<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from the European Space Agency features Messier 82, a starburst galaxy located in the constellation Ursa Major. This galaxy is actively forming new stars at a rate ten times that of the Milky Way.</p>



<p>In a study using the <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST), an international team of astronomers has taken an unprecedented look at Messier 82 (M82), revealing intricate details about its frenzied star formation.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-nircam">The power of NIRCam</h2>



<p>The study, led by Alberto Bolatto, utilized Webb’s Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) to penetrate the thick dust and gas covering the galaxy's core, a region critical to understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"M82 has garnered a variety of observations over the years because it can be considered as the prototypical starburst galaxy," noted Bolatto. “With Webb’s size and resolution, we can look at this star-forming galaxy and see all of this beautiful new detail.”</p>



<p>Webb's NIRCam has proven crucial for observing areas like M82’s center, where layers of dust typically obscure the view in other wavelengths. The camera's ability to capture infrared light allows it to reveal the galaxy's core and its dynamic processes.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-messier-82-image">Messier 82 image </h2>



<p>“This image shows the power of Webb. Every single white dot in this image is either a star or a star cluster. We can start to distinguish all of these tiny point sources, which enables us to acquire an accurate count of all the star clusters in this galaxy,” noted study co-author Rebecca Levy from the University of Arizona.</p>



<p>One of the NIRCam's innovative features is its mode that prevents bright sources from overwhelming the detector, which was particularly useful in studying the intensely active center of Messier 82.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the image, dark brown tendrils of dust weave through the galaxy's glowing white core, interspersed with small green specks that represent concentrated areas of iron from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> remnants. Red patches highlight regions where molecular hydrogen is illuminated by the radiation from nearby young stars.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-galactic-winds">Insights into galactic winds</h2>



<p>The study also focused on understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spin-of-a-new-black-hole-is-unlocking-galactic-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galactic wind</a>, driven by the rapid rate of star formation and subsequent supernovae, influences M82’s environment. </p>



<p>The NIRCam images showed clumpy streams of gas, appearing in red, which extend above and below the galaxy's plane, marking the path of this wind rushing out from the starburst's core.</p>



<p>A key revelation came from the NIRCam’s tracing of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), sooty chemical molecules that map out the structure of the galactic wind. To the surprise of researchers, the PAH emissions closely resembled the patterns of the hot, ionized gas, suggesting a more complex interaction within the wind than previously understood.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"It was unexpected to see the PAH emission resemble ionised gas," said Bolatto. "PAHs are not supposed to live very long when exposed to such a strong radiation field, so perhaps they are being replenished all the time. It challenges our theories and shows us that further investigation is required."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-observations-of-messier-82">Future observations of Messier 82</h2>



<p>The findings from Webb are just the beginning. The team plans to further analyze Messier 82 with additional data, including spectroscopic observations, to determine the ages of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collisions-hubble-spots-a-string-of-pearls-star-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star clusters</a> and the duration of each star formation phase within the starburst environment.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These observations will also assist in a broader understanding of similar processes in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>, which were common in the young universe.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



<p>Study co-author Torsten Böker of the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> emphasized the broader implications of these findings.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“With these amazing Webb images, and our upcoming spectra, we can study how exactly the strong winds and shock fronts from young stars and supernovae can remove the very gas and dust from which new stars are forming,” explained Böker.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“A detailed understanding of this ‘feedback’ cycle is important for theories of how the early universe evolved, because compact starbursts such as the one in M82 were very common at high redshift.”</p>



<p>Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA</p>



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Messier 82: Unlocking the mysteries of star formation

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

<p>Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a 9.5-mile section of Pangong Lake on the western end of the Tibetan Plateau. The image was captured by a crew member onboard the International Space Station.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“In this winter scene, a sheet of cracked ice tops part of the lake,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “On the left side, open water appears blue. Shallow water offshore of a delta, formed by a small, winding river, appears green."</p>



<p>"Parallel lines along the coastlines of bays are visible in the high-resolution version of this image. These lines indicate raised beaches, which formed in the past when lake levels were higher.”</p>



