<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba about 43 million light-years away from Earth. </p>



<p>This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



<p>“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.</p>



<p>“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.</p>



<p>“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. “Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



<p>ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”</p>



<p>Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-evolution">Galaxy evolution</h2>



<p>Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



<p>These early galaxies were small and irregular, composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



<p>As galaxies evolve, their morphology - their shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



<p>Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. </p>



<p>The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



<p>Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.</p>



<p>Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.</p>



<p>Image Credit<strong>:</strong> ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee</p>



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Starburst galaxy in the constellation Columba

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

<p>Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features Messier 78 (M78), a reflection nebula located in the constellation Orion about 1,350 light-years away from Earth. </p>



<p>This image was released as part of the initial series of observations from ESA's <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>All data collected during these early observations, including a series of incredible <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid/Euclid_s_first_images_the_dazzling_edge_of_darkness" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new views</a> of the nearby universe, is available to the public. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-messier-78">Image of Messier 78</h2>



<p>Featured here is a high-resolution, detailed segment of a larger image showcasing Messier 78, a dynamic region of star formation obscured by cosmic dust.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This specific view highlights how young stars generate winds of charged particles, carving out “cavities” in the molecular clouds around them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The blue hues in the image represent ionized atomic hydrogen, which is a primary component of the cloud, while the red indicates the absorption and scattering of light by dust particles.</p>



<p>The image captures hundreds of stars varying in brightness, illuminating their nebulous, purple surroundings. A dark, arch-like structure stretches from the upper left to the bottom right of the frame, merging into the densest, darkest clouds at the image’s base.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-site-of-star-formation-nbsp">Active site of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Messier 78 is not just a single nebula but part of a larger complex of stars and nebulous regions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a>, which includes various other objects like dark nebulae that are visible as patches blocking light from behind.</p>



<p>This region is an active site of star formation, featuring many young stars and protostars, which are stars in the early stages of formation.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-messier-78">Viewing Messier 78</h2>



<p>M78 is easily observable with small telescopes, and it appears as a hazy patch of light with two prominent stars near its center, which illuminate the surrounding dust.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The nebula is also a favorite among amateur astronomers for its beauty and relatively bright appearance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subject-of-scientific-interest-nbsp">Subject of scientific interest&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Messier 78 is fascinating not only for its visual beauty but also for its scientific interest, particularly in the study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> and interstellar matter.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The nebula consists of dense, cold gas and dust, which are essential ingredients for the birth of new stars.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The intense blue light that characterizes M78 is due to the reflection of starlight off these dust particles, a process known as scattering.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-region-surrounding-messier-78-nbsp">Region surrounding Messier 78&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The region surrounding M78 includes several other interesting features. For instance, there are Herbig-Haro objects within it, which are small patches of nebulosity associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">newly born stars</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These objects are formed when gas ejected by young stars collides with clouds of gas and dust at high speeds, creating shock waves that glow brightly.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earliest-stages-of-star-development-nbsp">Earliest stages of star development&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Additionally, infrared observations of M78 have revealed much about the dust and colder objects in the area, which are not visible in optical light.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The observations have helped astronomers identify numerous young stars and brown dwarfs (objects that are too large to be planets and too small to be stars) within the nebula. </p>



<p>This makes M78 a critical area for studying the earliest stages of star development and the properties of the interstellar medium.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp-0">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-batch-of-brilliant-images-from-the-euclid-mission-live-up-to-the-hype/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a> is a European Space Agency (ESA) mission designed to study the dark universe, particularly focusing on dark energy and dark matter, which are fundamental components that are believed to drive the accelerating expansion of the universe and shape its large-scale structure.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The mission aims to map the geometry of the dark universe and better understand the physics of the cosmos.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-billions-of-galaxies-nbsp">Observing billions of galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Euclid uses two primary scientific instruments: a visible light camera (VIS) and a near-infrared spectrometer and photometer (NISP).&nbsp;</p>



<p>These instruments will allow Euclid to measure the shapes and redshifts of galaxies at distances of up to 10 billion light-years. By surveying more than a third of the sky, the mission is expected to observe several billion galaxies.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-dark-universe-nbsp">Studying the dark universe&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The data collected will help astronomers in studying the effects of dark matter and dark energy in depth, testing cosmological models, and exploring new theories about the nature of the universe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The mission, named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, seeks to address key questions related to the structure of the universe and the fundamental laws of physics governing its evolution and expansion.</p>



