<p>Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



<p>“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.</p>



<p>“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”</p>



<p>According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The name "Antennae" comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.</p>



<p>“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.</p>



<p>“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



<p>The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions, offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.</p>



<p>Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.</p>



<p>The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



<p>When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



<p>Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.</p>



<p>This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. </p>



<p>While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.</p>



<p>Image Credit<strong>: </strong>ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA</p>



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The violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

<p>Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a compilation of European cities that resemble stars. </p>



<p>“Star-shaped cities are scattered across Europe, their geometric designs most appreciated when viewed from above,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2024/12/Earth_from_Space_Star_cities" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-star-shaped-cities">Development of star-shaped cities</h2>



<p>The development of star-shaped fortresses, also known as bastion forts, emerged during the Renaissance in Italy as a response to the rapidly evolving art of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migrating-eagles-have-been-rerouted-by-the-war-in-ukraine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warfare</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Traditional medieval fortifications, characterized by high, straight walls and square towers, became vulnerable with the advent of gunpowder weaponry. Cannons could easily reduce these structures to rubble, rendering them obsolete.</p>



<p>The star-shaped design addressed these vulnerabilities by incorporating wide moats and projecting bastions - angled structures that jutted outward from the main walls.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These bastions provided overlapping fields of fire, allowing defenders to cover blind spots and effectively repel attackers attempting to approach or scale the walls.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, the sloped walls of these fortresses, known as glacis, were designed to deflect cannonballs rather than absorb their impact, further enhancing their resilience.</p>



<p>This innovative design not only improved defensive capabilities but also transformed the battlefield, forcing attackers to develop new siege techniques. It marked a pivotal moment in military engineering, influencing fortress construction across Europe and beyond for centuries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-of-star-shaped-cities">Examples of star-shaped cities</h2>



<p>“Four examples of such cities can be seen here, arranged clockwise from the top left: Bourtange in the Netherlands, Palmanova in Italy, Almeida in Portugal, and Neuf-Brisach in France,” said ESA.</p>



<p>“The green and red hues evoke a Christmas vibe, achieved through different band combinations during image processing to generate true-color (green) and false-color (red) visuals.”</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bourtange-netherlands">Bourtange, Netherlands<br></h3>



<p>Fort Bourtange, nestled in the picturesque countryside of northeast Netherlands near the German border, is a remarkable example of Renaissance military architecture and urban planning.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Constructed in 1593 during the Eighty Years' War, it was strategically positioned to control the only road linking Germany to the Dutch city of Groningen - a vital route for military and trade purposes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Its unique pentagonal, star-shaped design featured angled bastions, wide moats, and interconnected defensive structures, making it nearly impenetrable to enemy forces equipped with the era's artillery.</p>



<p>In 1851, after centuries of military service, Fort Bourtange was decommissioned and transformed into a peaceful village.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Despite the change in purpose, its original geometric layout, defined by precise angles and symmetrical patterns, remained intact. The pentagonal walls, surrounding waterways, and radial street design continue to showcase the ingenuity of its designers.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-palmanova-italy">Palmanova, Italy<br></h3>



<p>Palmanova, located in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of northeast Italy, is a masterpiece of Renaissance urban and military planning.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site, it exemplifies the idealized city envisioned during the late Renaissance, combining beauty, functionality, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-u-s-military-bases-for-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">military</a> innovation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Constructed in 1593 by the Republic of Venice, Palmanova was strategically designed to protect the Republic’s northeastern borders from external threats - particularly the Ottoman Empire.</p>



<p>The city’s layout embodies the principles of symmetry and order characteristic of the Renaissance. Its unique radial design spreads out from the central hexagonal square, known as Piazza Grande or Piazza del Duomo, which serves as the civic and social heart of the city.&nbsp;</p>



<p>From this central hub, six straight avenues fan outward, connecting the square to the surrounding neighborhoods and gates. This design was not only aesthetically pleasing but also practical, allowing for efficient movement and communication within the city.</p>