<p>NASA pointed out that several roads cut across the landscape, including one with switchbacks that ascends a steep slope. "These roads facilitate tourist travel from both India and China.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-birds-at-pangong-lake-nbsp">Migratory birds at Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Pangong Lake and its surroundings are home to numerous bird species, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-burn-unexpected-amounts-of-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>. Visitors can spot various waterfowl and waders that are rarely seen elsewhere.</p>



<p>“During the summer, species such as bar-headed geese and Brahminy ducks attract bird watchers to the lake, which is a major breeding ground for migrating birds,” said NASA.</p>



<p>Pangong Lake is one of the few places in India where the endangered black-necked crane is found during its breeding season. </p>



<p>Ruddy shelduck and brown-headed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gulls-are-shifting-their-habitats-to-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gulls</a> are also frequently spotted around the lake. The ruddy shelduck is known for its striking orange-brown body and creamy white head, while the brown-headed gulls are often seen flying or swimming in the lake.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-features-of-pangong-lake">Features of Pangong Lake </h2>



<p>Pangong Lake is a stunning high-altitude lake situated in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-are-rising-unexpectedly-fast-on-the-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, extending from India to the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. It is renowned for its mesmerizing beauty and dramatic setting, with the lake lying at an elevation of about 4,350 meters.</p>



<p>One of the most distinctive features of Pangong Lake is its changing colors, ranging from shades of blue to green and even red, influenced by the sky's reflection and the lake's mineral content.</p>



<p>This saline water lake is approximately 134 kilometers long and 5 kilometers wide at its broadest point. Despite its considerable size, Pangong Lake is relatively shallow.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The lake gained additional popularity after being featured in several Indian films - most notably the Bollywood hit "3 Idiots." Its remote location requires a permit for visitors, especially due to its proximity to the Line of Actual Control between India and China.</p>



<p>Despite the geopolitical sensitivities surrounding its location, Pangong Lake remains a favorite among tourists for its unparalleled natural beauty and serene environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-altitude-lakes">High-altitude lakes</h2>



<p>High-altitude lakes are unique bodies of water found at elevations typically above 3,000 meters (about 10,000 feet) in mountain ranges like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-glaciers-retreating-threat-is-much-worse-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, Andes, and Rockies. </p>



<p>These lakes are formed either by glacial activity, where glaciers erode the earth to create depressions that fill with melted snow and rainwater, or when natural dams created by landslides or moraines trap water in valleys.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-environments">Extreme environments</h3>



<p>The conditions at high altitudes make these lakes distinct in several ways. The climate is typically colder and harsher, with significant temperature variations between day and night. </p>



<p>This extreme environment affects both the physical characteristics of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> and the types of ecosystems they support. For example, due to lower atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is reduced, which can affect the type of life that can survive in these regions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-habitats">Critical habitats</h3>



<p>Biologically, high-altitude lakes often have limited biodiversity because only certain types of plants and animals can tolerate the cold temperatures and lower oxygen levels in the water. </p>



<p>Despite this, these lakes are crucial habitats for some unique species of fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also serve as important indicators of climate change, as variations in their water levels and temperatures can reflect environmental shifts.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-high-altitude-lakes">Significance of high-altitude lakes </h3>



<p>Lakes at high altitudes are often clear and pristine, due to the low density of human populations in these areas and minimal industrial activity, making them significant for ecological studies and attractive for tourism. </p>



<p>However, they are sensitive ecosystems, and increased tourist activity brings challenges like pollution and habitat disruption.</p>



<p>High-altitude lakes are not only beautiful and scientifically significant but also hold cultural importance for local communities, often considered sacred and associated with historical and spiritual significance.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;</p>



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Pangong Lake on the Tibetan Plateau

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from the European Space Agency features the Little Dumbbell Nebula, also known as Messier 76, located in the constellation Perseus 3,400 light-years away from Earth.</p>



<p>Astronomers captured this image of the Little Dumbbell Nebula to commemorate the 34th anniversary of the Hubble Space Telescope, a joint venture between NASA and the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>).</p>



<p>The snapshot provides not only a breathtaking view, but also deep insights into the life cycle of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-stars-scientists-discover-a-new-type-of-star-powered-by-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> and the dynamic processes within nebulae.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-messier-76">Understanding Messier 76</h2>



