Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a compilation of European cities that resemble stars. 



“Star-shaped cities are scattered across Europe, their geometric designs most appreciated when viewed from above,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2024/12/Earth_from_Space_Star_cities" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-star-shaped-cities">Development of star-shaped cities</h2>



The development of star-shaped fortresses, also known as bastion forts, emerged during the Renaissance in Italy as a response to the rapidly evolving art of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migrating-eagles-have-been-rerouted-by-the-war-in-ukraine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warfare</a>.&nbsp;



Traditional medieval fortifications, characterized by high, straight walls and square towers, became vulnerable with the advent of gunpowder weaponry. Cannons could easily reduce these structures to rubble, rendering them obsolete.



The star-shaped design addressed these vulnerabilities by incorporating wide moats and projecting bastions - angled structures that jutted outward from the main walls.&nbsp;



These bastions provided overlapping fields of fire, allowing defenders to cover blind spots and effectively repel attackers attempting to approach or scale the walls.&nbsp;



Additionally, the sloped walls of these fortresses, known as glacis, were designed to deflect cannonballs rather than absorb their impact, further enhancing their resilience.



This innovative design not only improved defensive capabilities but also transformed the battlefield, forcing attackers to develop new siege techniques. It marked a pivotal moment in military engineering, influencing fortress construction across Europe and beyond for centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-of-star-shaped-cities">Examples of star-shaped cities</h2>



“Four examples of such cities can be seen here, arranged clockwise from the top left: Bourtange in the Netherlands, Palmanova in Italy, Almeida in Portugal, and Neuf-Brisach in France,” said ESA.



“The green and red hues evoke a Christmas vibe, achieved through different band combinations during image processing to generate true-color (green) and false-color (red) visuals.”



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bourtange-netherlands">Bourtange, Netherlands </h3>



Fort Bourtange, nestled in the picturesque countryside of northeast Netherlands near the German border, is a remarkable example of Renaissance military architecture and urban planning.&nbsp;



Constructed in 1593 during the Eighty Years' War, it was strategically positioned to control the only road linking Germany to the Dutch city of Groningen - a vital route for military and trade purposes.&nbsp;



Its unique pentagonal, star-shaped design featured angled bastions, wide moats, and interconnected defensive structures, making it nearly impenetrable to enemy forces equipped with the era's artillery.



In 1851, after centuries of military service, Fort Bourtange was decommissioned and transformed into a peaceful village.&nbsp;



Despite the change in purpose, its original geometric layout, defined by precise angles and symmetrical patterns, remained intact. The pentagonal walls, surrounding waterways, and radial street design continue to showcase the ingenuity of its designers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-palmanova-italy">Palmanova, Italy </h3>



Palmanova, located in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of northeast Italy, is a masterpiece of Renaissance urban and military planning.&nbsp;



Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site, it exemplifies the idealized city envisioned during the late Renaissance, combining beauty, functionality, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-u-s-military-bases-for-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">military</a> innovation.&nbsp;



Constructed in 1593 by the Republic of Venice, Palmanova was strategically designed to protect the Republic’s northeastern borders from external threats - particularly the Ottoman Empire.



The city’s layout embodies the principles of symmetry and order characteristic of the Renaissance. Its unique radial design spreads out from the central hexagonal square, known as Piazza Grande or Piazza del Duomo, which serves as the civic and social heart of the city.&nbsp;



From this central hub, six straight avenues fan outward, connecting the square to the surrounding neighborhoods and gates. This design was not only aesthetically pleasing but also practical, allowing for efficient movement and communication within the city.



Today, Palmanova is celebrated not only for its historical and architectural significance but also as a rare example of a perfectly preserved star fortress.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-almeida-portugal-nbsp">Almeida, Portugal&nbsp;</h3>



Perched on a high plain in northeast Portugal near the Spanish border, the fortress of Almeida is a striking example of military engineering and a symbol of Portugal’s resilience.&nbsp;



Built to secure the nation’s eastern frontier, Almeida has played a significant role in Portuguese history, particularly during its early years of independence and throughout various military conflicts, including the Peninsular War.