<p>Today, Palmanova is celebrated not only for its historical and architectural significance but also as a rare example of a perfectly preserved star fortress.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-almeida-portugal-nbsp">Almeida, Portugal&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Perched on a high plain in northeast Portugal near the Spanish border, the fortress of Almeida is a striking example of military engineering and a symbol of Portugal’s resilience.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Built to secure the nation’s eastern frontier, Almeida has played a significant role in Portuguese history, particularly during its early years of independence and throughout various military conflicts, including the Peninsular War.</p>



<p>The fortress's defining star-shaped ramparts consist of twelve points, each projecting outward to eliminate blind spots and provide overlapping fields of fire against advancing enemies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The thick walls, surrounding moats, and angular bastions made Almeida a formidable stronghold capable of withstanding prolonged sieges.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neuf-brisach-france">Neuf-Brisach, France</h3>



<p>Neuf-Brisach, located in the Alsace region of northeastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">France</a> near the German border, is another fascinating example of military and urban design.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The town was constructed in 1697 after the loss of Breisach, which stood on the opposite bank of the Rhine River in Germany.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The name "Neuf" (meaning "new" in French) reflects its creation as a strategic replacement and fortification to strengthen France's defense along its eastern border.</p>



<p>Designed by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, the renowned military engineer under King Louis XIV, Neuf-Brisach is part of the extensive network of fortifications that Vauban designed to protect France from external threats.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Vauban's expertise in defensive architecture is evident in the town's star-shaped layout, which was intended to optimize defense while accommodating civilian life within the fortifications.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The fortifications were built to withstand sieges and were strategically positioned to control movement across the Rhine River and defend against potential invasions. The outer star-shaped ramparts extend in a way that creates a nearly impenetrable defensive perimeter.</p>



<p>Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</p>



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Star-shaped cities scattered across Europe

<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of Lake Maracaibo, located in the northwestern part of Venezuela. The lake is a significant geographical and ecological feature of South America. </p>



<p>Lake Maracaibo is often considered more of a tidal bay due to its direct connection to the Caribbean Sea through the Tablazo Strait. It is one of the oldest lakes on Earth, formed approximately 36 million years ago.</p>



<p>"With an area of over 13,000 sq km, Lake Maracaibo is generally considered the largest lake in South America, although by some estimates it should be considered an inlet of the Caribbean Sea since much of its water is brought in by its direct connection to the ocean," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.</p>



<p>"As a result, the water in the northern part of the lake is rather brackish, while the southern waters are fresh, owing to the many rivers that flow into the lake. The biggest, the Catatumbo River, can be seen entering the lake from southwest, where a large amount of sediment carried by the river appears as a yellowish plume."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-catatumbo-lightning">The Catatumbo lightning</h2>



<p>The lake is renowned for a unique weather phenomenon - the Catatumbo lightning. This natural spectacle occurs primarily where the Catatumbo River meets the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-has-affected-almost-every-lake-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.</p>



<p>Known as the most persistent lightning storm in the world, it produces frequent and dramatic flashes of lightning, illuminating the night sky for an average of 260 nights per year.</p>



<p>These storms generate thousands of lightning strikes in a single night, making the region one of the most electrified places on the planet. </p>



<p>The phenomenon is so intense that it has been recognized by the Guinness World Records as the place with the highest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-on-earth-can-influence-the-weather-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lightning</a> activity.</p>



<p>Scientists believe the lightning is influenced by the area's geography and climate, including the warm air rising from the lake and its surrounding mountains.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economical-significance-of-lake-maracaibo">Economical significance of Lake Maracaibo </h2>



<p>Lake Maracaibo plays an important role in Venezuela’s economy, as it lies atop vast reserves of crude oil.</p>



<p>The discovery of petroleum in the early 20th century transformed the region into a major oil-producing area, leading to the establishment of numerous oil rigs and platforms. </p>



<p>However, this economic activity has come at a cost. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-losing-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pollution</a> from oil spills, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff has significantly degraded the lake's ecosystem.</p>