<p>Messier 76 is categorized as a planetary nebula - a term which refers to its round, planet-like appearance when viewed through early, low-power telescopes. </p>



<p>However, the term is somewhat misleading as planetary nebulae have no connection to actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-17-exoplanets-that-have-oceans-and-possibly-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Instead, they represent an expansive shell of luminous gases expelled by a dying red giant star, which subsequently collapses into a dense, hot white dwarf. </p>



<p>This transformation marks the late stages of stellar evolution for medium to low-mass stars.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-of-messier-76">Structure of Messier 76</h2>



<p>The structure of Messier 76 is particularly notable. It includes a central ring, giving the appearance of a bar-like feature, with two distinct lobes emanating from either side. </p>



<p>This formation is believed to be the result of materials ejected by the star during its red giant phase, possibly sculpted by interactions with a companion star.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although this binary companion is not visible in current Hubble images, its presence is inferred from the thick disk of dust and gas aligned with its orbital plane. </p>



<p>The phenomenon of the companion star potentially being absorbed by the primary star, a process akin to stellar cannibalism, is a captivating aspect of the nebula's history.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dynamic-environment-of-the-nebula">The dynamic environment of the nebula</h2>



<p>At the core of the nebula, the primary star, now collapsing into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a>, reaches extreme temperatures. This heat is estimated to be 120,000 degrees Celsius - about 24 times hotter than the surface of our Sun.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This intensely hot remnant is visible as a small, bright point at the center of the nebula. Directly below this, another star can be seen; however, it is merely aligned with the nebula by chance and is not a part of it.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-glow-of-messier-76">Powerful glow of Messier 76</h2>



<p>The dynamics within Messier 76 are driven by powerful forces. The central disk seems to constrict the material, creating two lobes of gas escaping along the rotational axis of the star, perpendicular to the disk.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The lobes are propelled outward by a potent stellar wind, moving at a staggering two million miles per hour. This rapid movement is sufficient to travel the distance from Earth to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeless-mystery-solved-scientists-uncover-what-is-inside-the-moons-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> in just over seven minutes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The collision of the fast-moving gas with older, slower-moving material ejected during the star’s red giant phase results in the stunning glowing effect seen in the nebula. </p>



<p>The glow, ignited by the ultraviolet radiation from the white dwarf, is a spectacle of colors with red emanating from nitrogen and blue from oxygen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-moment-in-time">A cosmic moment in time</h2>



<p>Despite its current brilliance, the existence of the Little Dumbbell Nebula is fleeting on a cosmological scale. It is expected to last only about 15,000 years - a mere moment in the lifespan of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This brief period highlights the transient nature of such cosmic phenomena, which, while short-lived, provide crucial insights into the mechanics of stellar evolution and the complex interactions within these celestial sculptures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-messier-76">More about Messier 76</h2>



<p>Messier 76 was discovered by Pierre Méchain in 1780. It was later cataloged by Charles Messier, who included it in his famous list of nebulous objects.</p>



<p>The nebula's faintness and small size require a good telescope to be observed effectively, with larger telescopes able to reveal more of its fine details and structure.</p>



<p>Studying Messier 76 helps astronomers understand the life cycle of stars and the processes that occur during the late stages of stellar evolution. </p>



<p>The materials expelled by planetary nebulae like Messier 76 eventually contribute to the interstellar medium, from which new stars and planetary systems may form.</p>



<p>Image Credit: ESA Space Agency&nbsp;</p>



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Secrets of the Little Dumbbell Nebula  

<p>Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the remnants of Lake Razzaza, an artificial lake situated a few miles west of Karbala, Iraq.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> was created in the late 1970s as a control measure to regulate the floodwaters of the Euphrates River.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Razzaza covers an area of approximately 1,562 square kilometers and is located in a depression where excess water from Lake Habbaniyah is diverted through a controlled escape channel or canal.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-colors-of-lake-razzaza">The colors of Lake Razzaza</h2>



<p>“The lake, also known as Baḩr al-Milḩ (‘Sea of Salt’ in Arabic), is fed by overflow from Habbaniyah Lake, which lies just outside the top left corner of the image,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153756/iraqs-sea-of-salt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.</p>



<p>“The difference in water color results from the various communities of algae that thrive in the lake depending on the water temperature and salinity.”</p>



