Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Messak Settafet, a rocky plateau located in the central Sahara Desert. It is part of the greater Messak Plateau, which stretches between the Erg Uan Kasa and the Murzuq Sand Sea.&nbsp;



The plateau's surface is characterized by blackened sandstone, sculpted by thousands of years of wind erosion. This dark patina, often referred to as "desert varnish," adds to its distinctive appearance. The region is starkly beautiful but harsh, with extreme temperatures and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-climate-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-messak-settafet">Image of the Messak Settafet</h2>



“Towering over the desert in southwestern Libya, the Messak Settafet plateau resembles the wall of a giant fortress, with its dark, erosion-resistant sandstone separating the Ubari Sand Sea to the north and the Marzūq Sand Sea to the south,” noted NASA.



“The large outcrop of Cretaceous rock features a sharp escarpment on its north side. The cliff, some 300 meters (1,000 feet) high in places, is lined with a thin dark shadow.”&nbsp;



“Dark debris from rockfalls is visible to the north. Note that an optical illusion called relief inversion can make high-elevation areas appear low and vice versa when shadows appear on the northern side of a feature.”



Archaeological significance of the plateau&nbsp;



Messak Settafet is often referred to as the "land of stone tools" because it is one of the world's largest sites for prehistoric tools.&nbsp;



The area is littered with countless <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fstone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> and artifacts dating back to various prehistoric periods, including the Acheulean and Neolithic. These tools offer insights into early human technology and adaptation to desert environments.



“Signs of ancient tool making cover much of the plateau’s surface,” said <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “According to one archaeological survey, people discarded so many stone tools and rock fragments on the plateau over hundreds of thousands of years that roughly 75 artifacts per square meter now carpet the surface.” 



“That makes this one of the earliest known examples of hominins modifying an entire landscape, according to the University of Cambridge archaeologists who conducted the survey.”



“Other signs of ancient activity include the bright spots that dot the image. These areas were likely quarrying pits where people dug up rocks and crafted them into tools, the archaeologists reported.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-art-on-the-plateau-nbsp">Rock art on the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



The plateau is home to numerous petroglyphs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negev-petroglyphs-ancient-art-rock-carvings-face-erosion-fungi-lichens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carvings</a>. These engravings depict animals, humans, and symbolic designs, providing valuable clues about the lives, beliefs, and environments of the region's ancient inhabitants. 



“For instance, Wadi Mathendous, a prehistoric archaeological site located in the southern part of the plateau, contains engravings of rhinoceroses, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, fighting cats, giraffes, long-horned buffaloes, and elephants. The art is thought to be about 8,000 years old,” said NASA.



Some of the animals depicted, such as giraffes and elephants, indicate that the Sahara was once a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fa-lush-green-sahara-desert-helped-early-humans-migrate-out-of-africa%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">much wetter</a> and more hospitable environment.



Cultural significance of the Messak Settafet



Messak Settafet forms part of the Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985. This designation highlights the area's importance for understanding early human culture and environmental changes in the Sahara.



The plateau has been a critical area for studying the migration and adaptation of early humans. Its archaeological richness offers a glimpse into how humans thrived in this region during periods when the climate was wetter.



“Although the plateau now receives less than 0.4 inches of rain annually, clues in the landscape make clear it was once much wetter,” noted NASA.



“Deeply incised dried stream valleys, or wadis, crisscross the plateau, indicating significant past water flow. The small, bright features scattered across the plateau are sand and silt deposits left where water once pooled.”



The Messak Settafet, like many remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> regions, faces challenges such as erosion, vandalism of ancient rock art, and the potential impacts of development. Efforts to preserve its archaeological treasures are vital for protecting its cultural and scientific significance.



The image was captured November 17, 2024 by the Operational Land Imager-2 (OLI-2) on Landsat 9 on&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Messak Settafet plateau in the Sahara Desert

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the western part of Grand Bahama, the northernmost island in the Bahamas, captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 satellite system.&nbsp;



Grand Bahama is known for its beautiful beaches, clear turquoise waters, and vibrant tourism industry. The island is the fourth largest in the Bahamas and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-main-cities-of-grand-bahama-nbsp">Main cities of Grand Bahama&nbsp;</h2>



“Grand Bahama’s two main cities are both visible in the image: West End on the northwestern tip of the island and Freeport on the southern shore,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“West End is the oldest city on the island, and the capital. The runway of West End airport, the smaller of the two airports serving Grand Bahama, can be spotted west of the city.”



Freeport serves as a hub for tourism, trade, and commerce. It was developed as a free trade zone in the 1950s, which has helped drive its growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geography-and-climate">Geography and climate</h2>



Grand Bahama is situated about 55 miles off the coast of Florida, making it one of the closest islands in the Bahamas to the United States.



The island has a tropical climate, with warm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperatures-increase-scientists-plan-slow-down-rising-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> year-round. It experiences a wet season from May to October and a dry season from November to April.



The rainy season is from May to October, with the wettest months being August and September. Thunderstorms are common during this period, and the island can experience heavy rainfall, especially during hurricane season.



The humidity level is consistently high due to the tropical location, often exceeding 70 percent. It peaks during the rainy season, making it feel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-temperature-threshold-can-the-human-body-handle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hotter</a> than the actual temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricanes-on-grand-bahama">Hurricanes on Grand Bahama</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-propose-adding-a-category-6-to-the-current-hurricane-intensity-scale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hurricanes</a> have left a lasting impact on the infrastructure, economy, and environment of Grand Bahama.&nbsp;



Recovery efforts from such destructive storms often take years, and the island's experience with hurricanes has highlighted the vulnerability of coastal communities in the face of increasingly severe weather events.



Dorian was one of the most devastating hurricanes to hit Grand Bahama. It was a Category 5 storm with maximum sustained winds of 185 miles per hour.&nbsp;



The hurricane caused catastrophic damage, including widespread flooding, destruction of homes and infrastructure, and loss of life. Dorian stalled over the island, leading to prolonged and intense damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tourism-nbsp-on-grand-bahama">Tourism&nbsp;on Grand Bahama</h2>



Grand Bahama is known for its stunning beaches, such as Lucaya Beach, Xanadu Beach, and Taino Beach. The island offers various water activities, including snorkeling, scuba diving, and boating.



The Lucayan National Park is a popular natural attraction, featuring one of the world's longest underwater cave systems, as well as beautiful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangroves</a> and wetlands.



Port Lucaya Marketplace is a vibrant area with shops, restaurants, and entertainment, often considered the heart of Grand Bahama’s tourist activity.