<p>The appearance of a green, slimy algae known as Lemna has further exacerbated environmental concerns, threatening marine life and the livelihoods of local communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-ties-to-lake-maracaibo">Cultural ties to Lake Maracaibo </h2>



<p>The cultural significance of Lake Maracaibo is deeply rooted in the traditions and lifestyle of the Indigenous Añu people, who have inhabited its shores for centuries. The Añu, also known as Paraujano, are known for their distinctive stilt houses, called palafitos.</p>



<p>These wooden structures are built directly over the water, connected by walkways or small boats, allowing the Añu to live harmoniously with their aquatic environment. The architectural style of these stilt houses inspired the early Spanish explorers to nickname the region "The Venice of the Americas."</p>



<p>The Añu's way of life is closely tied to the lake. They rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> as a primary source of food and income, using traditional methods passed down through generations.</p>



<p>For the Añu, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-significantly-impacts-lake-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> is more than a resource; it is a spiritual and cultural cornerstone, shaping their identity and daily practices.</p>



<p>However, modernization and environmental challenges have disrupted their traditional lifestyle. The oil industry’s expansion around Lake Maracaibo has led to significant environmental degradation, which threaten the lake's biodiversity and the Añu’s primary sources of sustenance. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lake-maracaibo-and-venezuelan-history">Lake Maracaibo and Venezuelan history</h2>



<p>Lake Maracaibo also played a pivotal role in Venezuelan history, particularly during the Battle of Lake Maracaibo in 1823. </p>



<p>This naval battle was a decisive conflict in Venezuela’s war for independence from Spain and marked one of the final military engagements of the South American liberation movements led by figures like Simón Bolívar.</p>



<p>Today, the lake represents a remarkable blend of natural beauty, industrial significance, and cultural heritage. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-conservation-efforts">Ongoing conservation efforts </h2>



<p>Ongoing efforts aim to harmonize ecological conservation with economic development, as both local and global stakeholders acknowledge the need to protect this extraordinary environment for generations to come.</p>



<p>Efforts to preserve the Añu culture and the lake's ecosystem have been initiated by local and international organizations. These initiatives focus on promoting sustainable development, preserving Indigenous languages and traditions, and mitigating the environmental damage caused by industrial activities. </p>



<p>Despite these challenges, the Añu have shown remarkable resilience, maintaining their cultural identity and advocating for their rights and the health of their ancestral lands.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



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Lake Maracaibo: One of the most electrified places on the planet

<p>Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.</p>



<p>“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



<p>“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.</p>



<p>NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.</p>



<p>Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.</p>



<p>“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



<p>When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



<p>Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



<p>Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.</p>



<p>The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change.&nbsp;Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory</p>



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

<p>Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Gobi Altai Mountains and neighboring plains covered in snow and illuminated by sunlight. </p>



<p>The photograph was captured on January 25, 2024 as the International Space Station (ISS) passed over central Mongolia.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-peaks-and-plains">Mountain peaks and plains</h2>



<p>“Late-afternoon sunlight casts long shadows of mountain peaks onto the plains below. Numerous steep gullies cut into the massif, or mass of mountains, whose rugged appearance contrasts with the flat plains stretching along the top of the image,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “The plains are a semidesert grassland, or steppe, which provides pasture for livestock herders in the region.”</p>



<p>“The grassland surrounding the massif is classified by scientists as a cold semidesert. At an elevation of about 1,250 meters, annual temperatures are much lower there than in the mountains. The highest peak in the massif, Ikh Bogd (also known as Tergun Bogd), reaches nearly 4,000 meters.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to NASA, the climate on the peaks is classified as a polar tundra because the average annual temperature is below freezing. "Asia’s main tundra zone is located in Siberia, along the coast of the Arctic Ocean, 2,800 kilometers (1,750 miles) to the north.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harsh-winters-and-livestock-in-mongolia">Harsh winters and livestock in Mongolia</h2>