<p>Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</p>



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Messier 78: Young stars shine through dense dust

<p>Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a galaxy that is located about 600 million light-years away in the constellation Gemini. The Hubble Space Telescope observed a supernova in this galaxy - which appears as a bright blue dot in the photograph.</p>



<p>“This picture was taken roughly two months after a supernova named SN 2022aajn was discovered in this galaxy. The supernova is visible as a blue dot at the center of the image, brightening the hazy body of the galaxy,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-supernova">What is a supernova?</h2>



<p>Supernovae are spectacular explosions marking the violent deaths of stars. These cosmic events are so luminous they can briefly outshine entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and radiate more energy in a few weeks than our Sun will in its entire lifetime.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Supernovae explosions release heavy elements like carbon, oxygen, and iron into the interstellar medium. This stellar debris becomes the building blocks for new stars, planets, and even life itself. </p>



<p>Supernovae also produce neutron stars or black holes, depending on the remaining core’s mass after the explosion.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-supernovae-nbsp">Types of supernovae&nbsp;</h2>



<p>There are two main types of supernovae, classified based on their causes. Type I supernovae occur when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a> in a binary system accretes material from its companion star, eventually reaching a critical mass and triggering a runaway nuclear reaction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Type II supernovae happen when a massive star, at least eight times the mass of the Sun, exhausts its nuclear fuel. Unable to support its own gravity, the core collapses, resulting in a massive explosion that ejects the outer layers into space.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-distance-to-faraway-galaxies-nbsp">Measuring the distance to faraway galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



<p>According to ESA, SN 2022aajn is a Type Ia supernova. “Supernovae of this type help astronomers measure the distance to faraway galaxies. This is possible because Type Ia supernovae are thought to be of the same intrinsic luminosity - no matter how bright they seem from Earth, they put out the same amount of light as other Type Ia supernovae.”</p>



<p>This means that researchers can calculate the distance to the supernova and its host galaxy by comparing the observed brightness to the expected brightness.</p>



<p>“This seemingly simple measurement method is complicated by cosmic dust. The farther away a supernova is, the fainter and redder it will appear - but intergalactic dust can make a supernova appear fainter and redder as well,” explained ESA.</p>



<p>“To understand this complication, researchers will use Hubble to survey a total of 100 Type Ia supernovae in seven wavelength bands from the ultraviolet to the near-infrared.”</p>



<p>By analyzing the brightness of supernovae across multiple wavelengths, researchers can distinguish between the influences of dust and distance, refining our measurements of galaxies that exist billions of light-years away.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-many-galaxies-exist">How many galaxies exist?</h2>



<p>The number of galaxies in the universe is estimated to be around two trillion, based on observations from Hubble and more recent data from the James Webb Space Telescope. </p>



<p>This estimate is derived from deep-field surveys that reveal countless galaxies, each containing billions to trillions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, because our observations are limited by current technology and the vastness of the cosmos, the actual number could be even higher.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-galaxies-formed-from-the-earliest-elements-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> remain unseen due to their extreme distances, faintness, or obstruction by cosmic dust.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-gemini-nbsp">The constellation Gemini&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Gemini is one of the 12 zodiac constellations and is best known for representing the mythological twins Castor and Pollux. It is located in the northern celestial hemisphere and is most visible during winter in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The constellation is bordered by Taurus to the west, Cancer to the east, and Orion to the south.</p>



<p>The two brightest stars in Gemini - Castor and Pollux - represent the heads of the twins and are easy to spot. Pollux, the brighter of the two, is an orange giant star about 34 light-years from Earth, while Castor is a more complex system made up of six stars. </p>



<p>The constellation also contains several notable deep-sky objects, including the open cluster Messier 35, which is a beautiful collection of young stars located near Gemini’s western border.</p>



<p>Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</p>



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Hubble spots a supernova in the constellation Gemini 

<p>Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Cat's Eye Nebula (NGC 6543), located about 3,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Draco.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The nebula's name comes from its eye-like appearance when viewed through a telescope. This particular image, which reveals the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horsehead-nebula-webb-telescope-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> in stunning detail, was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-planetary-nebula">Complex planetary nebula </h2>



<p>According to ESA, the Cat's Eye Nebula is one of the most complex planetary nebulae that has ever been discovered.</p>



<p>“A planetary nebula forms when Sun-like stars gently eject their outer gaseous layers to form bright nebulae with amazing twisted shapes," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.</p>