The fortress's defining star-shaped ramparts consist of twelve points, each projecting outward to eliminate blind spots and provide overlapping fields of fire against advancing enemies.&nbsp;



The thick walls, surrounding moats, and angular bastions made Almeida a formidable stronghold capable of withstanding prolonged sieges.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neuf-brisach-france">Neuf-Brisach, France</h3>



Neuf-Brisach, located in the Alsace region of northeastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">France</a> near the German border, is another fascinating example of military and urban design.&nbsp;



The town was constructed in 1697 after the loss of Breisach, which stood on the opposite bank of the Rhine River in Germany.&nbsp;



The name "Neuf" (meaning "new" in French) reflects its creation as a strategic replacement and fortification to strengthen France's defense along its eastern border.



Designed by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, the renowned military engineer under King Louis XIV, Neuf-Brisach is part of the extensive network of fortifications that Vauban designed to protect France from external threats.&nbsp;



Vauban's expertise in defensive architecture is evident in the town's star-shaped layout, which was intended to optimize defense while accommodating civilian life within the fortifications.&nbsp;



The fortifications were built to withstand sieges and were strategically positioned to control movement across the Rhine River and defend against potential invasions. The outer star-shaped ramparts extend in a way that creates a nearly impenetrable defensive perimeter.



Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Star-shaped cities scattered across Europe

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of Lake Maracaibo, located in the northwestern part of Venezuela. The lake is a significant geographical and ecological feature of South America. 



Lake Maracaibo is often considered more of a tidal bay due to its direct connection to the Caribbean Sea through the Tablazo Strait. It is one of the oldest lakes on Earth, formed approximately 36 million years ago.



"With an area of over 13,000 sq km, Lake Maracaibo is generally considered the largest lake in South America, although by some estimates it should be considered an inlet of the Caribbean Sea since much of its water is brought in by its direct connection to the ocean," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"As a result, the water in the northern part of the lake is rather brackish, while the southern waters are fresh, owing to the many rivers that flow into the lake. The biggest, the Catatumbo River, can be seen entering the lake from southwest, where a large amount of sediment carried by the river appears as a yellowish plume."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-catatumbo-lightning">The Catatumbo lightning</h2>



The lake is renowned for a unique weather phenomenon - the Catatumbo lightning. This natural spectacle occurs primarily where the Catatumbo River meets the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-has-affected-almost-every-lake-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.



Known as the most persistent lightning storm in the world, it produces frequent and dramatic flashes of lightning, illuminating the night sky for an average of 260 nights per year.



These storms generate thousands of lightning strikes in a single night, making the region one of the most electrified places on the planet. 



The phenomenon is so intense that it has been recognized by the Guinness World Records as the place with the highest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-on-earth-can-influence-the-weather-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lightning</a> activity.



Scientists believe the lightning is influenced by the area's geography and climate, including the warm air rising from the lake and its surrounding mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economical-significance-of-lake-maracaibo">Economical significance of Lake Maracaibo </h2>



Lake Maracaibo plays an important role in Venezuela’s economy, as it lies atop vast reserves of crude oil.



The discovery of petroleum in the early 20th century transformed the region into a major oil-producing area, leading to the establishment of numerous oil rigs and platforms. 



However, this economic activity has come at a cost. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-losing-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pollution</a> from oil spills, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff has significantly degraded the lake's ecosystem.



The appearance of a green, slimy algae known as Lemna has further exacerbated environmental concerns, threatening marine life and the livelihoods of local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-ties-to-lake-maracaibo">Cultural ties to Lake Maracaibo </h2>



The cultural significance of Lake Maracaibo is deeply rooted in the traditions and lifestyle of the Indigenous Añu people, who have inhabited its shores for centuries. The Añu, also known as Paraujano, are known for their distinctive stilt houses, called palafitos.