<p>“Green areas contain lower salt concentrations than red areas. At times when the lake receives no overflow from Habbaniyah Lake, as shown in this image, most of the lakebed is exposed.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salinity-of-lake-razzaza">Salinity of Lake Razzaza</h2>



<p>Over the years, the salinity of Lake Razzaza has been increasing due to inadequate water supply from the linked canal and high evaporation rates during Iraq's hot summers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This rise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> has led to a decline in fish populations, adversely affecting local fishermen who once relied on the lake for their livelihoods.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By 2008, only the fish species locally known as "al-Shanik" (Acanthopagrus arabicus), of marine origin and stocked by the government, was reported to survive in the lake.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The lake's fluctuating water levels and increasing salinity have also impacted its recreational appeal, with few recreational areas existing around the lake.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, the surrounding desert landscape and low cliff shores contribute to its limited accessibility for leisure activities.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-of-lake-razzaza">Wildlife of Lake Razzaza</h2>



<p>Despite these challenges, Lake Razzaza remains an important habitat for various bird species. It has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International, supporting significant numbers of wintering waterfowl and serving as a breeding ground for species such as the marbled duck.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The lake's mudflats attract large numbers of waders and shorebirds during migration periods.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The surrounding area features vegetation such as Phragmites australis, Juncus acutus, Aeluropus lagopoides, Salicornia herbacea, and Schoenoplectus litoralis, along with desert shrublands including Tamarix aucherana, Prosopis farcta, and Haloxylon salicornicum.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Mammals reported in this region include the Rüppell's fox, golden jackal, Indian grey mongoose, jungle cat, and the wildcat. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-euphrates-river-nbsp">The Euphrates River&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Euphrates River is one of the most significant rivers in the Middle East and holds immense historical, cultural, and ecological importance.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Stretching approximately 2,800 kilometers (1,740 miles), it originates in the mountains of eastern Turkey and flows through Syria and Iraq before merging with the Tigris River to form the Shatt al-Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-plastic-pollution-lurks-beneath-the-surface-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> has been a cradle of civilization for thousands of years, supporting ancient Mesopotamian societies, including Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria.</p>



<p>The Euphrates has provided water for irrigation, enabling the development of agriculture in an otherwise arid region. Its floodplains have been vital for sustaining life and fostering the growth of cities along its course.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the river also plays a key geopolitical role, as disputes over water usage and dam construction among Turkey, Syria, and Iraq have emerged over the years, impacting water availability downstream.</p>



<p>Ecologically, the Euphrates supports a range of habitats, from wetlands to desert ecosystems, making it home to diverse wildlife. </p>



<p>Modern challenges such as damming, pollution, and climate change threaten its flow and ecological balance. Despite these challenges, the Euphrates remains a symbol of life and resilience in the heart of the Middle East.</p>



<p>The image was captured by an astronaut on the International Space Station (ISS) on September 23, 2024.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA</p>



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Lake Razzaza: A shrinking oasis shaped by salinity

<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba about 43 million light-years away from Earth. </p>



<p>This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



<p>“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.</p>



<p>“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.</p>



<p>“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. “Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



<p>ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”</p>



<p>Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-evolution">Galaxy evolution</h2>



<p>Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



<p>These early galaxies were small and irregular, composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



<p>As galaxies evolve, their morphology - their shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



<p>Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. </p>



<p>The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



<p>Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.</p>



<p>Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.</p>



<p>Image Credit<strong>:</strong> ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee</p>



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Starburst galaxy in the constellation Columba

<p>Chocolate is a comfort food for many people and a symbol of happiness in countless cultures. For years, farmers and scientists have collaborated to refine this treasured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-farming-could-save-the-future-of-chocolate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a>, but new evidence shows there is more to its story than meets the eye.</p>



<p>Experts have been analyzing genetic details that trace the cacao tree’s past to a surprising point in time. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Tineo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Tineo</a>, from the National University Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza, led a study that used chloroplast genome data to examine when and how <em>Theobroma cacao</em> diversified.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chocolate-s-place-in-nature">Chocolate’s place in nature</h2>