<p>"Until recently, it was thought that shells around planetary nebulae were a rare phenomenon. However, astronomers have instead shown that these rings are likely to be the rule rather than the exception."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-of-the-cat-s-eye-nebula-nbsp">Appearance of the Cat's Eye Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The central focus of the Cat's Eye is a hot, dying star that has shed its outer layers to form the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragons-egg-nebula-is-a-truly-stunning-sight-to-behold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a>. It is surrounded by concentric gas shells, jets of high-speed gas, and unusual shock-induced knots of gas.</p>



<p>“Although the rings may be the key to explaining the final ‘gasp’ of the dying central star, the mystery behind the Cat’s Eye Nebula’s nested ‘Russian doll’ structure remains largely unsolved,” noted ESA.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rings-around-the-cat-s-eye">Rings around the cat’s eye</h2>



<p>“This image, taken with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), reveals the full pattern of eleven or more concentric rings, or shells, around the Cat’s Eye. Each ‘ring’ is actually the edge of a spherical bubble seen projected onto the sky - which is why it appears bright along its outer edge.”</p>



<p>According to ESA, observations suggest that the star ejected its mass in a series of pulses at 1,500-year intervals. “These convulsions created dust shells that each contains as much mass as all of the planets in our solar system combined.”</p>



<p>Several explanations have been proposed for this phenomenon, including cycles of magnetic activity similar to our Sun's sunspot cycle, the influence of companion stars orbiting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dying-stars-may-be-a-source-of-gravitational-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dying star</a>, or stellar pulsations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Another theory suggests that the material is ejected smoothly from the star, with the rings forming later due to the creation of waves in the outflowing material.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-draco-nbsp">The constellation Draco&nbsp;</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extrasolar-ocean-planet-discovered-in-the-draco-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Draco</a> is a constellation in the northern sky that represents a dragon. It's one of the largest constellations, winding between the Big and Little Dippers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In Greek mythology, Draco is often identified as the dragon Ladon, who guarded the golden apples in the garden of the Hesperides.</p>



<p>Draco is a circumpolar constellation for most northern hemisphere observers, meaning it never sets below the horizon and can be seen all year round.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-famous-planetary-nebulae">Famous planetary nebulae </h2>



<p>Planetary nebulae are some of the most beautiful and intriguing objects in the universe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>One of the most famous is the Ring Nebula, or M57, located in the constellation Lyra. This nebula is renowned for its nearly perfect ring shape, which is the result of a dying star shedding its outer layers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Another well-known planetary nebula is the Helix Nebula, or NGC 7293, often referred to as the "Eye of God" due to its eye-like appearance. The Helix Nebula is one of the closest planetary nebulae to Earth, making it a popular target for amateur astronomers.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The Dumbbell Nebula, or M27, in the constellation Vulpecula, is another striking example. It is named for its resemblance to a dumbbell and is notable for being the first planetary nebula ever discovered, by Charles Messier in 1764.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The Butterfly Nebula, or NGC 6302, is located in the constellation Scorpius. Its name comes from its distinctive bipolar structure, resembling the wings of a butterfly. The nebula's central star is one of the hottest known, with a surface temperature of around 250,000 degrees Celsius.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The Eskimo Nebula, or NGC 2392, in the constellation Gemini, is known for its resemblance to a face surrounded by a fur parka, which gives it its name. Its intricate structure, including filaments and bubble-like shapes, makes it a fascinating object of study.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These nebulae not only captivate us with their beauty but also provide valuable insights into the life cycles of stars and the processes that shape our galaxy.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope</p>



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Cat's Eye Nebula in the constellation Draco

<p>Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features Ksudach, a remarkable volcanic complex located on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula.</p>



<p>“The peninsula is one of the world’s most active volcanic arcs due to tectonic plate movement, with the Pacific Plate subducting under the Eurasian Plate,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153779/ksudachs-nested-calderas-and-craters" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-eruptions-of-ksudach">Explosive eruptions of Ksudach</h2>



<p>Ksudach is classified as a shield <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-helps-scientists-forecast-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> due to the gentle slopes formed by its extensive lava flows. The combination of its shield-like structure and the prominent caldera system makes Ksudach a unique volcanic feature on the Kamchatka Peninsula.</p>