These wooden structures are built directly over the water, connected by walkways or small boats, allowing the Añu to live harmoniously with their aquatic environment. The architectural style of these stilt houses inspired the early Spanish explorers to nickname the region "The Venice of the Americas."



The Añu's way of life is closely tied to the lake. They rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> as a primary source of food and income, using traditional methods passed down through generations.



For the Añu, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-significantly-impacts-lake-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> is more than a resource; it is a spiritual and cultural cornerstone, shaping their identity and daily practices.



However, modernization and environmental challenges have disrupted their traditional lifestyle. The oil industry’s expansion around Lake Maracaibo has led to significant environmental degradation, which threaten the lake's biodiversity and the Añu’s primary sources of sustenance. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lake-maracaibo-and-venezuelan-history">Lake Maracaibo and Venezuelan history</h2>



Lake Maracaibo also played a pivotal role in Venezuelan history, particularly during the Battle of Lake Maracaibo in 1823. 



This naval battle was a decisive conflict in Venezuela’s war for independence from Spain and marked one of the final military engagements of the South American liberation movements led by figures like Simón Bolívar.



Today, the lake represents a remarkable blend of natural beauty, industrial significance, and cultural heritage. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-conservation-efforts">Ongoing conservation efforts </h2>



Ongoing efforts aim to harmonize ecological conservation with economic development, as both local and global stakeholders acknowledge the need to protect this extraordinary environment for generations to come.



Efforts to preserve the Añu culture and the lake's ecosystem have been initiated by local and international organizations. These initiatives focus on promoting sustainable development, preserving Indigenous languages and traditions, and mitigating the environmental damage caused by industrial activities. 



Despite these challenges, the Añu have shown remarkable resilience, maintaining their cultural identity and advocating for their rights and the health of their ancestral lands.



Image Credit: ESA



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Lake Maracaibo: One of the most electrified places on the planet

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.



“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;



The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.



NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.



Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.



“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;



Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;



However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;



Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.



The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change.&nbsp;Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Gobi Altai Mountains and neighboring plains covered in snow and illuminated by sunlight. 



The photograph was captured on January 25, 2024 as the International Space Station (ISS) passed over central Mongolia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-peaks-and-plains">Mountain peaks and plains</h2>



“Late-afternoon sunlight casts long shadows of mountain peaks onto the plains below. Numerous steep gullies cut into the massif, or mass of mountains, whose rugged appearance contrasts with the flat plains stretching along the top of the image,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “The plains are a semidesert grassland, or steppe, which provides pasture for livestock herders in the region.”



“The grassland surrounding the massif is classified by scientists as a cold semidesert. At an elevation of about 1,250 meters, annual temperatures are much lower there than in the mountains. The highest peak in the massif, Ikh Bogd (also known as Tergun Bogd), reaches nearly 4,000 meters.”&nbsp;



According to NASA, the climate on the peaks is classified as a polar tundra because the average annual temperature is below freezing. "Asia’s main tundra zone is located in Siberia, along the coast of the Arctic Ocean, 2,800 kilometers (1,750 miles) to the north.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harsh-winters-and-livestock-in-mongolia">Harsh winters and livestock in Mongolia</h2>



Harsh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-winters-are-getting-colder-while-world-is-getting-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">winters</a> in Mongolia, locally known as "dzud," pose significant challenges for livestock and the herders who depend on them for their livelihood. These winters can be particularly severe, characterized by extreme cold, heavy snowfall, and ice, which can block access to grazing grounds, leaving animals without enough food.&nbsp;



The cold temperatures and nutritional shortages result in high mortality rates among livestock, which are crucial to the Mongolian economy and the nomadic lifestyle of many of its people.



