.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-classical-bottlenecks">Looking beyond classical bottlenecks</h2>



Traditional supercomputers handle complex tasks using billions of tiny switches working in well-understood ways. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-can-instantly-execute-a-task-that-would-normally-take-47-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum computers</a>, by contrast, tap into phenomena that cannot be reduced to classical shortcuts. The problem until now has always been keeping the delicate quantum states alive long enough to complete a meaningful calculation. With Willow, the team shows that qubits can collaborate in such a way that errors do not race out of control. The demonstration suggests that quantum chips can move toward computations that might surpass anything a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">classical system</a> can handle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-google-want-a-quantum-chip">Why does Google want a quantum chip?</h2>



Relying on hardware that can pass these tough tests of reliability hints that quantum computing is not stuck in the toy problem phase forever. 



Increasing the code distance without losing the ability to correct errors suggests that large collections of qubits could someday power algorithms relevant to real-world tasks. Examples include speeding up complex simulations, refining drug discovery pipelines, and exploring new materials for energy storage. 



Willow’s success in reaching below-threshold error rates for extended periods might encourage work in industries that have been waiting on solid evidence that quantum hardware will grow into a trustworthy tool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-error-correction-becomes-routine">When error correction becomes routine</h2>



Quantum error correction has never been about eliminating mistakes entirely. It is about making them so rare that the machine can run a calculation to its conclusion. 



If future designs build on Willow’s stability and scaling characteristics, there might come a day when such corrections occur behind the scenes, invisible to users. Achieving that level of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fault tolerance</a> could let quantum computers crunch through workloads that stretch far beyond the reach of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7979" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">classical hardware</a>. This reveals a practical route for scaling up these incredible machines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-fault-tolerance-with-quantum-chips">Scaling fault tolerance with quantum chips</h2>



The efforts from Google Quantum AI and other groups worldwide are not happening in a vacuum. 



The field of quantum error correction has attracted attention from many researchers intent on finding a path to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practical devices</a>. Over the past decade, studies have shown the importance of certain<a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> lattice designs</a> and logical qubits arranged in careful layouts. Willow now shows that with the right chip architecture and error correction schemes, thresholds can be crossed. This brings the entire field closer to building machines that solve useful problems. While the journey is not over, one essential puzzle piece has clicked into place.



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Google: Record-shattering quantum AI chip accesses 'parallel universes'

The quantum realm is full of theories and concepts that...

According to the most commonly accepted theory, modern humans left Africa around 60,000 years ago, mingling with Neanderthals along the way.



This interaction left a legacy of two to three percent Neanderthal DNA in the genomes of people outside Africa.



However, the story of the first modern humans in Europe and the timing of their intermingling with Neanderthals remains incomplete. 



A recent study sheds light on this chapter, uncovering new connections between early European humans and Neanderthals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-neanderthals-the-basics">Understanding Neanderthals -- the basics</h2>



Neanderthals were our closest extinct relatives, living alongside early modern humans in Europe and parts of Asia for hundreds of thousands of years. They first appeared around 400,000 years ago and thrived until about 40,000 years ago. 



Unlike the stereotypical image of burly, brutish cave dwellers, Neanderthals were actually quite sophisticated. 



They built shelters, made clothing from animal hides, and even created art and jewelry, showing a level of creativity and culture that rivals our own.



Physically, Neanderthals were well-adapted to the cold climates of the Ice Age. They had robust bodies with strong muscles, shorter limbs, and a wider ribcage compared to modern humans, which helped them conserve heat. 



Their large noses may have warmed and humidified the cold, dry air they breathed. Neanderthals also had larger brains than us, though their brain structure was different, suggesting they processed information in unique ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zlaty-kun-and-ranis-sites">Zlatý kůň and Ranis sites</h2>



The Zlatý kůň site in Czechia holds a critical piece of this puzzle. Archaeologists discovered a skull there, estimated to be 45,000 years old, and belonging to an early modern human.



Unfortunately, this individual’s cultural and archaeological context remained unclear. Nearby, the Ilsenhöhle in Ranis, Germany, presented another mystery. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/early-humans_genome-sequenced_Zlaty-kun_Ranis-group_Czechia-Europe_credit-Tom-Bjorklund_1m.webp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/early-humans_genome-sequenced_Zlaty-kun_Ranis-group_Czechia-Europe_credit-Tom-Bjorklund_1s.webp" alt="Illustration of the Zlatý kůň/Ranis group. Around 45,000 years ago, individuals from Ranis in Germany and Zlatý kůň in Czechia likely traveled together across the open steppe landscapes of Europe. Credit: Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology" class="wp-image-1953468"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of the Zlatý kůň/Ranis group. Around 45,000 years ago, individuals from Ranis in Germany and Zlatý kůň in Czechia likely traveled together across the open steppe landscapes of Europe. Credit: Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</figcaption></figure>



This site, about 230 km from Zlatý kůň, housed tools linked to the Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician (LRJ) culture, but it was unclear if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-neanderthals-mastered-adhesive-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> or modern humans created them.



Thirteen bone fragments from Ranis had previously been analyzed and revealed mitochondrial DNA from modern humans. 



Yet mitochondrial DNA, a small fraction of the genome, could not clarify their broader genetic relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-zlaty-kun-and-ranis">Link between Zlatý kůň and Ranis</h2>



A breakthrough came with a new study, published in&nbsp;Nature, that provided the link between Europe's first modern humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homo-juluensis-new-human-species-vanished-just-fifty-thousand-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a>.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> analyzed the nuclear genomes of the thirteen specimens from Ranis, and uncovered genetic ties between Zlatý kůň and the Ranis population. 