Grand Bahama has been working on revitalizing its tourism industry, especially after facing challenges like hurricanes and the Covid-19 pandemic. Efforts include upgrading infrastructure, improving facilities, and promoting sustainable tourism practices. 



The island offers various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/travelers-are-ready-for-more-affordable-eco-friendly-options/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eco-tourism</a> activities, including kayaking through mangroves, bird watching, and exploring its unique ecosystems, which attract visitors interested in environmental conservation and sustainable travel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grand-bahama-folklore">Grand Bahama folklore</h2>



On Grand Bahama Island, folklore and supernatural tales have been passed down through generations.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-chickcharney">The Chickcharney</h3>



The Chickcharney is a legendary creature believed to inhabit the forests of the Bahamas, including Grand Bahama. Described as a large, bird-like creature with red eyes and three-toed feet, it is said to bring good luck to those who encounter it and treat it with respect.&nbsp;



However, those who mock or disrespect it might find themselves cursed with bad luck. The Chickcharney is deeply rooted in Bahamian folklore and is often depicted as a guardian of the forests.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ghost-of-rand-nature-center">The ghost of Rand Nature Center</h3>



The Rand Nature Center in Freeport is rumored to be haunted by the ghost of a former caretaker. Visitors and staff have reported strange occurrences, such as unexplained footsteps, cold spots, and the feeling of being watched.&nbsp;



Some believe the caretaker's spirit lingers to ensure the park is well-maintained and respected by those who visit.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-lost-city-of-atlantis">The lost city of Atlantis</h3>



While not unique to Grand Bahama, the legend of Atlantis has a connection to the Bahamas. Some believe that parts of the lost city lie submerged off the coast of the island.&nbsp;



There are tales of divers encountering mysterious underwater structures and strange phenomena, leading to speculation that these ruins could be remnants of the ancient civilization.



These stories are an integral part of the island's cultural heritage, blending history, myth, and the supernatural. Whether one believes in the supernatural or not, the tales continue to capture the imagination of both locals and visitors to Grand Bahama.



Image Credit: Copernicus Sentinel data (2023), processed by ESA



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Grand Bahama: A blend of beauty and resilience 

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an astronaut view of the Aladaghlar Mountains in northwestern Iran.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> are known for their strikingly colorful landscapes, which make them stand out among other mountain ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-of-the-aladaghlar-mountains">Landscape of the Aladaghlar Mountains</h2>



"Ridges cast shadows in the valleys and other low elevation areas, creating a three-dimensional appearance. Human alterations to the landscape are most evident in riverbeds, where the even topography is easier to build on and navigate," said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"Natural processes over millions of years have folded rock layers of various compositions and colors into the curved patterns seen here. These folds are produced by tectonic forces operating along the convergent plate boundary of the Arabia and Eurasia plates." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rainbow-mountains">The Rainbow Mountains</h2>



One of the most remarkable features of the Aladaghlar Mountains is the vivid coloration of their slopes. 



The name "Aladaghlar" translates to "colorful mountains," which is a testament to their unique appearance.&nbsp;They are also known as the Rainbow Mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-of-the-aladaghlar-mountains">Wildlife of the Aladaghlar Mountains </h2>



The Aladaghlar Mountains are part of a larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-ecosystems-are-in-urgent-need-of-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> that includes forests, meadows, and rivers, contributing to a rich biodiversity. 



The region supports a variety of wildlife, including several species that are unique to the area. The diverse wildlife add to the natural beauty and ecological importance of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a>.



Among the larger mammals, the mountains host species such as brown bears, Persian leopards, and wild goats. The Aladaghlar Mountains also support smaller mammals, including foxes, hares, and various rodent species.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mountains-influence-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birdlife</a> is abundant, including eagles, falcons, and a variety of songbirds. Reptiles like lizards and snakes are commonly found in the more humid areas, as well as amphibians.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-the-region">Cultural significance of the region</h2>



In addition to their natural appeal, the Aladaghlar Mountains hold cultural significance. The region has a rich history, with evidence of ancient civilizations and historical sites. 



Local communities have their unique cultures and traditions, which have been influenced by the natural environment of the mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geology-of-the-aladaghlar-mountains-nbsp">Geology of the Aladaghlar Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The geological history of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountains-both-carbon-sinks-and-carbon-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> is a fascinating tale of millions of years of natural processes.



The Aladaghlar Mountains are primarily composed of sedimentary rocks that have accumulated over millions of years. These sediments include sandstones, siltstones, shales, and conglomerates.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mineral-deposition-nbsp">Mineral deposition&nbsp;</h3>



The varying colors of the Aladaghlar Mountains are largely due to the presence of different minerals in the sedimentary layers. For example, red and orange hues are typically due to iron oxides, while greens can result from copper compounds.



These minerals were deposited in the sedimentary rocks through processes such as chemical precipitation, biological activity, and the weathering of parent rocks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-activity">Tectonic activity</h3>



The region has experienced significant tectonic activity due to its location near the convergent boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian plates. This tectonic activity has caused the uplift and folding of the sedimentary layers, creating the mountain range.



The compression and folding associated with tectonic movements have also contributed to the exposure of the colorful strata that were originally deposited horizontally.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-erosion-and-weathering">Erosion and weathering</h3>



Over time, erosion and weathering processes have played a crucial role in shaping the Aladaghlar Mountains. 



Wind, water, and temperature variations have eroded the softer rock layers more quickly than the harder ones, creating the distinctive ridges and valleys seen today.



These erosive processes have also helped to expose the underlying layers, revealing the vibrant colors and intricate patterns that attract tourists and geologists alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Tales and legends</h2>



One of the most famous tales associated with the Aladaghlar Mountains is that of a hidden treasure buried deep within the mountains by an ancient Persian king.&nbsp;



According to legend, the treasure is guarded by mystical creatures and can only be found by someone pure of heart and brave enough to face the challenges of the mountain.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">The shepherd and the fairy</h3>



Another local legend tells the story of a young shepherd who fell in love with a fairy he encountered in the Aladaghlar Mountains. The fairy granted the shepherd three wishes, but warned him that the wishes would come with consequences.&nbsp;



Despite the warning, the shepherd made his wishes, which ultimately led to his downfall, serving as a cautionary tale about the dangers of greed.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">The healing springs</h3>



The Aladaghlar Mountains are also said to be home to a spring with magical healing properties. According to folklore, those who bathe in the spring or drink its water are cured of all ailments.&nbsp;



However, the location of the spring is a closely guarded secret, known only to a few wise elders in the nearby villages.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">The spirit of the mountain&nbsp;</h3>



Some locals believe that the Aladaghlar Mountains are inhabited by a protective spirit, who watches over the land and its people.&nbsp;



This spirit is said to bring good fortune to those who respect the mountain and its natural beauty, but misfortune to those who exploit or harm it.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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The Aladaghlar Mountains of northwestern Iran

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Corbassière glacier, a high-altitude glacier in Switzerland. The glacier originates on the northern slope of the Grand Combin, which is one of the highest peaks in the Pennine Alps.