<p>“Several overlapping calderas and craters comprise the volcano. Calderas are large, bowl-shaped depressions created by the collapse of overlying material into an emptied subsurface magma chamber,” explained NASA.</p>



<p>“Craters are circular depressions created by volcanic activity, surface impacts, or explosions.”</p>



<p>This volcanic system has a fascinating geological history shaped by multiple explosive eruptions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The most significant of these occurred around 240 AD, leaving behind a prominent caldera that now hosts scenic crater lakes, such as Lake Ksudach. </p>



<p>“Lakes within the volcanic region are primarily recharged by rain and snowmelt from the winter season. This photo shows the water’s contrasting blue hues surrounded by green vegetation,” noted NASA.</p>



<p>“Traces of snow fill valleys within and outside the volcano’s caldera complex. These snow-covered areas highlight the drainage patterns from higher to lower elevations. Water that flows through these erosional pathways and into the caldera supports its vegetation and lakes.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-landscape-of-ksudach-nbsp">Unique landscape of Ksudach&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Ksudach's landscape also features pyroclastic deposits, lava flows, and hydrothermal features like fumaroles.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The surrounding environment - which is part of the UNESCO-listed Kamchatka Volcanoes - supports a diverse ecosystem with unique wildlife. </p>



<p>Despite its remote location, Ksudach has drawn the attention of geologists, offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic processes</a> and the dynamics of caldera formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-earth-s-geology-nbsp">Dynamic nature of Earth's geology&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The most well-documented eruption of Ksudach occurred in March 1907. This eruption ranks as one of the largest in Kamchatka in the 20th century, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 5.</p>



<p>The eruption produced a colossal ash column that soared into the stratosphere, dispersing fine particles over vast distances and contributing to global atmospheric changes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The sheer force of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/icelands-volcanic-eruptions-may-continue-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> unleashed pyroclastic flows - fast-moving avalanches of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris - that raced down the volcano's slopes, obliterating everything in their path.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These flows, capable of reaching temperatures over 1,000°C, decimated vegetation and altered the topography of the surrounding region.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Simultaneously, tephra deposits blanketed the landscape in layers of thick volcanic material, smothering ecosystems and creating a barren wasteland.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Today, Ksudach is considered an active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> but remains dormant. The region is closely monitored due to its potential for renewed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-ring-of-fire-nbsp">Pacific Ring of Fire&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean where tectonic activity is highly concentrated.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This geologically dynamic area features numerous volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and frequent seismic activity - making it a hotspot for both natural beauty and scientific study. </p>



<p>Kamchatka is home to over 160 volcanoes, with about 30 considered active, including Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest and one of the most active in the region.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



<p>As the Pacific Plate dives into the Earth's mantle, it melts and generates magma that feeds Kamchatka’s volcanic systems.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This ongoing tectonic interaction also contributes to the broader activity of the Pacific Ring of Fire, which accounts for approximately 75% of the world's active and dormant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and about 90% of its earthquakes.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-significance-nbsp">Broader significance&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Beyond its geological significance, the Kamchatka Peninsula boasts a diverse ecosystem that is home to animals such as snow sheep, brown bears, red foxes, and unique plants that are adapted to its harsh environment. </p>



<p>The coastal waters surrounding the peninsula support various fish species, including abundant salmon, as well as sea lions and killer whales.</p>



<p>The interplay of volcanic landscapes and pristine wilderness makes it a natural laboratory for understanding Earth's dynamic processes.</p>



<p>The image was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;</p>



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Ksudach: A volcano shaped by explosive forces

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

<p>Each year, painted lady butterflies embark on one of the most remarkable migrations in the animal kingdom, traveling up to 10,000 km between Africa and Europe in search of optimal breeding conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>But what determines how far an individual butterfly will travel? Is migration encoded in their DNA, or is it shaped by external factors?</p>



<p>A recent study, led by scientists at the <a href="https://ist.ac.at/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Science and Technology Austria</a> (ISTA) in collaboration with international research teams, reveals that environmental conditions - not genetics - dictate whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-incredible-transatlantic-journey-of-the-painted-lady/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">painted lady</a> will travel long or short distances. </p>



<p>The findings challenge previous assumptions about butterfly migration and highlight the role of phenotypic plasticity - the ability of organisms to alter their behavior in response to their surroundings.</p>



<p>Study co-author Daria Shipilina is an evolutionary biologist and postdoctoral researcher at ISTA. </p>