<p>Harsh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-winters-are-getting-colder-while-world-is-getting-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">winters</a> in Mongolia, locally known as "dzud," pose significant challenges for livestock and the herders who depend on them for their livelihood. These winters can be particularly severe, characterized by extreme cold, heavy snowfall, and ice, which can block access to grazing grounds, leaving animals without enough food.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The cold temperatures and nutritional shortages result in high mortality rates among livestock, which are crucial to the Mongolian economy and the nomadic lifestyle of many of its people.</p>



<p>The impact of these harsh winters extends beyond immediate animal welfare. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-livestock-are-major-drivers-of-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">livestock</a> numbers dwindle, herders face financial hardships, and the ripple effects can be felt throughout the entire community.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To combat these challenges, various strategies have been employed, including the development of better forecasting and early warning systems, the stockpiling of fodder, and improved veterinary care. These measures aim to strengthen the resilience of herding communities and ensure the survival of their livestock during Mongolia's most challenging seasons.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-wildlife-of-mongolia">Diverse wildlife of Mongolia</h2>



<p>Mongolia is renowned for its diverse wildlife, adapted to its unique landscapes ranging from vast steppes to rugged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountains-both-carbon-sinks-and-carbon-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and arid deserts. Among the most iconic species is the Bactrian camel, native to the region and crucial to nomadic herders.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The resilient Mongolian horse, integral to local culture, is celebrated for its endurance across the vast, open landscapes. Predators such as the snow leopard roam the high altitudes, playing a key role in the ecosystem, while the elusive Gobi bear survives in the sparse vegetation of the Gobi Desert.</p>



<p>The steppes are home to the fast-moving Mongolian gazelle and the critically endangered saiga antelope, known for its distinctive nose. The mountains support populations of argali sheep, the world's largest wild sheep, and the ibex, which has mastered the art of navigating rocky terrains. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valley-of-lakes">Valley of Lakes</h2>



<p>“Part of a small dry lake appears in the top left of the image. In wetter years, water from this lake feeds Orog Lake (also photographed by astronauts), out of frame to the upper right. This and other nearby lakes are part of the Valley of Lakes waterfowl conservation habitat, protected as a Ramsar site,” noted NASA.</p>



<p>The Valley of Lakes is known for its expansive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-potential-of-tidal-wetlands-as-blue-carbon-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wetlands</a> and diverse ecosystems that support a variety of bird species, especially migratory waterfowl. This area serves as a crucial stopover for birds during their migration periods, providing them with essential resources such as food and shelter.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The conservation efforts in the Valley of Lakes focus on maintaining and restoring these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-wetlands-are-inching-closer-to-extinction-as-the-world-heats-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wetlands</a> to ensure they continue to offer a safe haven for waterfowl. These efforts include controlling invasive plant species that threaten the natural vegetation and managing water levels to create optimal conditions for bird populations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Education and community involvement are also key components of the conservation strategy, aiming to raise awareness about the importance of these habitats and encourage sustainable practices that help protect the local wildlife.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Mountain peaks and plains of central Mongolia 

<p>It's not often we get to peek behind the curtain of our own minds and uncover the mysteries of how and why we behave the way we do. In a comprehensive interview, Professor Inga Neumann has unveiled her research into the role of oxytocin in shaping social behavior and emotional responses.</p>



<p>Professor Neumann is the Chair of Behavioural and Molecular Neurobiology at the University of Regensburg.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxytocin-beyond-the-love-hormone">Oxytocin: Beyond the "love hormone"</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em>Brain Medicine</em>, the interview provides a deep dive into her exploration of neuropeptides and their profound effects on social behavior and emotional responses.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.uni-regensburg.de/biologie-vorklinische-medizin/neurobiologie-tierphysiologie/team-mitarbeiter/prof-dr-inga-d-neumann/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Neumann</a>’s work redefines oxytocin’s role, moving beyond its popular reputation as the “love hormone.” </p>