The impact of these harsh winters extends beyond immediate animal welfare. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-livestock-are-major-drivers-of-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">livestock</a> numbers dwindle, herders face financial hardships, and the ripple effects can be felt throughout the entire community.&nbsp;



To combat these challenges, various strategies have been employed, including the development of better forecasting and early warning systems, the stockpiling of fodder, and improved veterinary care. These measures aim to strengthen the resilience of herding communities and ensure the survival of their livestock during Mongolia's most challenging seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-wildlife-of-mongolia">Diverse wildlife of Mongolia</h2>



Mongolia is renowned for its diverse wildlife, adapted to its unique landscapes ranging from vast steppes to rugged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountains-both-carbon-sinks-and-carbon-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and arid deserts. Among the most iconic species is the Bactrian camel, native to the region and crucial to nomadic herders.&nbsp;



The resilient Mongolian horse, integral to local culture, is celebrated for its endurance across the vast, open landscapes. Predators such as the snow leopard roam the high altitudes, playing a key role in the ecosystem, while the elusive Gobi bear survives in the sparse vegetation of the Gobi Desert.



The steppes are home to the fast-moving Mongolian gazelle and the critically endangered saiga antelope, known for its distinctive nose. The mountains support populations of argali sheep, the world's largest wild sheep, and the ibex, which has mastered the art of navigating rocky terrains. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valley-of-lakes">Valley of Lakes</h2>



“Part of a small dry lake appears in the top left of the image. In wetter years, water from this lake feeds Orog Lake (also photographed by astronauts), out of frame to the upper right. This and other nearby lakes are part of the Valley of Lakes waterfowl conservation habitat, protected as a Ramsar site,” noted NASA.



The Valley of Lakes is known for its expansive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-potential-of-tidal-wetlands-as-blue-carbon-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wetlands</a> and diverse ecosystems that support a variety of bird species, especially migratory waterfowl. This area serves as a crucial stopover for birds during their migration periods, providing them with essential resources such as food and shelter.&nbsp;



The conservation efforts in the Valley of Lakes focus on maintaining and restoring these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-wetlands-are-inching-closer-to-extinction-as-the-world-heats-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wetlands</a> to ensure they continue to offer a safe haven for waterfowl. These efforts include controlling invasive plant species that threaten the natural vegetation and managing water levels to create optimal conditions for bird populations.&nbsp;



Education and community involvement are also key components of the conservation strategy, aiming to raise awareness about the importance of these habitats and encourage sustainable practices that help protect the local wildlife.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Mountain peaks and plains of central Mongolia 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-star-formation">Fuel for star formation </h2>



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionised nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers studying stellar evolution and the lifecycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that are rich in young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



The galaxy’s central bar is believed to play a role in driving gas towards the core, fueling both the star formation and the activity around its nucleus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



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Spiral galaxy NGC 1559 is a loner in outer space

Looks,Like,Reversed,Infinity,Time,Spiral,,Digital,Generated,Image,With

It is widely known among scientists that light sometimes appears to exit a material before it has even entered. This odd "negative time" phenomenon was long seen as an illusion caused by the way waves become distorted by matter. 



Over time, many considered it a harmless quirk of physics, dismissed without much further investigation. Now, fresh experiments suggest that this behavior might carry deeper implications related to "negative time."



Researchers recently posted findings on the preprint server arXiv, drawing global interest and some reservations about what it all means.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-time-is-no-longer-theoretical">"Negative time" is no longer theoretical</h2>



Aephraim Steinberg, a <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a> professor in experimental quantum physics, has seen how people can misunderstand discussions about negative time.



"This is tough stuff, even for us to talk about with other physicists. We get misunderstood all the time," he said. His team contends that negative time is not just theoretical but may exist in a measurable way.



They remain cautious in describing their experiments, emphasizing that the results reflect a subtle effect in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a>. 



"That time turned out to be negative," Steinberg explained. Their data points to strange interactions between light and matter that defy everyday assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-quirks">Quantum quirks</h2>



Their basement lab brims with mirrors, wires, and delicate lasers that track how photons interact with atoms. 



The atoms sometimes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/precise-shape-of-single-photon-light-revealed-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">absorb photons</a> and later emit them, leaving the atoms in an excited state for a short period. Measuring this period was tricky, and to many, it sounded like it might flirt with impossibilities.