<p>“The painted lady is a strikingly beautiful and colorful butterfly species,” said Shipilina. "Watching them form large aggregations is a true spectacle. But what makes them particularly special is their incredible long-distance migrations.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-nature-s-most-impressive-migrations">One of nature’s most impressive migrations</h2>



<p>Painted ladies begin their journey in Northwest Africa in the spring. They fly across the Mediterranean into Europe, where subsequent generations continue northward, reaching as far as Sweden and the Arctic tundra. </p>



<p>For a long time, scientists believed that once these butterflies arrived in northern Europe, they perished in the colder months.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, recent studies confirmed that painted ladies complete a circular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>, returning south in autumn - some staying in the Mediterranean region while others venture all the way back to Africa, even crossing the Sahara.</p>



<p>This discovery raised a crucial question: why do some painted ladies migrate farther than others? Do they have an internal navigation system that dictates their path?</p>



<p>To investigate, Shipilina and her team collected painted lady butterflies from various locations, including Benin, Senegal, Morocco, Spain, Portugal, and Malta, and employed advanced isotope geolocation techniques to track their movements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-butterflies-origins-and-destinations">Tracing the butterflies' origins and destinations</h2>



<p>By analyzing the stable isotopes in butterfly wings, the researchers could determine where each butterfly originated as a caterpillar.</p>



<p>“The key principle of this method is that the isotopic makeup - or the stable isotopes - of the adult butterfly’s wings mirrors the isotopic signature of the plants they ate as a caterpillar,” Shipilina explained.</p>



<p>Co-first authors Megan Reich and Clément Bataille from the <a href="https://www.uottawa.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Ottawa</a> spent several years refining this geolocation technique, integrating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-machine-learning-can-help-us-protect-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine-learning</a> algorithms to improve accuracy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The analysis revealed two distinct migration patterns: while some butterflies took a long trip south, migrating from Scandinavia across the Sahara, others traveled shorter distances, staying in the Mediterranean region.</p>



<p>This raised another question - was this difference encoded in the butterflies’ genes?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-basis-of-butterfly-migration-nbsp">Genetic basis of butterfly migration&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To investigate the genetic basis of migration, the scientists conducted whole <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-genome-has-barely-changed-after-250-million-years-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> sequencing on the butterflies. Surprisingly, their analysis showed no significant genetic differences between those that migrated long distances and those that stayed closer to Europe.</p>



<p>“This finding fundamentally differs from what is observed in some birds, another well-studied migratory group,” Shipilina noted. “For example, in willow warblers, a large chromosomal region has been associated with variable migratory direction, illustrating how different phenotypes arise from distinct genomic compositions.”</p>



<p>Additionally, factors like sex, wing size, and wing shape had no clear influence on migration distances, further ruling out genetic or physiological predisposition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-cues-and-butterfly-migration">Environmental cues and butterfly migration</h2>



<p>If genes don’t dictate migration behavior, then what does? According to the study, environmental conditions play the dominant role.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The scientists propose that phenotypic plasticity - the ability of an organism to adapt its behavior based on external cues - explains why some butterflies migrate farther than others.</p>



<p>For instance, a butterfly in Sweden might receive strong environmental cues to migrate long distances, such as shortening day length and temperature drops, prompting it to cross the Sahara.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Meanwhile, a butterfly in Southern France, where seasonal changes are less extreme, may not experience the same triggers, leading it to migrate only as far as the Mediterranean region.</p>



<p>“Phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to adjust their migratory behavior without changing their genetic makeup,” Shipilina said. “This flexibility could be key to how painted ladies adapt to different climatic conditions.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexities-of-butterfly-migration-nbsp">Complexities of butterfly migration&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Compared to species like monarch butterflies, painted lady migration remains relatively understudied.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This latest research raises new questions: Does this migration pattern apply to painted ladies worldwide? Are other butterfly species also influenced by environmental cues rather than genetics? How will climate change impact the migration patterns of painted ladies in the future?</p>



<p>The researchers aim to build on these findings to further unravel the complexities of butterfly migration.</p>



<p>“There is still so much to learn about the migration of painted ladies,” Shipilina said. “We are determined to close this knowledge gap - one paper at a time.”</p>



<p>By demonstrating that migration strategies are shaped by the environment rather than hardwired in DNA, this study provides a new perspective on how insects navigate the world.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As climate patterns shift, understanding these flexible behaviors may be critical for predicting and protecting the future of migratory butterflies.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae586" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>PNAS Nexus</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Butterfly migration habits are not determined by their DNA

Each year, painted lady butterflies embark on one of the...