<p>Cacao belongs to the Malvaceae family, which also includes hibiscus and cotton. This group of plants has a history going back millions of years, and reflecting a long process of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-and-cocoa-prices-have-doubled-in-the-past-year-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a> and survival.</p>



<p>“It can be inferred that <em>T. cacao</em> diverged at approximately 7.55 Ma, and it is highly likely that <em>T. cacao</em> populations diversified during the Pliocene or Miocene,” explained Tineo. </p>



<p>Two main factors appear to have played a role in shaping the trees we see today. First, their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chloroplast-genome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chloroplast genomes</a> carry signs of gradual change, which is common in species that extend across tropical regions. Second, environmental pressures likely promoted different genetic traits in various localities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-insights-to-save-chocolate">Genetic insights to save chocolate </h2>



<p>The chloroplast genome, often called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chloroplast-dna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cpDNA</a>, is inherited in a predictable way in most plants. This trait gives scientists a clear view of family relationships, even within the same species.</p>



<p>One gene, named <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep08348" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ycf1</a>, turned out to be important because it showed more differences among cacao plants than other commonly studied genetic regions. By examining these differences, researchers hope to spot unique traits that may improve the flavor, resilience, or productivity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cacao varieties</a>.</p>



<p>This approach might help breeders develop trees that survive better in changing climates. It may also allow them to detect disease-resistant lines, thus cutting down on the need for chemical treatments and on farm losses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-past-matters">Why the past matters </h2>



<p>Farmers today face pests, diseases, and market uncertainty. Learning about cacao’s ancient lineage is not just for academic interest; it can also guide solutions that reduce farming risks.</p>



<p>The deeper a plant’s genetic roots, the more variation it hides in its DNA. This variation supplies fresh building blocks for traits like drought tolerance, flavor, and disease resistance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-benefits-for-farmers">Practical benefits for farmers</h2>



<p>Thousands of smallholders grow cacao as a main or side income. When farmers tap into genetically diverse planting materials, their crops can adapt more effectively to different environments.</p>



<p>A broader gene pool also lowers the chance that a single disease outbreak will devastate cacao plants in an entire region. Strengthening genetic tools for farmers promotes stable harvests and consistently better beans.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-breeding-methods">Modern breeding methods</h2>



<p>Classic breeding methods rely on observing which trees yield the best crops. Now, molecular tools add a scientific boost by marking the genes that truly matter.</p>



<p>When breeders target specific genes - like ycf1 - they can make more precise matches between strong, disease-tolerant varieties and those with desired flavors. This level of detail speeds up the long process of developing improved trees.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-tradition-with-discovery">Balancing tradition with discovery</h2>



<p>Farmers in Latin America, Africa, and Asia have nurtured cacao for generations. Their local expertise is valuable when it comes to spotting subtle differences among trees.</p>



<p>Collaboration between traditional growers and research institutions bridges technology and cultural wisdom. This approach promotes new partnerships that benefit everyone, from growers to chocolate enthusiasts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-future-of-chocolate">Protecting the future of chocolate </h2>



<p>Scientists still do not fully understand how <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05288-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear or mitochondrial data</a> compare with chloroplast results. More work is needed to fill the gaps left by incomplete samples from various parts of the tropics.</p>



<p>Some lines may carry rare genetic elements waiting to be explored. Locating these hidden genes could reveal new ways to manage diseases and keep farms flourishing.</p>



<p>Cacao stands at a crossroads of heritage, commerce, and science. Studies suggest that this plant’s DNA is more varied and ancient than was once believed, hinting that there may be more secrets in its cells.</p>



<p>Ongoing research may answer questions about how different cacao types emerged and how they can be preserved. The bigger picture promises a future where growers and chocolate lovers share the rewards of knowledge-driven innovation.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>PLOS</em> <em>One</em></a>.</p>



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Can chocolate survive? DNA research may help save cacao trees

Chocolate is a comfort food for many people and a...