Collectively, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-glaciers-will-lose-half-of-their-volume-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpine glaciers</a> of Switzerland have lost more than half of their volume since the 1930s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-archives-of-past-climate">Natural archives of past climate </h2>



"Glaciers are natural archives of past climate. In their frozen layers lies evidence of Earth’s changing temperature and atmospheric composition. But as the climate warms, some of the longest records of our changing planet are melting away," said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"In just over two decades, Corbassière has shrunk in area and surface mass. The glacier was darker in 2023 due to lack of snow, and the glacier’s tongue had retreated."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-cores-from-the-corbassiere-glacier">Ice cores from the Corbassière glacier</h2>



To reconstruct past concentrations of atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-aerosols-impact-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a>, a team of scientists analyzed ice cores that were collected from the Corbassière glacier in 2018 and 2020.&nbsp;



Aerosols are tiny airborne particles that are deposited in the ice. "Such information from glaciers around the world can provide clues about past environmental conditions thousands of years ago," noted NASA.



"Ice cores contain ammonium, nitrate, and sulfate ions - signatures of aerosols lacing the snow that’s deposited on glaciers year after year. Ion concentrations are lower in winter than in summer because less polluted air can rise from the valley when the air is cold."



When the researchers analyzed the ice core from 2018, they found seasonal fluctuations in the amount of ion deposits - which is what they expected to find.&nbsp;



"But when we went to core the glacier in 2020, we noticed melting on the surface right away,” said Margit Schwikowski, an environmental chemist at <a href="https://www.psi.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul Scherrer Institute</a> in Switzerland.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-surface-melting-on-corbassiere-glacier">Rapid surface melting on Corbassière glacier</h2>



The experts determined that melting on the glacier's surface likely penetrated the glacier layers below and carried away the aerosol ions. 



"This melting rendered the core unusable in the team’s research, and other attempts to core the glacier had the same result. The valuable information stored in the ice was destroyed," explained NASA.



Schwikowski has joined a team of other experts in an effort to preserve cores from the last remaining glaciers. Led by the <a href="https://www.ice-memory.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Memory Foundation</a>, the goal of the project is to obtain ice cores from 20 endangered glaciers around the world in 20 years and collect them in a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-ice-has-a-history-of-rapid-and-unexpected-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate archive</a>.



“Glaciers are retreating worldwide, and we may find similar issues at other sites,” said Schwikowski. She added that even at the highest altitudes in the Alps, "glaciers are on the verge of becoming unsuitable as natural paleo-archives."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-features-of-the-corbassiere-glacier">Features of the Corbassière Glacier</h2>



The Corbassière Glacier is a captivating natural feature located in the Swiss Alps, part of the canton of Valais. 



The glacier stretches over approximately 9 kilometers, making it one of the significant glaciers in the region. It originates from the Grand Combin, an imposing mountain massif that reaches heights of over 4,300 meters, contributing greatly to the glacier's nourishment through snow and ice accumulation.



A distinct feature of the Corbassière Glacier is its accessibility and the dramatic scenery it offers, which attracts many hikers and nature enthusiasts. 



One of the most notable attractions near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomsday-glacier-seems-to-have-lost-its-ability-to-recover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> is the Corbassière footbridge, a 210-meter long suspension bridge that provides stunning views of the glacier and the surrounding peaks. 



This bridge not only enhances the experience for visitors but also serves as a crucial observation point for scientists studying glacier dynamics and the effects of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Swiss Alps&nbsp;</h2>



The Swiss <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-cover-in-the-alps-could-soon-be-cut-in-half/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alps</a> are a majestic and expansive mountain range that stretches across the southern part of Switzerland, forming a part of the greater Alpine region that spreads across several countries in Europe.&nbsp;



Renowned for their stunning beauty and formidable peaks, the Swiss Alps are not just a geographical landmark but also a cultural symbol of Switzerland, epitomizing its identity as a nation of scenic landscapes and outdoor adventure.



The region is famous for its dramatic scenery, including towering mountains, pristine lakes, and picturesque valleys. Among these peaks are some of the highest in Europe, such as the Dufourspitze, part of the Monte Rosa massif, which is the highest point in Switzerland. 



The Matterhorn, perhaps the most iconic of all Swiss mountains, is celebrated for its unique, pyramid-like shape and is a magnet for climbers and tourists alike.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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The Corbassière glacier in the Swiss Alps

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features thick haze over Thailand during the fire season. The photograph was captured on March 16, 2024 by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the Suomi NPP satellite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waves-of-smoke-and-haze">Waves of smoke and haze</h2>



"Each year in January and February, satellites begin to detect waves of smoke and fire in Southeast Asia, particularly in highland forests in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand. <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-fire-season-in-mexico-is-part-of-a-worldwide-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fire activity</a> continues to increase through March and April, reaches a peak during the height of the dry season, and then fades in May with the start of the rainy season," noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"Individual fires are usually small and short-lived. But they are often so numerous that smoke, along with air pollution from rural and urban areas, mixes to produce thick layers of haze that blanket the landscape." 



According to NASA, the haze contains mixtures of small airborne particles called aerosols and gaseous pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone that degrade air quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-in-thailand-nbsp">Haze in Thailand&nbsp;</h2>



An international field campaign - the Airborne and Satellite Investigation of Asian Air Quality (ASIA-AQ) - was launched to investigate the haze in Thailand.



"During the last two weeks of March 2024, NASA’s DC-8 and Gulfstream III aircraft flew several flights over Chiang Mai, Bangkok, and rural areas surrounding the cities to sample air quality with several sensors. At the same time, satellites observed the haze from above," said NASA.



James Crawford, ASIA-AQ’s principal investigator, said the team is collaborating closely with national and local government entities in Thailand.