<p>"I am convinced that increasing our knowledge about the stimuli, dynamics, and consequences of their intracerebral release at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-rejection-teaches-us-valuable-lessons-about-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavioural</a>, physiological, cellular, and molecular levels will improve our understanding of general brain mechanisms," said Professor Neumann.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxytocin-s-role-in-social-anxiety">Oxytocin's role in social anxiety</h2>



<p>Professor Neumann’s team has created an advanced mouse model to study social fear conditioning, a process where individuals learn to associate social situations with fear or anxiety. </p>



<p>This model allows researchers to simulate and observe the effects of chronic stress and early life experiences on social behavior in a controlled environment. It provides valuable insights into how these factors influence brain function and behavior over time.</p>



<p>Her findings indicate that oxytocin plays a significant role in alleviating social fear. Additionally, other neuroactive molecules, such as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), which regulates the stress response, may also be critical in shaping these behaviors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treating-social-anxiety-disorders">Treating social anxiety disorders</h2>



<p>Together, these molecules could offer new therapeutic targets for addressing social anxiety disorders. By understanding how they work within the brain, researchers hope to develop treatments that effectively reduce social anxiety and improve overall mental health.</p>



<p>"We started to focus on the potential role of the brain's oxytocin and AVP systems as therapeutic targets for psychiatric diseases such as depression and anxiety disorders or autism," she notes.</p>



<p>Her research highlights the clinical promise of oxytocin-based therapies for treatment-resistant conditions, including social anxiety, autism, and schizophrenia. The findings inspire hope for more effective treatments that leverage the brain’s own neuropeptide systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecular-mechanisms-of-social-fear">Molecular mechanisms of social fear</h2>



<p>Professor Neumann’s research focuses on understanding the molecular mechanisms behind social fear, a condition where individuals experience anxiety in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-observation-our-decisions-shift-when-people-are-watching/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social situations</a>. </p>



<p>Her studies delve into how oxytocin and CRF, which is linked to the body’s stress response, work together to influence stress resilience and social behavior. </p>



<p>This interplay provides critical insights into how these molecules might be targeted to treat psychiatric conditions such as social anxiety, depression, and autism.</p>



<p>Going forward, the team from University of Regensburg aims to address important questions:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-oxytocin-delivery">Optimizing oxytocin delivery</h3>



<p>While oxytocin shows promise as a therapy, delivering it effectively to the brain remains a challenge. Researchers are exploring methods to ensure it reaches the intended brain regions without degrading or causing side effects.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epigenetic-factors-in-social-disorders">Epigenetic factors in social disorders</h3>



<p>Epigenetic factors, which involve changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence, may influence how individuals develop social behavior disorders. Understanding these factors could uncover why some people are more prone to these conditions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-translating-animal-studies-to-humans">Translating animal studies to humans</h3>



<p>Much of what we know about social behavior and treatments comes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-friendliest-social-animals-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal models</a>. Bridging the gap between these studies and human applications is crucial for developing therapies that work effectively in clinical settings.</p>



<p>These lines of inquiry aim to advance both our understanding of brain mechanisms and the development of targeted treatments for psychiatric disorders.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxytocin-s-role-in-social-behaviors">Oxytocin's role in social behaviors</h2>



<p>The interview with Professor Neumann not only explores her scientific contributions but also provides a glimpse into her personal journey and experiences. </p>



<p>The conversation blends Professor Neumann's research with stories of her challenges and triumphs, offering a more human perspective. By doing so, it highlights not just the technical aspects of her studies but also the broader implications of her findings for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-cuddle-hormone-fosters-love-boosts-memory-and-may-cure-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">society and mental health</a>.</p>



<p>This narrative approach connects readers to the person behind the research, making the science more relatable and impactful. </p>



<p>The series emphasizes how individual perseverance and innovation can drive meaningful advancements in understanding complex topics like brain function and social behavior. </p>



<p>Through this blend of professional and personal insights, the interview offers a holistic view of both the research and the researcher’s role in shaping the future of neuroscience.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://genomicpress.kglmeridian.com/view/journals/brainmed/aop/article-10.61373-bm024k.0139/article-10.61373-bm024k.0139.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain Medicine</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Oxytocin is crucial beyond its role as the 'love hormone'

It's not often we get to peek behind the curtain...