Steinberg and graduate student Daniela Angulo focused on the short time atoms remain excited. By collecting data on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-photons-fascinating-behavior-in-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atoms emit absorbed light</a>, they uncovered intervals that appeared less than zero. 



"We don't want to say anything traveled backward in time," Steinberg said. "That's a misinterpretation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-time-doesn-t-violate-reality">"Negative time" doesn't violate reality</h2>



Investigations into quantum phenomena often spark worry about collisions with Einstein's theory of special relativity. 



Yet nothing in these experiments hints that any object can outrun light. Photons here do not convey information faster than physical laws permit, so there is no conflict with long-accepted principles.



Some have questioned whether labeling this interval as negative time might invite confusion. 



The team is aware that such language can sound surreal, but they believe it captures the unusual nature of quantum measurements that drift from usual expectations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photons-and-probabilities">Photons and probabilities</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-dance-entangled-photons-wave-functions-captured-real-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photons have a split personality</a>, sometimes acting like particles and other times behaving like waves. 



They follow probability rules that let them appear in multiple states at once, prompting a range of possible outcomes. This fuzziness underpins the notion that events do not always fit into a neat timeline.



In standard settings, photons pass through materials in ways consistent with well-established physics. 



But in the group’s experiments, certain measurements produce results that slip into territory most would never predict. 



These findings spark curiosity about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a> can present effects that appear at odds with common sense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reactions-and-skepticism">Reactions and skepticism</h2>



The concept has captured the attention of many, including German theoretical physicist <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ErLHm-1c6I4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sabine Hossenfelder</a>, who remains unimpressed. 



"The negative time in this experiment has nothing to do with the passage of time -- it's just a way to describe how photons travel through a medium and how their phases shift," she said in a YouTube video with more than 250,000 views.



Some observers suspect the term negative time is too dramatic and misrepresents the study’s scope. Others argue that a fresh approach could encourage deeper conversations about how quantum processes unfold. 



The researchers maintain they are not rewriting the rules of physics but aiming to highlight the weirdness at play in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-tunneling-allow-particles-break-light-speed-barrier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fundamental experiments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-negative-time-studies">Next steps for "negative time" studies</h2>



"We've made our choice about what we think is a fruitful way to describe the results," Steinberg said, adding that while practical applications remain elusive, the findings open new avenues for exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum phenomena</a>. 



He acknowledged that many remain skeptical, but he insists the numbers speak for themselves. No serious criticism has challenged their raw data.



"I'll be honest, I don't currently have a path from what we've been looking at toward applications," Steinberg admitted. "We're going to keep thinking about it, but I don't want to get people's hopes up."



Whether the idea of negative time transforms into something with everyday uses remains to be seen, yet the curiosity it sparks is hard to ignore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



To sum it all up, quantum physics has always pushed boundaries, forcing researchers to adjust old assumptions. 



These experiments from the University of Toronto team serve as another reminder that the world behaves in ways that do not always match common intuition. Still, they stress that no claims of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time travel</a> are on the table.



By presenting evidence that something can measure out to less than zero time, these researchers have challenged expectations about how light interacts with matter. 



For now, the puzzle remains a subject of debate. Unraveling the enigma might take further studies, but many agree that investigating such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/google-record-shattering-quantum-ai-chip-accesses-parallel-universes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bizarre possibilities</a> is part of the ongoing effort to understand quantum reality.



The results highlight how experiments can produce outcomes that differ from conventional thinking. Negative intervals in absorption times remain an intriguing piece of a much broader puzzle.



Scientists continue to refine experiments and weigh alternative explanations. Despite lingering questions, the project stands as a reminder that quantum behavior can seem downright strange, to put it mildly.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2409.03680" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



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"Negative time" observed in new quantum experiments, surprising scientists

It is widely known among scientists that light sometimes appears...

The Baltic Sea, one of the world’s youngest bodies of water, has long been known to host Atlantic and Baltic herring - plankton-eating fish critical to northern marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



Yet new research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-55216-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, has uncovered a surprising adaptation in this environment: genetically distinct, fish-eating Baltic herring (Sardinops sagax caerulea). 