“The goal is to take as many simultaneous measurements of pollutants as possible from the ground, air, and space,” said Crawford. The team will use the data to gain a better understanding of how the haze forms, evolves chemically over time, and moves throughout the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-and-public-health-in-thailand">Haze and public health in Thailand </h2>



According to media reports, nearly 200,000 people have been hospitalized this year due to air quality in the region, with over 1.3 million people falling ill since January.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-causes-of-the-haze">Causes of the haze</h3>



The root causes of the haze include agricultural burning, particularly of corn fields, as part of slash-and-burn practices to prepare land for the next planting cycle. This is exacerbated by the dry season when there's little rain to wash the pollutants away. 



The situation is worsened by industrial emissions and vehicle fumes, particularly in urban areas like Bangkok​.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-solutions-are-needed">Sustainable solutions are needed</h3>



Efforts to address the crisis have been complex, involving local and transboundary issues. Much of the agricultural burning occurs not only within Thailand but also in neighboring countries like Myanmar and Laos, contributing to the transboundary nature of the haze. 



Activists and local communities have called for sustainable solutions that do not exacerbate the poverty of smallholder farmers, emphasizing the need for affordable and realistic alternatives to burning​.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-measures-nbsp">Mitigation measures&nbsp;</h3>



The Thai government has implemented a no-burning rule until the end of April to combat wildfires and haze, but enforcement and effectiveness remain challenges​​. 



Some measures taken to mitigate the immediate effects of pollution in urban areas include spraying water and seeding clouds to encourage rain, although these have had limited success​​.



This ongoing environmental crisis has sparked widespread concern among citizens, who are increasingly using public interest litigation to hold companies and the government accountable for environmental commitments. 



With recent political changes, there is hope that the new administration will take more decisive action against the haze, possibly through more stringent regulations and international cooperation​​.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-impacts-of-haze">Health impacts of haze</h2>



Haze poses several health hazards for those exposed to it, particularly when it contains fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Here are some of the main health risks associated with exposure to haze:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-respiratory-problems">Respiratory problems</h3>



Haze can aggravate conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, and other chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD). The fine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heatwaves-and-air-pollution-may-double-fatal-heart-attack-risk/">particles</a> can penetrate deep into the lungs, causing inflammation and reducing lung function.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cardiovascular-issues-and-haze">Cardiovascular issues and haze</h3>



Exposure to fine particulate matter can also affect the cardiovascular system, leading to increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, and high blood pressure. Particles can affect blood vessel function and promote the formation of blood clots.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-irritation">Eye irritation</h3>



Haze can cause eye irritation, leading to conditions such as conjunctivitis (pink eye) or exacerbated symptoms in people with existing eye conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-problems">Skin problems</h3>



For some people, exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-will-increase-dramatically-in-a-hotter-climate/">polluted air</a> can cause skin irritation or exacerbate skin conditions like eczema or psoriasis.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-immune-function">Reduced immune function</h3>



There is evidence to suggest that prolonged exposure to polluted air can weaken the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-mental-health">Impact on mental health</h3>



There are growing concerns about the impact of air pollution on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-multiple-chronic-health-conditions/">mental health</a>, with studies suggesting a link between exposure to polluted air and an increased risk of depression and anxiety.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnant-women-and-children">Pregnant women and children</h3>



Pregnant women, children, and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to the effects of haze. There may be increased risks of preterm birth and low birth weight in babies, and children may experience delayed development and reduced lung function.



The health impacts of haze can be mitigated by staying indoors on days when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-of-air-quality-improvement-erased-by-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> is particularly poor, using air purifiers, wearing masks designed to filter out fine particles, and following local health advisories.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nbsp">&nbsp;</h3>

Haze pollution is an environmental crisis in Thailand

So it’s no wonder that fear of the Yellowstone supervolcano is relatively widespread. But many experts believe that an eruption is far from overdue. And because such an event has only happened three times throughout history, they point out, it is impossible to establish any meaningful prediction. Plus there is some doubt as to whether there is enough magma beneath the park to cause an explosion. Photo credit: Paul Souders / Getty Images

Impossible To Predict

The unending stretch of the Greenland Ice Sheet, like a seasoned custodian of countless secrets, has concealed a Cold War-era ice camp beneath its surface.



This hidden camp came to light in 2024 when NASA scientist Chad Greene, aboard the Gulfstream III with his team of engineers, embarked on the expedition of a lifetime.



While probing the depths of the ice sheet about 150 miles east of Pituffik Space Base in northern Greenland, the radar readings showed a curious blip that sparked their interest. 



The team had identified evidence of the buried remains of Camp Century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-camp-century-city-under-the-ice">Camp Century: City under the ice</h2>



"We were looking for the bed of the&nbsp;ice, and out pops&nbsp;Camp&nbsp;Century," exclaimed Alex Gardner, a cryospheric scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>), who had assisted in spearheading the project.



Camp Century, also affectionately known as the "city under the ice," is a vestige of the chilling days when the Cold War was in full swing. Constructed in 1959 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, this hidden military base was etched out within the layers of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-sheet-discovery-transforms-sea-level-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice sheet</a> itself.



Traces of the facility, which has been abandoned since 1967, now lie encased approximately 30 meters (100 feet) beneath the icy surface, waiting to narrate their intriguing past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-indicators">Deciphering the indicators</h2>



Akin to an ultrasound meant for ice sheets, radar plays a pivotal role in unraveling the truths kept secret by nature.



Radar works on a simple principle - it emits radio waves and times their reflections back to the source. This allows scientists to map out the ice surface meticulously, along with its various internal layers, and the bedrock underneath.



Previous airborne surveys that flew over Camp Century managed to detect signs of the base encapsulated within the ice sheets. 



These surveys utilized conventional, ground-penetrating radar that aims directly downwards, which yielded a 2D profile of the ice sheet. This gave an impression of Camp Century's solid structures that appeared like an anomaly in the deformed layers of ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-generating-maps-with-advanced-technology">Generating maps with advanced technology </h2>



The April 2024 flights, however, could go a step further with NASA's <a href="https://uavsar.jpl.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UAVSAR</a> (Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Synthetic Aperture Radar) adorning the belly of the aircraft.



This cutting-edge system introduces a wider angle of view, and looks both downward and sideways, thus generating maps that teem with additional dimensions.



"In the new data, individual structures in the secret city are visible in a way that they've never been seen before," explained Greene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-determining-the-camp-s-alignment-under-ice">Determining the camp's alignment under ice</h2>



When juxtaposed with historical maps of the base's planned layout, the parallel structures demonstrate a striking alignment with the tunnels initially built to house a myriad of facilities.