<p>People on a fishing boat in the Aegean Sea had an unsettling experience when they noticed square waves creating a chessboard-like pattern all around them. This phenomenon, which quickly drew concern, is an unusual sight in the ocean.</p>



<p>Square waves, also known as a cross sea, are caused by two interacting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wave systems</a> traveling at different speeds and trajectories.</p>



<p>This activity was examined by <a href="https://iris.cnr.it/cris/rp/rp12539" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Silvio Davison</a> from the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (<a href="https://www.cnr.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNR</a>), Istituto di Scienze Marine (<a href="https://www.ismar.cnr.it/web-content/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISMAR</a>) in Venice, Italy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-waves-the-basics">Understanding waves - the basics</h2>



<p>Ocean waves are nature’s way of keeping the sea in constant motion. Wind blows across the surface, transferring its energy to the water and creating waves that can travel thousands of miles.</p>



<p>The size and strength of a wave depend on three things: wind speed, how long the wind blows, and the distance it travels over open water (also called fetch). The longer and stronger these forces act, the bigger the waves get.</p>



<p>But not all waves come from the wind. Some, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-tsunamis-are-an-emerging-climate-linked-hazard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tsunamis</a>, are triggered by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides.</p>



<p>Then there are tidal waves, which are actually caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, not wind or sudden underwater events.</p>



<p>Next we have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-extreme-rogue-wave-recorded-in-the-pacific-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rogue waves</a>, which are are massive, unpredictable walls of water that seem to appear out of nowhere. </p>



<p>Rogue waves happen due to complex interactions between ocean currents, wind, and smaller waves merging at just the right moment. Some can reach over 100 feet (30 meters) tall, powerful enough to sink even large ships.</p>



<p>Finally, we have square waves, which is the reason that we're all here right now.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-causes-behind-the-grid">Causes behind the grid</h2>



<p>Ocean dynamics can sometimes lead to waves from separate storms merging at sharp angles. When that overlap happens, the surface arranges itself into a repeating, square-like shape.</p>



<p>This can vanish quickly if the wind shifts or if one wave set loses energy. On other occasions, the pattern remains long enough for unwary surfers or vessels to run into trouble.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.1002806/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have noted that such interactions are more common in open waters with multiple strong weather systems. </p>



<p>Storm tracks crossing each other can spark chaotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-broke-records-for-450-straight-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wave</a> fields that keep everyone on edge.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-maritime-travel">Impact on maritime travel</h2>



<p>Large <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/ocean/rip-currents/rip-current-safety" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cross seas</a> can reach heights of nearly 10 feet (3 meters), which is problematic for smaller boats. Faced with perpendicular waves, even a ship may roll unpredictably.</p>



<p>According to the <a href="https://business.esa.int/maritime" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>, data collected between 1995 and 1999 showed that a large proportion of ship accidents occurred in cross seas. This highlights the threat posed by these shifting forces.</p>



<p>Sailors in these conditions report abrupt lurches and sudden veering. Cargo ships can also face cargo shifts when waves slam from two different angles.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swimmers-should-avoid-square-waves">Swimmers should avoid square waves</h2>



<p>“Swimmers are at risk of being swept away, while boaters can experience navigational problems.” This note of caution from <a href="https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/21/115/2021/nhess-21-115-2021.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maritime observers</a> is especially relevant in unpredictable waters.</p>



<p>Opposing currents make it hard for people to fight the pull toward deeper areas. Sections of the sea floor can slope in unexpected ways, which compounds the danger.</p>



<p>Checkered wave events have drawn attention in certain tourist destinations. In places where the phenomenon is less intense, onlookers sometimes gather to watch the spectacle.</p>



<p>A noteworthy location is Île de Ré, near France, where visitors sometimes ascend a lighthouse to see the square pattern. They might not recognize that, out in deeper waters, the same sight can be much more powerful.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precautions-and-advice">Precautions and advice</h2>



<p>Maritime authorities suggest that if a grid-like sea surface is spotted, smaller crafts should stay nearer to shore. Rapid changes can make it tough for seafarers to maneuver.</p>



<p>Some wave specialists recommend altering course to avoid perpendicular wave trains entirely, while others suggest that slowing down can minimize the stress on a vessel’s structure.</p>



<p>Swimmers are urged to exit the water if they notice conflicting currents. Strong swimmers often underestimate lateral pushes that can tire them quickly.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-technology-to-study-square-waves">New technology to study square waves</h2>



<p>Scientists are examining ways to forecast cross seas more accurately. They hope better models will help shipping routes avoid high-risk zones.</p>