Conducted by scientists at <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a> in Sweden, the study challenges traditional assumptions about how Baltic herring evolved and found new ecological niches in brackish waters formed at the end of the last Ice Age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herring-in-the-baltic-sea">Herring in the Baltic Sea</h2>



Herring serve a crucial function in the Atlantic Ocean and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-thallium-levels-are-rising-in-the-baltic-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baltic Sea</a>, transferring energy from plankton up the food chain to predatory fish, seabirds, marine mammals, and humans. 



Previous studies by the Uppsala group had already established that herring populations adapt genetically to variations in climate, salinity, and spawning seasons.&nbsp;



However, the newly discovered fish-eating Baltic herring adds an intriguing twist: these larger individuals exhibit distinct biological and genetic characteristics that set them apart from the traditional plankton-eating varieties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-baltic-herring-enigma">The Baltic herring enigma</h2>



Renowned Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus once defined the Baltic herring as a subspecies of the Atlantic herring, specifically adapted to the Baltic’s brackish waters. Over the centuries, scientists have consistently noted how Baltic herring are generally smaller and contain less fat than their Atlantic relatives.&nbsp;



But when a local fisherman near Uppsala spoke of a large herring “that always spawns just before midsummer and which is as big as the Atlantic herring,” questions arose as to whether a previously unidentified herring population existed within the Baltic.



The study was led by Leif Andersson, a professor at the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology at Uppsala University.



“When I learned that the locals are aware of a specific population of very large Baltic herring that always spawns in the same area year after year, I decided to sample and explore their genetic constitution,” said Professor Andersson.&nbsp;



“Now we know that this is a genetically unique population that must have evolved over hundreds, if not thousands, of years in the Baltic Sea.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-to-a-fish-based-diet">Switching to a fish-based diet</h2>



By collecting samples of these large herring, researchers noticed striking differences from the smaller, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-at-risk-global-warming-threatens-the-oceans-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a>-eating Baltic herring. 



Physical examinations, growth measurements, and fat-content analyses revealed that the larger herring contain higher levels of fat and show signs of damaged gill rakers - features aligning with a switch from filtering plankton to eating fish such as the common stickleback, which has sharp defensive spines.



According to the scientists, the relatively low dioxin content makes this fish-eating Baltic herring interesting for human consumption. With a faster growth rate and lower pollutant load, the fish-eating herring may offer both ecological and nutritional advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-two-genetic-subpopulations">Uncovering two genetic subpopulations</h2>



Once it became clear that these larger Baltic herring were genetically distinct, the scientists expanded their focus, comparing samples of big herring from different Baltic locations. Whole genome sequencing confirmed that these fish fall into two separate subpopulations.



“Our genetic analysis demonstrates that there are at least two distinct subpopulations of fish-eating herring in the Baltic Sea; one occurs north of Stockholm, and the other occurs south of Stockholm,” said lead author Jake Goodall, a researcher at Uppsala University.&nbsp;



By identifying multiple genetic groups, the study reveals even greater diversity within the Baltic herring gene pool than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fish-eating-herring-evolved-in-the-baltic">Why fish-eating herring evolved in the Baltic</h2>



The Baltic Sea, with salinity levels far lower than the Atlantic’s, has existed for only around 8,000 years. Such an environment is inhospitable to many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-disrupts-the-distribution-of-marine-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a>, and only a select few have successfully established populations there. 



The researchers propose that fish-eating herring have emerged due to a scarcity of competing predators, making it advantageous for some herring to exploit fish as a food source.



“We hypothesize that fish-eating Baltic herring have evolved due to a lack of competition from other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predatory fish</a>, for instance, mackerel and tuna, which do not occur where we find fish-eating herring,” said Andersson.



“Thus, these herring take advantage of an underutilised food resource in the Baltic Sea.”