Yet, the added dimensionality comes with its own challenges in terms of interpretation. For instance, the long line that seems to appear "above" the base is actually the ice bed, lying at least a mile below the ice sheet's surface, and well beneath the depth of Camp Century.



This apparent "inversion" is caused by the radar's return showing part of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-records-a-650-foot-tsunami-in-greenland-that-lasted-9-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice</a> bed far in the distance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-camp-century-more-than-a-historical-curiosity">Camp Century: More than a historical curiosity</h2>



Apart from their historical significance, maps created with conventional radar have aided scientists in corroborating estimates of Camp Century's depth.



This information is crucial in estimating when the melting and thinning of the ice sheet could potentially re-expose the camp and any leftover biological, chemical, and radioactive waste buried with it.



The scientific utility of the new UAVSAR image of Camp Century remains uncertain. For the moment, it's a novelty - an amazing discovery made purely by chance. However, the principal aim of Greene and Gardner was not to capture this image of Camp Century.



Their principal objective was to "calibrate, validate, and understand the capabilities and limitations of UAVSAR for mapping the ice sheet's internal layers and the ice-bed interface," as Greene clarified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-measuring-ice-thickness">The future of measuring ice thickness</h2>



Such instruments hold the key to a future where scientists might efficiently measure the thickness of ice sheets in similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-transformation-ice-melt-plant-growth-vegetation-cascading-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a> in Antarctica. Such data is critical in modeling estimates of future sea level rise.



"Without a detailed knowledge of ice thickness, it is impossible to know how the ice sheets will respond to rapidly warming oceans and atmosphere, greatly limiting our ability to project rates of sea level rise," Gardner explained.



The test flights that captured Camp Century will undoubtedly usher in the next generation of mapping campaigns focused on ice in Greenland, Antarctica, and beyond.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 



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'City under the ice': Secret base camp found in Greenland

The unending stretch of the Greenland Ice Sheet, like a...

If someone asked, "What’s the biggest threat to human health today?" you might think of diseases, lack of healthcare, or even the ongoing pandemic. But how often do we consider the pollution caused by landscape fires in the very air we breathe?



Each morning, the stillness is disrupted by smoke rising from fires across the globe. This smoke thickens the air with a menacing haze, a silent killer responsible for over 1.5 million deaths annually.



A recent study published in&nbsp;The Lancet&nbsp;highlights that this invisible menace predominantly affects developing countries, taking lives indiscriminately and relentlessly.



Climate change, an ever-increasing concern, is set to exacerbate this issue, making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-fire-risk-has-grown-exponentially-in-a-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> more frequent and severe. The echoes of our actions are reverberating back at us, amplifying the threat of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-fires-and-public-health">Landscape fires and public health</h2>



The study, conducted by an international team of researchers from <a href="https://www.monash.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a>, peered into the murky waters of "landscape fires."



Encompassing both raging wildfires and planned fires like controlled burns on farming land, the air pollution from these fires has far-reaching implications on public health.



Between 2000 and 2019, fire-related air pollution was linked to around 450,000 deaths a year from heart disease. The invisible fingers of smoke don't just spoil our visibility but also clasp our hearts with a deadly grip.



Moreover, another 220,000 deaths due to respiratory diseases were traced back to the smoke and particulates belched into the air by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-from-forest-fires-have-surged-by-60-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fires</a>. The correlation is clear; when fires breathe out, we breathe in their deadly emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-pollution-a-global-killer">Air pollution: A global killer</h2>



Considering all causes globally, the study revealed that a staggering 1.53 million annual deaths are tied to air pollution from landscape fires. The grim fact is as thick and unmissable as the smoke itself.



Over 90 percent of these deaths occur in low and middle-income countries, with nearly 40 percent in sub-Saharan Africa alone.&nbsp;



Places like China, the Democratic Republic of Congo, India, Indonesia, and Nigeria bear the highest death tolls.



A case in point is the recent suffocating smog in the Indian capital, New Delhi. The noxious fog is partly blamed on the record amount of illegal burning of farm fields in the north of the country.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-from-landscape-fires">Protection from landscape fires</h2>



Seeing the massive death toll from landscape fires, the authors of The Lancet study raised their voices for "urgent action."



The disparity between wealthy and poorer nations underscores "climate injustice," where those least responsible for global warming suffer the most.



The researchers noted that many strategies to avoid smoke from fires - like moving away, using air purifiers and masks, or staying indoors - are inaccessible for people in poorer countries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-struggle-for-climate-justice">Ongoing struggle for climate justice</h2>



The experts urge for more financial and technological support for the hardest-hit countries. It's a call for the fire to be doused and for the smoke to clear, leaving behind a healthier world.



This plea for help came at the heels of the UN climate talks where an increased climate funding was agreed upon.&nbsp;



However, developing countries criticized it as insufficient, illustrating the ongoing struggle for climate justice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empowering-local-communities">Empowering local communities</h2>



In the face of climate change, empowering local communities is essential. These communities often bear the brunt of the impacts and possess valuable knowledge and practices that can contribute to effective adaptation and mitigation strategies. 



By involving local communities in decision-making processes, promoting sustainable livelihoods, and providing access to education and resources, we can build resilience from the ground up. 



Empowering local communities not only strengthens their ability to cope with climate change but also promotes social equity and inclusivity in the transition towards a more sustainable world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-landscape-fires">Future of landscape fires </h2>



As global warming continues, landscape fires are projected to worsen in many regions. Human activities and land use changes will also contribute to these fires by increasing flammability and fire intensity.



Looking at recent catastrophes, Ecuador declared a national emergency over landscape fires that razed over 10,000 hectares in the country's south.&nbsp;



Additionally, the world has been bashed by hurricanes, droughts, floods, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-aerosol-pollution-ironically-causes-more-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> during what is expected to be the hottest year in recorded history.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(24)02251-7/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet</a>.



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Air pollution from fires linked to 1.53 million deaths per year

If someone asked, "What’s the biggest threat to human health...

Over the past 20 years, scientists have observed a subtle but widespread shift in the color of our oceans. While these changes might not be noticeable during a day at the beach, you can easily see them from airplanes and satellites in space.



This is happening on a massive, global scale, signaling to anyone paying attention that significant transformations are taking place beneath the surface of our seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sounding-alarm-bells">Sounding alarm bells</h2>



Stephanie Dutkiewicz, a senior research scientist at <a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>, has been studying this phenomenon closely. She's part of a team that's raising concerns about what these color changes mean for the health of our planet.