<p>Advanced radar networks are collecting data on wave heights, angles, and directions. These tools might enhance warnings about any abrupt formation of intersecting waves.</p>



<p>Some labs now rely on <a href="https://www.baslerweb.com/en/cameras/basler-stereo-camera/?srsltid=AfmBOoojjrrNlPY291861Z4Kfl0bmQMlssog8JwjcqK_fNtpUb4kFR8Q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stereo camera systems</a> to capture wide surface areas. This technology allows them to document the biggest crests in cross <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-atlantic-ocean-has-a-memory-that-lasts-up-to-20-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seas</a> with more accuracy.</p>



<p>Digital simulations, like the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S246801331730044X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">High-Order Spectral method</a>, add another layer of understanding. They reveal how separate swells interact in real time, helping experts refine safety recommendations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visually-intriguing-yet-dangerous">Visually intriguing yet dangerous </h2>



<p>Cross seas are visually intriguing yet dangerous for unaware travelers. They remind us that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>’s complexity sometimes slips under the radar.</p>



<p>Predicting the square waves calls for close attention to wind shifts and storm paths. Such vigilance may keep mariners and beachgoers out of harm’s way.</p>



<p>Researchers continue to emphasize caution when these wave patterns arise, especially in open oceans.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.1002806/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Frontiers in Marine Science</em></a>.</p>



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Square waves: The deadly chessboard pattern threatening sailors

People on a fishing boat in the Aegean Sea had...

The,Oort,Cloud,Is,A,Theoretical,Cloud,Of,Predominantly,Icy

<p>It is easy to think of our solar neighborhood as a tight little cluster of planets, but the reality is far more expansive. Beyond Neptune, a crowd of frozen bits and pieces lingers in the Kuiper Belt, yet that is only the start of our Sun’s extended family. </p>



<p>Farther out - about 9.3 trillion miles away - sits the Oort Cloud, which some refer to as the outermost boundary of the Solar System. </p>



<p>This region is believed to hold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eris-and-makemake-icy-dwarf-planets-in-our-own-solar-system-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">countless icy objects</a> that still feel the Sun’s pull, no matter how faint. Many have viewed this area as a scattered collection, with most of its bodies quietly resting in near isolation. </p>



<p>However, according to a recent study, there is a surprising spiral pattern in the inner Oort Cloud that runs much deeper than a random sprinkling of frozen debris.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-oort-cloud-the-basics">Understanding the Oort Cloud - the basics</h2>



<p>The Oort Cloud is usually divided into two zones. The outer part stretches in a spherical shell and starts at around 10,000 astronomical units from the Sun.</p>



<p>The inner Oort Cloud begins closer in - roughly 1,000 astronomical units out - and forms what was once considered a disc-shaped region.</p>



<p>Scientists have long believed that the outer shell experiences more disruptions from passing stars, while the inner zone is held together by the Sun’s gravity. </p>



<p>Some of the comets that swing through the inner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-solar-systems-journey-through-the-milky-way-may-have-altered-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar System</a>, including long-period comets, can be traced to these distant reaches.</p>



<p>Its outer boundary marks a sort of transition point where the Sun’s Hill sphere merges with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-enormous-fermi-bubbles-discovered-towering-above-and-below-our-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Milky Way</a>’s gravitational influence. Astronomical models show that the outer Oort Cloud is only loosely connected to the Sun. </p>



<p>Meanwhile, this weaker binding is precisely why small tugs from passing stars, and even the galactic tide, can change the direction of these icy residents. Some comets then slip free, heading inward to light up our skies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-heliosphere">Looking beyond the heliosphere</h2>



<p>Efforts to see deep into this region face an obvious hurdle: these objects are far, faint, and spread across enormous distances. </p>



<p>No spacecraft to date has gone anywhere near the middle of this domain, though a few probes have passed into interstellar space. </p>



<p>Despite the limited observations, researchers note that the outer Oort Cloud may supply short-period comets, while the inner region tends to stay stable because it is less exposed to disturbance from wandering stars.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-pattern-in-the-oort-cloud">Spiral pattern in the Oort Cloud</h2>