The bones from Ranis represented at least six individuals, including a mother-daughter pair and other distant relatives.



“To our surprise, we discovered a fifth- or sixth-degree genetic relationship between Zlatý kůň and two individuals from Ranis," noted lead author Arev Sümer.



"This means that Zlatý kůň was genetically part of the extended family of Ranis and likely also made LRJ-type tools.” 



The study also sequenced high-quality genomes from the skull found at Zlatý kůň and a well-preserved male bone from Ranis, referred to as Ranis13. 



These genomes represent the oldest high-quality modern human genomes sequenced to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-european-with-african-traits">European with African traits</h2>



Genetic analysis revealed that individuals from both Zlatý kůň and Ranis likely had dark skin, dark hair, and brown eyes.



This aligns with their recent African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isolation-played-a-key-role-in-neanderthal-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestry</a>. By analyzing shared genetic segments, the researchers estimated that their population consisted of only a few hundred individuals, dispersed over a broad region.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/early-humans_genome-sequenced_Zlaty-kun_Ranis-group_credit-Tom-Bjorklund_1m.webp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/early-humans_genome-sequenced_Zlaty-kun_Ranis-group_credit-Tom-Bjorklund_1s.webp" alt="Illustration of Zlatý kůň, who belonged to the same population as the Ranis individuals and was closely related to two of them. Credit: Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology" class="wp-image-1953469"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of Zlatý kůň, who belonged to the same population as the Ranis individuals and was closely related to two of them. Credit: Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</figcaption></figure>



Interestingly, the Zlatý kůň/Ranis group left no genetic legacy in later European or global populations. This small group represents a distinct lineage of modern humans that diverged early after migrating out of Africa.



The new dates also imply that the initial migration of modern humans from Africa into Eurasia was basically over by 43,500 years ago.



"The timing is really important because it has direct implications on our understanding of the timing of the out-of-Africa migration as most non-Africans today inherit 1-2% ancestry from Neanderthals," said <a href="https://moorjanilab.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Priya Moorjani</a>, an assistant professor of molecular and cell biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and one of two senior authors of the study. 



"It also has implications for understanding the settlement of the regions outside Africa, which is typically done by looking at archeological materials or fossils in different regions of the world."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-and-neanderthal-connection">Human and Neanderthal connection</h2>



The Zlatý kůň/Ranis population coexisted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-and-humans-had-multiple-waves-of-contact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> in Europe. However, their genomes showed no evidence of recent interbreeding with Neanderthals. 



This contrasts with other early human groups in Europe, which exhibit such evidence. &nbsp;



“The fact that modern human groups, which may have arrived in Europe later, carry such Neanderthal ancestry while Ranis and Zlatý kůň do not could mean that the older Zlatý kůň/Ranis lineage may have entered Europe by a different route or did not overlap as extensively with the regions where Neanderthals lived,” speculated co-supervisor Kay Prüfer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-ancestry-discovered">Shared ancestry discovered</h2>



Although the early modern humans showed no signs of recent Neanderthal admixture, they shared Neanderthal ancestry from an older event.



By analyzing the Neandertal DNA segments and using radiocarbon dating, researchers estimated that this admixture occurred between 45,000 and 49,000 years ago.



“These results provide us with a deeper understanding of the earliest pioneers that settled in Europe. They also indicate that any modern human remains found outside Africa that are older than 50,000 years could not have been part of the common, non-African population that interbred with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-love-of-carbs-may-date-back-to-the-neanderthals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> and is now found across much of the world,” senior author Johannes Krause remarked.



A lot of the Neanderthal genes we still have today are connected to our immune systems, skin color, and how our bodies handle energy. 



For example, one of these Neanderthal immune genes actually helps protect us against the coronavirus that causes COVID-19. 



Over time, some of these Neanderthal genes for immunity and skin pigmentation became more common in humans, which suggests they gave us an advantage and helped us survive better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-humans-and-neanderthals-in-europe">First humans and Neanderthals in Europe</h2>



This study offers valuable insights into Europe’s earliest settlers. The Zlatý kůň/Ranis group represents a distinct lineage of early modern humans who carried traits reflecting their African heritage.



Despite their similarities and interactions with Homo sapiens, Neanderthals eventually disappeared, likely due to a combination of climate change, competition for resources, and possibly diseases brought by migrating humans.



Their story reminds us of the complex web of human evolution and the rich history we share with our ancient relatives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08420-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Neanderthals and humans mated much more recently than we thought

According to the most commonly accepted theory, modern humans left...

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 Scientists reveal first-ever map of electric currents around Mars Scientists reveal first-ever map of electric currents around Mars Today&#8217;s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> reveals the first-ever map of electric currents in the Martian atmosphere. 
The Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft developed by NASA was launched in 2014 to orbit Mars and study the planet&#8217;s atmosphere.
Scientists have now used magnetic field measurements from MAVEN to map the magnetosphere &#8211; and the electric currents that shape it &#8211; in the atmosphere surrounding Mars. Without a magnetic make up, Mars has been losing its atmosphere for billions of years and transforming from a wet, warm habitable world to a cold, dry desert. MAVEN was launched in November, 2013 to study the Red Planet&#8217;s atmosphere, climate and its past habitability.  
Also during its early history, Mars may have once been a habitable planet instead of the dry, desolate world it is today. That may be because throughout the billions of years of its existence, Mars&#8217; atmosphere has been leaking into space. Also  Mars has no magnetic core and and it lacks a protective layer making it easier for space particiles to enter.
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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Video Credit: NASA Goddard/MAVEN/CU Boulder/SVS