The ability to feed on smaller fish rather than plankton likely opened an ecological niche that larger herring could occupy, capitalizing on prey that other species could not exploit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-ecosystems-and-human-needs">Balancing ecosystems and human needs</h2>



The emergence of fish-eating Baltic herring underscores the Baltic Sea’s capacity to foster evolutionary innovations. As a keystone species, herring regulate energy flow in their ecosystem.&nbsp;



The discovery of these large, fish-feeding populations highlights the adaptability of herring to different diets, environmental pressures, and competition. It also suggests that such herring may provide a safer, fattier food option for consumers, given their comparatively lower dioxin levels.



These insights could inform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-gets-a-boost-from-genomics-roadmap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishery management</a> and conservation strategies, ensuring that as the Baltic continues to evolve, both ecosystem integrity and human consumption interests remain aligned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-evolutionary-change-of-baltic-herring-nbsp">Rapid evolutionary change of Baltic herring&nbsp;</h2>



Because the Baltic Sea is geologically recent, this discovery showcases how quickly species can adapt to novel conditions.&nbsp;



The fish-eating herring’s genetic distinctiveness, alongside significant physical and dietary differences, underlines the dynamic nature of evolution in brackish environments.&nbsp;



For scientists and policymakers, these findings serve as a reminder that even seemingly uniform species can harbor hidden diversity essential for resilience in changing waters.



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Rapid evolution in the Baltic Sea: How herring became fish-eaters

The Baltic Sea, one of the world’s youngest bodies of...

As the holiday season approaches, homes worldwide are decorated with evergreen conifers like spruce and pine. Beyond spreading warmth and joy as Christmas trees, these resilient conifers thrive in harsh natural environments - enduring everything from frigid winters to intense sunlight in boreal forests.



Scientists at Umeå University are shedding light on how these remarkable trees endure such adversities and remain lush and green year-round.



The experts found that conifers possess unique adaptations that allow them to thrive in some of the planet's most challenging environments.



The findings not only deepen our understanding of conifers but also hint at potential applications in conservation and crop resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-conifers-the-basics">Understanding conifers -- the basics</h2>



Conifer trees are some of the most recognizable and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-some-leaves-live-longer-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evergreen giants</a> you’ll find in forests around the world. Think of pine, spruce, fir, and cedar trees with their needle-like leaves and sturdy cones. 



These trees are well adapted to various climates, especially colder and drier regions, because their shape helps them shed snow and conserve water.



Conifers have been around for millions of years, dominating many landscapes long before flowering plants took the stage. 



Their evergreen nature means they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-changes-what-happens-to-boreal-forests-after-fire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stay green</a> all year round, providing a constant splash of color even during the bleakest winters.



Beyond their striking appearance, conifer trees play a crucial role in the environment and our daily lives. They are vital for producing oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide, helping to combat climate change. 



The wood from conifers is used in building everything from homes to paper products, making them <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-trees-are-best-at-purifying-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">essential to many industries</a>. 



Plus, conifer forests are home to countless wildlife species, offering habitats and food sources for animals like birds, squirrels, and deer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photosynthesis-strategies-of-conifers">Photosynthesis strategies of conifers</h2>



The process of photosynthesis is conserved across most plants, yet conifers exhibit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distinct strategies</a> that set them apart. 



One such adaptation is a structural change in their thylakoid membranes - the sites where photosynthesis occurs. During winter, Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII), typically separated in most plants, come closer together in a phenomenon known as spill-over.



"This helps them to safely dissipate extra energy and avoid damage from too much sunlight in the cold," explained Stefan Jansson, a professor in the <a href="https://www.upsc.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå Plant Science Center</a>.



This mechanism prevents excess light from overwhelming their photosynthetic machinery, enabling them to survive harsh winters unscathed.



Previously, researchers referred to this process as "sustained quenching," likening it to a photosynthetic lockdown. However, the precise mechanism remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-electron-flow">Alternative electron flow</h2>



In addition to spill-over, conifers possess a second survival strategy: alternative electron flow - a key aspect of their resilience in harsh winter environments.