<p>A fresh round of modeling from a team of astronomers, led by <a href="https://www.boulder.swri.edu/~davidn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Nesvorný</a> of the Southwest Research Institute (<a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SWRI</a>) in the US., sheds new light on this hidden zone.</p>



<p>The work included simulations spanning 4.6 billion years, starting from the Solar System’s formative days. </p>



<p>These tests factored in the Sun’s gravitational pull, influences from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-solar-systems-journey-through-the-milky-way-may-have-altered-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Milky Way</a>, and the complex dance of the comets themselves.</p>



<p>“As the galactic tide acts to decouple bodies from the scattered disk it creates a spiral structure in physical space that is roughly 15,000 astronomical units in length,” writes Nesvorný. “The spiral is long-lived and persists in the inner Oort Cloud to the present time.”</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/oort-cloud_solar-system_diagram_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/oort-cloud_solar-system_diagram_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Scientists think the Oort Cloud is a giant spherical shell surrounding the Sun, planets and Kuiper Belt Objects. It's like a big, thick bubble around our solar system, made of icy, comet-like objects. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1961969"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Scientists think the Oort Cloud is a giant spherical shell surrounding the Sun, planets and Kuiper Belt Objects. It's like a big, thick bubble around our solar system, made of icy, comet-like objects. Credit: NASA</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>The spiral pattern is about 15,000 astronomical units wide, or around 1.4 trillion miles from one end to the other. It also appears to have a tilt of roughly 30 degrees relative to the usual plane of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our Solar System</a>. </p>



<p>That tilt and the elongated swirl may trace back to the galaxy’s own gravitational pulling, which could have twisted and shaped the inner Oort Cloud soon after the Solar System’s birth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-spiral-formation">Surprising spiral formation</h2>



<p>The simulations suggest that, early in the Solar System’s history, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/streaming-instability-hypothesis-altjira-system-kuiper-belt-hubble-three-body-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bits of icy debris</a> were scattered and then gradually coaxed into a spiral alignment in the Oort Cloud by galactic forces. </p>



<p>Although random passes by neighboring stars can yank certain comets out of their orbits, the main spiral appears to endure. </p>



<p>This means that a hidden pattern might be circling at the far edge of our Sun’s direct domain.</p>



<p>Researchers revisited earlier simulations to see if they had missed hints of this structure. They found that the same spiral formation popped up even when they ran tests under slightly different assumptions. </p>



<p>This recurring clue led them to propose a lasting swirl in the inner Oort Cloud that does not break down easily.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



<p>The idea of a giant spiral twisting beyond the planetary region may spark questions about direct observations. The models suggest that seeing it in action, as a whole, is nearly impossible with current technology. </p>



<p>The objects out there reflect too little light, and their motions unfold over such a long timeframe that it is not practical to watch them shift. </p>



<p>Still, the pattern aligns with what has been learned about the faint comets that occasionally travel inward.</p>



<p>There is a sense that these findings might offer a peek into how the Sun’s outer family has evolved since the very beginning. </p>



<p>A stable spiral implies that the interplay between our star and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> is more delicate than once assumed. </p>



<p>Some comets will always break away from that remote territory, but enough remain to preserve this structure for eons to come.</p>



<p>The full study was published on the preprint server <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2502.11252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.</p>



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Unknown spiral structure discovered at the edge of our solar system

It is easy to think of our solar neighborhood as...

<div class="vdb_player vdb_591c9e3c9efa894c3c6e150b58d96b98cd4fed198a0d2a49"><script type="text/javascript" src="//delivery.vidible.tv/jsonp/pid=591c9e3c9efa894c3c6e150b/vid=592d9a2f5091f01e678257bd/58d96b98cd4fed198a0d2a49.js"></script></div>
<p>Cameras outside the International Space Station captured dramatic views of major Hurricane Matthew Oct. 3 as the orbital complex flew 250 miles over the storm at 4:15 p.m. EDT.</p>
<p>Packing winds of 140 miles an hour as a Category 4 hurricane, Matthew was expected to pass over western Haiti and eastern Cuba Oct. 4 before charging north over the Bahamas Oct. 5 and potentially threatening the east coast of the United States later in the week.</p>
<p>&#8212;</p>
<p style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank">NASA</a></p>


Hurricane Matthew seen from the International Space Station

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