<p>In a setback for environmental protection efforts, recent UN talks failed to produce a concrete plan for addressing worldwide drought concerns. </p>



<p>The extended discussions highlighted growing rifts between developed and developing nations on how to tackle the drought crisis.</p>



<p>At the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) COP16 meeting in Riyadh, delegates from 196 countries and the European Union worked through the night, pushing the talks a day beyond schedule. </p>



<p>Ibrahim Thiaw, UNCCD Executive Secretary, had expressed high hopes at the start, stating that the world expected negotiators "to adopt a bold decision that can help turn the tide on the most pervasive and the most disruptive environmental disaster: drought."</p>



<p>However, as dawn approached after the night's efforts, Thiaw acknowledged that "parties need more time to agree on the best way forward."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pattern-of-failed-environmental-negotiations">A pattern of failed environmental negotiations</h2>



<p>This latest setback follows several recent disappointments that have arisen in global environmental talks, including unsuccessful biodiversity discussions in Colombia and failed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-we-combat-the-escalating-plastic-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic pollution</a> negotiations in South Korea.</p>



<p>Tom Mitchell from the <a href="https://www.iied.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Institute for Environment and Development</a> noted that these outcomes have "highlighted the challenges facing global negotiations."</p>



<p>"More than ever, the fractured geopolitical landscape is proving to be a stumbling block to the COP process and some voices are being squeezed out," he added. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-real-cost-of-drought-inaction">The real cost of drought inaction</h2>



<p>The stakes couldn't be higher. Droughts, already among the most devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-disasters-are-on-the-rise-but-hazard-plans-are-inadequate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural disasters</a>, are expected to intensify due to climate change - threatening both ecosystems and human livelihoods.</p>



<p>According to UN reports, drought-related economic losses currently exceed $300 billion annually, a figure that is likely to climb as water becomes more scarce.</p>



<p>Beyond financial tolls, the social and humanitarian impacts are staggering - droughts exacerbate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/late-rainy-season-signals-upcoming-food-insecurity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food insecurity</a>, force mass migrations, and heighten conflicts over dwindling resources.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-growing-drought-crisis">The growing drought crisis</h2>



<p>Projections for the future are even grimmer. By 2050, up to three-quarters of the global population could face drought conditions, placing unprecedented pressure on agriculture, water management systems, and urban planning. </p>



<p>Regions already vulnerable will bear the brunt, but no part of the world will remain untouched. </p>



<p>Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and shrinking freshwater supplies are converging to create a perfect storm of challenges that require immediate and coordinated global action.</p>



<p>If no bold measures are taken, the ripple effects could jeopardize progress toward several UN Sustainable Development Goals, including ending poverty, ensuring food security, and promoting peace and justice. </p>



<p>Addressing the drought crisis is not merely a matter of environmental stewardship - it is a necessity for global stability and resilience.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-african-nations-push-for-stronger-measures">African nations push for stronger measures</h2>



<p>African countries stood united in pushing for a binding agreement. </p>



<p>One African delegate, speaking anonymously, shared the hope for mandatory drought preparation plans, stating: "It's the first time I've seen Africa so united, with a strong united front, with respect to the drought protocol."</p>



<p>The divide between nations became clear as developed countries preferred a looser "framework" approach rather than binding commitments. </p>



<p>This position frustrated both African nations and Indigenous groups that were seeking stronger measures.</p>



<p>Praveena Sridhar of Save Soil suggested moving forward despite the lack of agreement.</p>



<p>"The absence of a protocol from COP16 shouldn't delay progress," said Sridhar, noting that governments can still support farmers through sustainable land management programs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-commitments-and-future-plans">Financial commitments and future plans</h2>