This method involves the use of&nbsp;flavodiiron proteins, which redirect electrons during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-cleverly-adapt-to-withstand-storms-and-high-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. This redirection ensures that the photosynthetic system remains balanced, even when faced with intense sunlight and freezing temperatures.



Alternative electron flow acts as a backup mechanism to handle excess energy, preventing the photosynthetic machinery from becoming overloaded and damaged. 



This is particularly critical in winter when sunlight can be strong but the freezing conditions make energy dissipation challenging.



Together with&nbsp;spill-over, where Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII) collaborate to dissipate extra energy, these strategies form a dual defense system. 



Spill-over reduces the risk of light-induced damage, while alternative electron flow maintains the system's stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-adaptations-of-conifers">Unique adaptations of conifers</h2>



Conifers' photosynthetic apparatus also diverges from that of flowering plants (angiosperms) in other significant ways. 



For instance, they lack certain light-harvesting proteins found in angiosperms. This unique configuration might explain why conifers thrive in nutrient-poor, cold, and water-scarce environments.



"All together, this can explain why conifers are the dominant species in boreal forests, thriving where few others can, perhaps at the expense of advantages during less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-in-the-wrong-place-can-make-cities-hotter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenging conditions</a>," noted Pushan Bag, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-crop-resilience">Implications for crop resilience </h2>



Understanding the survival mechanisms of conifers goes beyond academic curiosity. As the climate changes, insights into how conifers adapt to extreme conditions may inform conservation strategies and predict forest responses to new environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-diversity-makes-forests-more-resilient-against-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a>.



These findings could also guide the development of crops that are resilient to extreme weather, ensuring food security in an unpredictable future.



"This paper highlights the intricate adaptations of conifers to extreme winter conditions. By combining structural, molecular, and evolutionary insights, it advances our understanding of how these trees have come to dominate some of the harshest ecosystems on Earth," said study co-author Alexander Ivanov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incredible-resilience-of-conifers">Incredible resilience of conifers</h2>



Conifers’ ability to adapt and thrive in severe conditions is a proof of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-in-big-trouble-and-scientists-are-sounding-the-alarm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature's ingenuity</a>. Their unique photosynthetic strategies, refined over millennia, ensure their survival in environments where most plants would falter.



As researchers continue to explore these mechanisms, they uncover not only the secrets of these hardy evergreens but also pathways to address pressing challenges like climate change and food insecurity.



This festive season, as you admire the beauty of a Christmas tree, take a moment to appreciate the incredible resilience and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary brilliance</a> of conifers. 



They are not just symbols of joy and celebration but also living proof of nature's ability to overcome adversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/fulltext/S1360-1385(24)00300-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Plant Science</a>.



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Christmas trees have unique strategies to survive harsh winters

As the holiday season approaches, homes worldwide are decorated with...

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The site of the now-extinct Lake Texcoco in Mexico City Today’s Video of the Day comes from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency’s</a> Earth from Space series and features a look at an area of Mexico City that used to be home to the now-extinct Lake Texcoco.
These images were captured by the KOMPSAT-2 satellite over eastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severe-earthquake-mexico-city/">Mexico City</a> in an area known as the Valley of Mexico. Over the course of several centuries, the lake was drained and the area is now home to several smaller reservoirs and ponds.
The site of the now-extinct Lake Texcoco in Mexico City  as shown above in the video shows the By 1250 BC the identifying signs of the <a title="Tlatilco culture" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlatilco_culture">Tlatilco culture</a>, including more complex settlements and a stratified social structure, are seen around the lake.
By roughly 800 BC <a title="Cuicuilco" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuicuilco">Cuicuilco</a> had eclipsed the Tlatilco cultural centers and was the major power in the Valley of Mexico during the next 200 years when its famous conical pyramid was built. Lake Texcoco (Spanish: Lago de Texcoco) was a natural lake within the &#8220;Anahuac&#8221; or Valley of Mexico. Lake Texcoco is best known as where the Aztecs built the city of Tenochtitlan, which was located on an island within the lake.
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By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Video Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a>