<p>Many people have experienced waking up in a good mood in the morning, only to feel drained by the end of the day. A new study confirms that this pattern is not just a personal feeling - it is a widespread trend. </p>



<p>According to the research, mental health and wellbeing scores peak in the morning and decline as the day progresses, reaching their lowest point around midnight.</p>



<p>This study provides one of the most detailed analyses of how mental health fluctuates across the day. It also examines whether these variations depend on the day of the week, the season, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-and-the-internet-who-benefits-and-who-suffers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">broader social factors</a>. </p>



<p>The findings offer valuable insights into daily mental health patterns, with implications for both public health and personal well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-is-better-in-the-morning">Mental health is better in the morning</h2>



<p>Researchers found a strong connection between time of day and mental health. In the morning, people report feeling the happiest, most satisfied with life, and least lonely. These positive feelings gradually decline throughout the day. </p>



<p>By midnight, mental health scores reach their lowest levels, with increased reports of depressive and anxiety symptoms.</p>



<p>This pattern suggests that mental health is not static but changes over short periods. While previous studies have explored long-term shifts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-the-hidden-casualty-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental well-being</a>, fewer have examined how people’s mood and well-being fluctuate throughout a single day.</p>



<p>This research fills that gap by analyzing mental health trends across different times, days, and seasons.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-mood-patterns">Daily mood patterns </h2>



<p>The research team used data from the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> COVID-19 Social Study, which tracked mental health patterns from March 2020 to March 2022. </p>



<p>The study included responses from over 49,000 participants, with a majority being women and degree-educated individuals. Since certain demographics were overrepresented, the data was weighted to reflect a more balanced population.</p>



<p>Participants answered direct questions about their happiness, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomscrolling-is-silently-ruining-our-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life satisfaction</a>, and sense of purpose. These responses were recorded with timestamps, allowing researchers to analyze mood variations across different hours. </p>



<p>The experts also collected information about each participant’s age, gender, employment status, education level, and health conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-some-days-feel-better-than-others">Do some days feel better than others?</h2>



<p>Beyond daily fluctuations, the study examined whether mental health varied across different days of the week. The results showed that well-being scores were generally higher on Mondays and Fridays compared to Sundays.</p>



<p>Interestingly, happiness levels were also relatively high on Tuesdays, while Sundays had some of the lowest well-being scores.</p>



<p>Loneliness, however, remained fairly stable across all days. The study found no clear evidence that people felt more isolated on specific days of the week. </p>



<p>The researchers noted that these findings challenge common assumptions, such as the idea that weekends are always better for mental health than weekdays.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-effects-on-mental-health">Seasonal effects on mental health</h2>



<p>The research also confirmed that mental health shifts with the seasons. Compared to winter, people generally reported lower levels of depression and anxiety during other times of the year. </p>



<p>Happiness, life satisfaction, and a sense of purpose were all highest in the summer months.</p>



<p>Despite these seasonal variations, one surprising finding was that the daily pattern of mood remained consistent. Regardless of the season, people still felt best in the morning and worst at night. </p>



<p>This suggests that while seasonal factors like daylight hours influence mood, they do not override the body’s internal clock.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-the-body-clock">Role of the body clock</h2>



<p>The researchers suggest that the daily pattern in mental health could be explained by biological rhythms. Specifically, they point to the role of cortisol, a hormone linked to stress and energy regulation.</p>



<p>“For example, cortisol peaks shortly after waking and reaches its lowest levels around bedtime. However, it is important to acknowledge the differences between weekends and weekdays."</p>



<p>This means that while natural biological processes help regulate mood, external factors such as work schedules and daily routines also play a role. The fact that mental health fluctuates differently on weekends suggests that social and behavioral factors contribute to these changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-improved-after-2020">Mental health improved after 2020</h2>



<p>Another key finding from the study was that overall mental health improved from 2020 onward. Since the research period covered the COVID-19 pandemic, this suggests that mental health gradually recovered after the initial crisis. </p>



<p>However, the study does not establish a direct cause-and-effect relationship, so other factors could also explain this improvement.</p>



<p>The researchers acknowledge some limitations in their study. Since participants completed the questionnaires voluntarily, the timing of their responses might have influenced the results.</p>