<p>The talks weren't without some progress. Various organizations, including the Arab Coordination Group and the Riyadh Global Drought Resilience Partnership, pledged over $12 billion toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toilet-to-tap-california-approves-wastewater-recycling-amid-drought-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought resilience efforts</a>.</p>



<p>However, this falls short of the UN's estimated need of $2.6 trillion for land restoration by 2030.</p>



<p>Saudi Environment Minister Abdulrahman AlFadley emphasized his country's commitment, stating they are dedicated "to working with all parties to preserve ecosystems, enhance international cooperation to combat desertification and land degradation, and address drought."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-common-ground">Finding common ground</h2>



<p>The discussions revealed an interesting dynamic, as noted by Sridhar. Unlike climate talks that focus on controversial topics like fossil fuels, land preservation discussions offer more common ground.</p>



<p>"Attending to land, agriculture lands, farmers, livestock – it's not a contested subject. Nobody's going to say 'I don't want food.' The use of fossil fuels or not is a very polarizing subject. This is not," said Sridhar.</p>



<p>The next opportunity for progress will come at COP17 in Mongolia in 2026, where nations again hope to finalize a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/formal-agreement-needed-to-define-the-current-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global drought agreement</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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UN talks on the drought crisis end without agreement

In a setback for environmental protection efforts, recent UN talks...

<p>The world’s largest iceberg has astonished scientists by shaking free from a spinning ocean trap and continuing its trek across remote southern waters.</p>



<p>Its journey, marked by twists and turns since it separated from Antarctica, has become a focus for research on the changing ocean and the ice’s influence on life beneath the surface.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a23a-iceberg-breaks-free">A23a iceberg breaks free</h2>



<p>The icy slab covers about 1,418 square miles, which makes it bigger than Rhode Island. </p>



<p>It originally broke away from <a href="https://eros.usgs.gov/earthshots/filchner-ice-shelf-antarctica" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica’s Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf</a> in 1986 and remained stuck close to the continent for decades. </p>



<p>Ocean currents and seafloor topography restricted its path. After finally regaining momentum last year, the towering block ran into a swirling formation of water near the <a href="https://www.ndsu.edu/subantarctic/southorkney.htm">South Orkney Islands</a>, where it ended up spinning in place for months.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-iceberg-movements">Tracking iceberg movements</h2>



<p>“It’s exciting to see A23a on the move again after periods of being stuck,” said <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/media-post/worlds-largest-iceberg-a23a-breaks-free/">Dr Andrew Meijers</a>, an oceanographer at the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>.</p>



<p>Ocean experts have been monitoring this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-iceberg-a23a-undergoing-major-erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg’s</a> every move to understand how such massive blocks can influence sea circulation, temperature balance, and the distribution of nutrients.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-for-the-a23a-iceberg">New chapter for the A23a iceberg</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-an-iceberg-a-83-breaks-free-from-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg’s</a> latest departure from its watery prison has stirred up fresh discussions about its fate. </p>



<p>As it progresses northward, warmer seas may take a toll on its bulk. Many large ice masses follow a similar route before gradually disintegrating.<br><br>Scientists emphasize that ice already afloat in the water does not raise sea levels when it melts. That does not mean these events should be dismissed, though, since Antarctica’s overall health is a concern in a warming world.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a23a-iceberg-and-its-ocean-impacts-nbsp">A23a iceberg and its ocean impacts&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Researchers have pointed out that although this particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iceberg-that-weighs-more-than-the-eiffel-tower-is-floating-freely/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg</a> calved naturally, Antarctic ice shelves are showing other, more concerning changes.</p>



<p>Experts worry that accelerated ice loss in certain areas could have far-reaching effects. Even small changes along coastal regions of the continent can result in shifts in glacial flow, which might eventually lead to an uptick in sea-level rise. </p>



<p>Data gathered from icebergs like A23a helps build a clearer picture of these wider trends.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-antarctic-ice-shelves">Importance of Antarctic ice shelves</h2>