"We hope people take this seriously," says Dutkiewicz. "It's not only models predicting these changes; we can now see them happening, and the ocean is changing."



In a study published in Nature, researchers from the <a href="https://noc.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanography Center</a> in the UK and other institutions revealed that more than half of the world's oceans have experienced a shift in color. 



They found that these changes can't be chalked up to natural variations alone -- they're likely a result of human-driven climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-ocean-color-near-the-equator">Greener ocean color near the equator</h2>



Tropical regions near the equator have become noticeably greener over time. This isn't just a visual tweak; it's a sign that the ecosystems within the surface ocean are changing. 



The color of the ocean is influenced by what's in its upper layers, especially tiny organisms like phytoplankton.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_south-carolina-coast_landsat8_green-color_nasa-1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_south-carolina-coast_landsat8_green-color_nasa-1s.webp" alt="Winyah Bay (roughly midway between Charleston and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina) receives input from a number of blackwater rivers whose dark, reddish hues arise from the absorptive properties of colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) which some have likened to nature's tea. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1951739"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Winyah Bay (roughly midway between Charleston and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina) receives input from a number of blackwater rivers whose dark, reddish hues arise from the absorptive properties of colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) which some have likened to nature's tea. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytoplankton</a> are microscopic, plant-like creatures that contain chlorophyll, giving them their green tint. They're a cornerstone of the marine food web and play a key role in capturing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. 



Shifts in their populations can have ripple effects throughout marine ecosystems and impact the global carbon cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blame-the-humans-of-course">Blame the humans, of course</h2>



Lead author B.B. Cael from the National Oceanography Center points out that this isn't a random occurrence. 



"This evidence shows how human activities are affecting life on Earth on a vast scale," he says. "It's another way humans are impacting the biosphere, affecting even the most extensive environments on the planet."



Traditionally, scientists have monitored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chlorophyll levels</a> to keep tabs on phytoplankton populations. But tracking changes using chlorophyll alone can take decades because of natural year-to-year fluctuations. 



Back in 2019, Dutkiewicz and her colleagues suggested that looking at the full spectrum of ocean colors could reveal climate change-driven trends more quickly. They estimated that such changes could become apparent within 20 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-spot-the-difference">Satellites spot the difference</h2>



The team analyzed data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (<a href="https://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MODIS</a>) on NASA's Aqua satellite. 



Since 2002, this instrument has been observing ocean color across seven visible wavelengths. Their analysis showed a clear trend over two decades, lining up with what their models had predicted.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_new-zealand-coast_modis-satellite_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_new-zealand-coast_modis-satellite_nasa_1s.webp" alt="Phytoplankton blooms are evident throughout the South Pacific Ocean with sediment re-suspended from the ocean floor by waves and tides along much of the New Zealand coastline. Credit: MODIS/NASA" class="wp-image-1951737"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Phytoplankton blooms are evident throughout the South Pacific Ocean with sediment re-suspended from the ocean floor by waves and tides along much of the New Zealand coastline. Credit: MODIS/NASA</figcaption></figure>



Cael explains that these trends match up with the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-induced</a> climate change, not just random shifts in the Earth's system. 



This means the changes in ocean color are a direct response to how we're altering the planet's climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-ocean-color-matter">Why does ocean color matter?</h2>



So, what's the big deal about the ocean turning a bit greener? It suggests that the types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-at-risk-global-warming-threatens-the-oceans-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton communities</a> are changing. 



Different phytoplankton have varying abilities to capture carbon and support marine life. Changes in these communities can affect the entire food web, from tiny marine organisms all the way up to fish and whales.



Dutkiewicz emphasizes that these shifts will impact all creatures that rely on plankton for food. 



"Different types of plankton influence how much carbon the ocean can absorb," she notes, highlighting the broader implications for climate regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visible-sign-of-invisible-changes">Visible sign of invisible changes</h2>



This research shines a light on the far-reaching effects of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>. Monitoring ocean color offers a tangible way to detect and understand these shifts. 



The findings are a stark reminder of the significant impact human activities have on Earth's complex systems.



"The evidence is clear: human activities are altering the very color of our oceans," says Cael. This isn't just about aesthetics; it's about the intricate balance of marine life that keeps our planet healthy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-we-do-to-help">What can we do to help?</h2>



This shift in the ocean's hue is more than just a scientific curiosity -- it's a call to action. 



Scientists are continuing to study these trends to grasp the full impact on marine ecosystems and the global climate.



By keeping a closer eye on the full spectrum of ocean colors, researchers hope to gain a quicker understanding of how climate change is affecting the oceans.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_lake-erie_great-lakes_modis_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/earth-ocean-waters_lake-erie_great-lakes_modis_nasa_1s.webp" alt="At the end of winter the ice is nearly all gone from Lake Erie, and growing phytoplankton populations are revealed mingling with suspended sediments in this relatively shallow Great Lake. Credit: MODIS/NASA" class="wp-image-1951741"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">At the end of winter the ice is nearly all gone from Lake Erie, and growing phytoplankton populations are revealed mingling with suspended sediments in this relatively shallow Great Lake. Credit: MODIS/NASA</figcaption></figure>



This could lead to faster responses and more effective strategies to lessen the impacts.



As we face the realities of climate change, understanding what's happening in our oceans is crucial. Changes in the oceans can affect weather patterns, sea levels, and biodiversity on a global scale.



Addressing these challenges isn't something scientists can do alone. It requires all of us to pitch in -- from reducing our carbon footprints to supporting policies that protect marine environments. 



Every action, no matter how small, contributes to the bigger picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-color-climate-change-and-human-health">Ocean color, climate change, and human health</h2>



To sum it all up, scientists have noticed that over the past 20 years, more than half of the world's oceans have subtly changed color. 



Stephanie Dutkiewicz points out that this shift matches what climate change models have been predicting. 



The color change is linked to alterations in phytoplankton communities -- tiny, plant-like organisms with chlorophyll that give the ocean its green tint. 



These little guys are essential for marine life and play a big role in capturing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



By analyzing satellite data, researchers found that these changes aren't just natural fluctuations; they're consistent with human-driven climate change. 



The shift in ocean color suggests significant changes in marine ecosystems, which could impact the entire food web -- from microscopic organisms to large marine animals. 



This finding highlights how human activities are affecting the planet in profound ways, even down to changing the very color of our oceans. It's a clear sign that we need to take climate change seriously and start making changes now.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06321-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Earth's oceans are rapidly changing colors, and humans are directly to blame

Over the past 20 years, scientists have observed a subtle...