<p>The study also did not account for variables such as sleep patterns, geographical location, or daily weather conditions - all of which could affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-crisis-half-of-the-worlds-population-will-be-affected-by-age-75/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mood</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-public-health">Implications for public health</h2>



<p>Despite these limitations, the study highlights important trends that could influence mental health services. Understanding when people are most vulnerable can help improve support systems.</p>



<p>“Other drivers of the seasonal variation in [mental health and wellbeing] could include weather (temperature, precipitation, humidity) as well as various sociocultural cycles, including cultural holidays, norms, and employment patterns,” noted the study authors.</p>



<p>This research suggests that mental health services should consider these time-based trends when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-mental-health-benefits-of-living-near-green-spaces/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planning resources</a>. If people tend to struggle the most around midnight, mid-week, and in winter, then additional support should be available during these times.</p>



<p>“Finally, in relation to public health, our findings indicate that people’s [mental health and wellbeing] tends to be lowest around midnight, mid-week, and in winter. This should be considered when planning service and resource provision," wrote the researchers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-daily-mood-patterns">Recognizing daily mood patterns </h2>



<p>This study reinforces the idea that mental health is constantly shifting throughout the day, with mornings generally bringing the best <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-americans-have-lost-years-of-time-to-poor-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mood</a>.</p>



<p>The findings highlight the importance of recognizing daily patterns in mood, rather than viewing mental health as a fixed state. While mornings seem to offer the best outlook, nights may present greater challenges.</p>



<p>These insights could encourage individuals to be more mindful of their mental health at different times of the day. They also provide valuable information for healthcare providers, policymakers, and researchers working to improve mental well-being on a broader scale.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://mentalhealth.bmj.com/content/28/1/e301418" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMJ Mental Health</a>.</em></p>



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Overall, people feel better about life in the morning

Many people have experienced waking up in a good mood...

<p>Sudden darkness once covered the Nile Delta, leaving onlookers confused and uneasy. Many years later, researchers still wonder how the unsettling eclipse influenced major decisions in ancient Egypt.</p>



<p>This concept was explored by archaeoastronomer Giulio Magli from the <a href="https://www.polimi.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polytechnic University of Milan</a>. His ideas connect a rare celestial occurrence with a change in Old Kingdom traditions that altered pharaonic structures forever.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-a-mysterious-date">Pinpointing a mysterious date</h2>



<p>A total solar eclipse swept across Egypt on April 1, 2471 BC, surprising those who revered the Sun as a powerful symbol. </p>



<p>The passing Moon blocked the light in a way that seemed unimaginable, sparking questions about the favor of the gods.</p>



<p>Many scholars believe such an event would have carried weight in the hearts of the people. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mayan-civilization-may-have-been-shaped-by-ingenious-fisheries/">Ancient civilizations</a> often interpreted sudden darkness as a signal from higher powers, and this could lead to shifts in ritual or leadership approach.</p>



<p>The last pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty, Shepseskaf, led Egypt for a short time. Some estimate his reign at between four and seven years.</p>



<p>He chose a design for his tomb that contrasted sharply with the pyramids of his predecessors. This marked a big change in how Egypt’s rulers showcased their legacies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-from-solar-traditions">Breaking from solar traditions </h2>



<p>“Shepseskaf made revolutionary choices for his funerary monument, which seem to be an explicit rejection of the solar tradition established by his predecessors,” explained Magli, an Italian astrophysicist and archaeo-astronomer. </p>



<p>The new structure was not visible from Heliopolis, the center of worship for Egypt’s Sun cult.</p>



<p>Previously, Egypt’s kings had built towering triangles at Giza and Dahshur, reinforcing solar symbolism. Shepseskaf instead created a rectangular monument with raised ends, a shape more in line with the archaic shrines of the Nile Delta.</p>



<p>One theory suggests that Shepseskaf had practical reasons for adopting this form. Another proposes he intended to build a pyramid but ran out of time or resources.</p>



<p>In contrast, Magli’s explanation focuses on an eclipse that would have frightened onlookers. The unusual shift in day and night may have challenged traditional beliefs about the Sun’s power.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-omen-with-political-weight">An omen with political weight</h2>



<p>Buto was a sacred site in the Delta region where worship centered on local deities that predated the grand solar cult.</p>



<p>If darkness covered the revered city, it might have been interpreted as a sign from forces beyond the Sun. This may have motivated Shepseskaf to distance himself from solar architecture.</p>