<p>These massive floating ice platforms act as natural barriers, holding back glaciers from flowing too quickly into the ocean, while playing a crucial role in our planet's climate system.</p>



<p>By doing this, they help regulate sea levels and prevent dramatic rises that could flood coastal communities around the world. </p>



<p>Additionally, ice shelves influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-ice-shelves-melting-faster-due-to-ocean-currents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean currents</a> and the global climate by interacting with surrounding water and air, helping to maintain temperature and weather patterns. </p>



<p>Without these ice shelves, we could see much faster ice loss from the Antarctic, leading to significant changes in our global climate.</p>



<p>Beyond their impact on climate, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-shelves-are-fracturing-from-meltwater-weight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic ice shelves</a> are vital indicators of environmental health. Scientists closely monitor these ice structures to understand the effects of global warming and to predict future changes in ice behavior. </p>



<p>When ice shelves start to thin or collapse, it signals shifts in climate trends, providing valuable data for researchers working on climate models and sea-level rise projections.</p>



<p>Moreover, the areas beneath and around ice shelves host unique marine ecosystems that support a variety of wildlife, contributing to Earth’s biodiversity. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystems-under-the-ice">Ecosystems under the ice</h2>



<p>Observations have shown that drifting ice blocks can stir the waters they pass through, sometimes generating short-lived plankton blooms. </p>



<p>These blooms support fish, krill, and other marine life in areas that might otherwise lack resources.<br><br>"These icebergs provide different sources of nutrients," explained Professor <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/profile/gant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geraint Tarling</a>, Biopole's principal investigator.<br><br>By sampling the water where the giant iceberg has traveled, scientists hope to gauge whether this berg’s size and origin play a notable part in shaping ocean communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-holds">What the future holds</h2>



<p>Many anticipate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a23a-worlds-largest-iceberg-is-moving-after-30-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A23a</a> will continue meandering through the Southern Ocean currents. As it ventures closer to milder latitudes, the ice is expected to weaken and break into smaller chunks. </p>



<p>Some fragments may persist for a while, but the main body of the iceberg will likely diminish.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a23a-iceberg-research-enhances-ocean-circulation">A23a iceberg research enhances ocean circulation</h2>



<p>Ongoing research on these gargantuan ice blocks helps experts refine climate models, track ocean circulation patterns, and pinpoint areas most vulnerable to environmental changes. </p>



<p>Observations from ships, satellites, and on-site measurements all combine to offer a clearer view of what is happening far from major population centers.<br><br>The hope is that findings from the watery trails left by A23a will guide future decisions on how we manage and protect polar waters and fragile marine habitats.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-lab-for-ocean-studies">Moving lab for ocean studies</h2>



<p>A23a’s odyssey is important because it shows how an individual iceberg can become a moving lab for oceanographers and climate scientists. </p>



<p>The iceberg's escape from a rotating water column this month hints at nature’s complexity, from shifting ocean currents to unseen underwater topography.</p>



<p>While it has been around for nearly four decades, its path in the coming months may reveal more about the chain reactions set in motion when a piece of Antarctica sets sail for open waters.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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World’s largest iceberg breaks free from ocean cyclone

The world’s largest iceberg has astonished scientists by shaking free...


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<p>Today&#8217;s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes how scientists have created a rainbow-colored film to identify various sweeteners.&nbsp;</p>



<p>When the film is evenly stretched, it enhances the fluorescence intensity of sugar molecules that have been treated with fluorescent dye. The resulting signals are distinctive enough to distinguish between sweetened beverages and sweat samples.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Sweet tastes come from many types of sugar molecules, such as glucose and fructose. Sugars that are present in human sweat could be used in a non-invasive method for monitoring blood sugar.</p>



<p>The new film simplifies the process of detecting and differentiating sugar molecules that are present in samples. The researchers say that the stretchable, multi-colored material could be incorporated into wearable devices for environmental, clinical, or health monitoring of sugar.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>&#8211;</em><em>&#8212;</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>


Multi-colored film can identify specific sugar molecules