Our oceans do more than just serve as massive bodies of water. These vast, briny expanses actively participate in regulating our planet's climate. But, how do they do it? 



The answer lies in a small, sulphur-based compound produced by ocean creatures called "methanethiol."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-s-secret-weapon-methanethiol">Ocean's secret weapon: Methanethiol</h2>



In a recent study led by the Institute of Marine Sciences (ICM-CSIC) and the Blas Cabrera Institute of Physical Chemistry (IQF-CSIC) in Spain, a new understanding of marine life's role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-hidden-skin-could-protect-us-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate regulation</a> came into light.



The sea creatures we share our planet with are inadvertently helping to combat global warming through a gas of their own -- methanethiol.



Despite its substantial climatic impact, methanethiol remained off the radar for a long time. This was because it was incredibly difficult to measure and was only recently detected. 



Most previous research was biased towards warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collapse-of-main-atlantic-ocean-circulaton-current-amoc-is-already-happening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a>, but it turns out that the polar oceans are the real emission powerhouses. This discovery truly challenges traditional thinking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-ocean-element-with-a-big-climate-effect">Small ocean element with a big climate effect</h2>



The research team included Dr. Charel Wohl, formerly of <a href="https://www.icm.csic.es/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICM-CSIC</a> and now at the University of East Anglia (<a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UEA</a>). 



"This is the climatic element with the greatest cooling capacity, but also the least understood. We knew methanethiol was coming out of the ocean, but we had no idea about how much and where. We also did not know it had such an impact on climate," said Dr. Wohl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-methanethiol">What exactly is methanethiol?</h2>



Chemically known as CH₃SH, methanethiol is a fascinating chemical compound that you might recognize by its strong, unpleasant smell, often compared to rotten cabbage or garlic.



Methanethiol naturally occurs in various places, including certain plants and animals, and it's also a byproduct of some industrial processes. 



Despite its foul odor, methanethiol plays an important role in nature and industry, contributing to the distinctive smells of some foods and even the aroma of certain flowers that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-generate-heat-to-attract-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attract pollinators</a>.



In the industrial world, methanethiol is quite valuable. It's commonly added to natural gas as an odorant, allowing people to detect gas leaks quickly and safely by smelling the distinctive scent. 



Additionally, methanethiol is used in the production of other chemicals, such as pesticides and pharmaceuticals. 



Finally, scientists also study methanethiol to better understand biological processes, since it's produced in the human body during the breakdown of proteins and can influence body odor. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methanethiol-in-climate-regulation">Methanethiol in climate regulation</h2>



Methanethiol contributes to the formation of aerosols, tiny particles suspended in the atmosphere. 



These aerosols reflect solar radiation back into space, reducing the amount of heat that reaches and stays on Earth’s surface. This process helps cool the planet.



Additionally, methanethiol-derived aerosols play a crucial role in cloud formation. Clouds enhance the cooling effect by reflecting even more sunlight and moderating Earth's temperature. 



Together, these mechanisms make methanethiol an important natural contributor to the mitigation of global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-cooling-effects-of-the-ocean">Climate cooling effects of the ocean</h2>



Previously, it was thought that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> only emitted sulfur in the form of dimethyl sulfide, a byproduct of plankton. This compound is primarily responsible for the signature smell of shellfish. 



However, with the evolution of measurement techniques, it was discovered that plankton also emit methanethiol. 



This knowledge helps to more accurately represent clouds over the Southern Ocean in climate models and calculate their cooling effect more realistically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methanethiol-and-ocean-sulfur-emissions">Methanethiol and ocean sulfur emissions</h2>



Thanks to methanethiol, marine sulfur emissions increase by 25% annually on a global average. 



"It may not seem like much, but methanethiol is more efficient at oxidizing and forming aerosols than dimethyl sulfide and, therefore, its climate impact is magnified," noted Dr. Julián Villamayor, a researcher at <a href="https://www.iqf.csic.es/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IQF-CSIC</a>.



Identifying methanethiol as a key component of ocean sulfur emissions represents a big step toward closing the knowledge gap between climate models and observations.



The effects were particularly noticeable in the Southern Hemisphere, where vast oceans and limited human activity make sulfur emissions from fossil fuel burning less prevalent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-frontier-in-climate-research">New frontier in climate research</h2>



The discovery of methanethiol as a critical player in climate regulation marks a new frontier for scientific inquiry linked with oceans. 



Researchers now aim to explore its interactions with other atmospheric elements and its role in the broader biogeochemical cycles.



This path could reveal even more about the Earth's natural mechanisms for balancing its climate. With this knowledge, climate models can be further refined, enabling more precise predictions about global warming and the effects of sulfur emissions. 



Importantly, studying methanethiol sheds light on how interconnected ecosystems are, from microscopic plankton to the global atmospheric systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-policy-and-conservation">Implications for policy and conservation</h2>



Understanding the critical role of methanethiol has significant implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-sea-levels-are-rising-faster-than-anywhere-in-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental policy</a> and marine conservation efforts. 



Protecting polar and Southern Ocean ecosystems becomes even more vital, as these regions produce some of the highest levels of this cooling compound. 



Policymakers might see these findings as a call to double down on preserving marine biodiversity and combating threats such as ocean acidification and overfishing. 



Furthermore, this research highlights the need for international collaboration to create climate policies that regard the oceans as vital climate regulators, ensuring their role in mitigating global warming is sustained for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2465" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Oceans cool the climate much more than we previously realized

Our oceans do more than just serve as massive bodies...

Our Universe is teeming with extreme objects that are often difficult to imagine, like supernova remnants, pulsars, and active galactic nuclei, to name a few.



They're all capable of emitting charged particles and gamma rays with incredibly high energy levels that often exceed the those produced during nuclear fusion in stars by several orders of magnitude.



Adding to the mystery, scientists have now detected cosmic electrons and positrons with energies over 10 tera-electronvolts (TeV). To put that into perspective, it is 1000-billion times greater than that of visible light.



"We've uncovered data in a crucial and previously unexplored energy range," says Werner Hofmann from the <a href="https://www.mpi-hd.mpg.de/mpi/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a> for Nuclear Physics in Heidelberg. "It's likely to remain a benchmark for the coming years."



This breakthrough comes from the <a href="https://www.mpi-hd.mpg.de/HESS/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">H.E.S.S. collaboration</a> in Namibia. For the past decade, five telescopes have been peering into space, focusing on cosmic radiation and especially gamma rays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decade-of-stargazing-pays-off">Decade of stargazing pays off</h2>



Imagine spending ten years looking up at the sky every night. That's basically what these researchers have been doing. 