<p>“This would have prompted Shepseskaf to break with tradition, reflecting a crucial symbolic and political shift,” noted Magli. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tonights-worm-moon-coincides-with-a-subtle-lunar-eclipse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eclipse</a> could have planted a seed of doubt about the enduring power of solar worship.</p>



<p>Altering royal monuments was a drastic step. Pharaohs often followed the same patterns as their predecessors to emphasize continuity and stability, so a shift would have spoken volumes to the populace.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-pyramid-construction">Changes in pyramid construction </h2>



<p>Later kings tried to restore the solar emphasis in their architecture, yet no monument recaptured the majesty or precision of the Great Pyramid of Khufu.</p>



<p>Egypt’s building methods and labor force changed over time. The age of massive pyramid construction had passed, and future pyramids would be smaller, less imposing structures.</p>



<p>Historians caution against attributing every shift solely to cosmic events. Natural disasters, political tensions, or economic factors might have played a part too.</p>



<p>Archaeological evidence remains incomplete, sparking fresh debates. Each new theory offers a glimpse into how these royal projects mirrored deeper societal changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-eclipse-in-egypt">Significance of the eclipse in Egypt </h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/image/total-solar-eclipse-captured-from-one-million-miles-away/">Evidence of this eclipse</a> exists in astronomical simulations and ancient texts that hint at unusual solar behavior. The Old Kingdom’s architectural choices may have reflected a deeper anxiety about the cosmic order.</p>



<p>Shepseskaf’s legacy stands out as a statement of independence from a long-held custom. The differences in his tomb’s style are more apparent when compared with the strict solar alignment favored by earlier rulers.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-real-impact-of-burning-magic-herbs-in-spiritual-rituals/">Religious practices</a> in early Egypt evolved in response to changing beliefs. The eclipse story shows how the environment could have shaped political and cultural directions.</p>



<p>Solar worship did not vanish completely. However, Shepseskaf’s approach highlighted an era when tradition was not always set in stone.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eclipse-shaped-egypt-s-history">Eclipse shaped Egypt's history</h2>



<p>The abrupt darkening of the Sun over major cities is often linked to fear or wonder. In Shepseskaf’s time, it possibly symbolized the fragility of any mortal claim to divine power.</p>



<p>Even if the cause was natural, the impact could have felt personal. When a guiding star vanished, people may have questioned the foundations of authority.</p>



<p>Archaeologists still debate whether Shepseskaf’s tomb was a mastaba that drew from earlier prototypes or a short-lived nod to the archaic shrines. It remains one of many riddles that keep Egypt’s past alive in modern research.</p>



<p>Some modern technology allows ground surveys and internal scans of inaccessible structures. These tools occasionally reveal secrets, but many mysteries persist because of complex cultural contexts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-permanent-shift-from-solar-traditions">Permanent shift from solar traditions</h2>



<p>Clues about the decision to abandon the construction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/egypts-pyramids-were-built-along-a-buried-branch-of-the-nile-river/">huge pyramids</a> can be found in unexpected places. Royal inscriptions, worker accounts, and temple archives might shed light on what actually motivated these shifts.</p>



<p>Whether the eclipse was the sole spark or part of a larger wave of change, it caused a stir. That moment of darkness possibly nudged a bold break from a once unshakable custom.</p>



<p>Surviving relics tell stories about Egypt’s vibrant spiritual tapestry. The depth of meaning behind each monument shows that religious and political beliefs often overlapped in daily life.</p>



<p>Shepseskaf’s burial design displayed both reverence for older forms and a willingness to modify them. Although we cannot fully confirm his private thoughts, his bold choice remains compelling.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.13640" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>arXiv</em></a>.</p>



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Solar eclipse may have changed the architecture of ancient Egypt forever

Sudden darkness once covered the Nile Delta, leaving onlookers confused...


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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> provides new insight into the art of blowing things up. The experts describe the delicate balance of engineering and science that makes a demolition project successful.</p>



<p>&#8220;How do you demolish a massive building in the middle of a populated city in a matter of seconds … safely? Counterintuitively, you do it with explosives,&#8221; reports ESA.</p>



<p>&#8220;We explore how chemistry, engineering and more than a little artistry come together to safely bring down massive structures.&#8221;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>&#8211;</em><em>&#8212;</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>


Exploring the science behind demolition projects