Using the H.E.S.S. telescopes, they've been collecting data on cosmic rays. And finally, their patience paid off. 



They've managed to measure the energy distribution of cosmic electrons and positrons up to tens of TeV with incredible precision. Basically, they hit the cosmic jackpot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-cosmic-rays">What are cosmic rays?</h2>



Cosmic rays are high-energy particles that zip through space and occasionally crash into Earth's atmosphere. 



Most of them are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atomic-nucleus-made-of-quarks-and-gluons-reproduced-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protons or atomic nuclei</a> that have lost their electrons, and they're traveling at speeds close to the speed of light. 



They come from all sorts of wild cosmic events like exploding stars (supernovae), distant galaxies, and even our own sun during solar flares.



When these speedy particles slam into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-storms-are-influenced-by-earths-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's atmosphere</a>, they collide with atoms and create a shower of secondary particles. Some of these secondary particles make it all the way down to the surface. 



Scientists study cosmic rays to learn more about these extreme events in the universe and to understand the fundamental particles and forces at play. 



It's like getting messages from space that tell us about the most energetic happenings out there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-cosmic-rays-is-difficult">Tracing cosmic rays is difficult</h2>



Because they're deflected by magnetic fields, it's tough to trace charged cosmic rays back to their source. 



Plus, as they travel, they lose energy interacting with light and magnetic fields. This energy loss is especially big for electrons and positrons above the TeV range. 



So, if we detect these high-energy particles here on Earth, they probably didn't come from too far away.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/HESS-Telescope-Array_cosmic-particles_electrons-positrons_MPIK_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/HESS-Telescope-Array_cosmic-particles_electrons-positrons_MPIK_1s.webp" alt="Visualization of the H.E.S.S. telescope array capturing the showers of particles produced by high-energy cosmic electrons and positrons, as well as gamma rays. Credit: MPIK/H.E.S.S. Collaboration" class="wp-image-1951836"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Visualization of the H.E.S.S. telescope array capturing the showers of particles produced by high-energy cosmic electrons and positrons, as well as gamma rays. Credit: MPIK/H.E.S.S. Collaboration</figcaption></figure>



When the team analyzed their data, they noticed something interesting: there's a noticeable kink in the energy spectrum around 1 TeV. 



Below and above this point, the spectrum behaves differently. This sharp change suggests something funky is happening at that energy level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-rays-culprit-is-unknown">Cosmic rays culprit is unknown</h2>



To figure out what's going on, the scientists compared their observations with computer models. 



They looked at potential sources like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-guitar-nebula-a-pulsars-dazzling-performance-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pulsars</a> -- those are highly magnetized, rotating neutron stars left over after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosion</a>. 



Some pulsars emit winds of charged particles, and the shock fronts from these winds could be giving particles a big energy boost.



"The measured electrons most likely originate from very few sources in the vicinity of our own solar system, up to a maximum of a few thousand light years away," says Kathrin Egberts from the <a href="https://www.uni-potsdam.de/en/university-of-potsdam" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Potsdam</a>. "Sources at different distances would wash out this kink considerably."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-should-we-care-about-pulsars">Why should we care about pulsars?</h2>



Think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pulsars-are-helping-astronomers-pinpoint-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pulsars</a> as cosmic lighthouses. They're super-dense remnants of massive stars that exploded in supernovae. Even though they're only about the size of a city, they can have more mass than our Sun. 



They spin incredibly fast -- some hundreds of times per second -- and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-signals-from-crab-nebula-form-a-zebra-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shoot out beams</a> of electromagnetic radiation from their magnetic poles. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/pulsar_magnetic-field_gamma-ray-beams_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/pulsar_magnetic-field_gamma-ray-beams_NASA_1s.webp" alt="Artist's impression of a pulsar with its powerful magnetic field rotating around it. The clouds of charged particles moving along the field lines emit gamma rays that are focused by the magnetic fields, rather like the beams of light from a lighthouse. In these magnetic fields, pairs of positrons and electrons are created and accelerated, making pulsars potential sources of high-energy cosmic electrons and positrons. Credit: NASA/Goddard/CNRS" class="wp-image-1951840"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artist's impression of a pulsar with its powerful magnetic field rotating around it. The clouds of charged particles moving along the field lines emit gamma rays that are focused by the magnetic fields, rather like the beams of light from a lighthouse. In these magnetic fields, pairs of positrons and electrons are created and accelerated, making pulsars potential sources of high-energy cosmic electrons and positrons. Credit: NASA/Goddard/CNRS</figcaption></figure>



When these beams sweep past Earth, we detect them as pulses, hence the name "pulsar."



But they're not just cool to think about. Pulsars have extreme magnetic fields and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fastest-spinning-magnetar-reveals-secrets-of-neutron-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rapid rotation</a>, making them natural particle accelerators. 



They can boost particles to energies way beyond what we can achieve on Earth. Studying them helps us understand physics under conditions we can't replicate in labs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-h-e-s-s-collaboration">The H.E.S.S. Collaboration</h2>



The High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) in Namibia is a group of telescopes designed to detect very high-energy gamma rays from cosmic sources. 



By observing the faint flashes of light produced when gamma rays interact with Earth's atmosphere -- called Cherenkov radiation -- H.E.S.S. can figure out the properties of these energetic particles.



Over the last decade, H.E.S.S. has been a game-changer in high-energy astrophysics. 



It's given us insights into all sorts of cosmic phenomena, and now it's helping us possibly pinpoint the sources of high-energy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-a-kugelblitze-and-why-should-you-care/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic electrons and positrons</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



To sum it all up, scientists have found that some of the most energetic particles zipping through space -- cosmic electrons and positrons with energies over 10 tera-electronvolts (TeV) -- are likely coming from a nearby pulsar just a few thousand light-years away. 



Using a decade's worth of data from the H.E.S.S. telescopes in Namibia, they've observed a sharp kink in the energy spectrum around 1 TeV, which suggests these particles are originating from a powerful source relatively close to us.



By matching their observations with computer models, the researchers believe that a pulsar -- a highly magnetized, spinning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-star-collisions-push-the-limits-of-extreme-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> -- could be accelerating these particles to such high energies. 



This discovery shows us that even nearby, there's still a lot of mysterious and energetic activity going on that we're completely unaware of and can't even begin to explain.



Future observations and more detailed models might help us nail down exactly which pulsar is sending these particles our way. 



With better technology and more data, we might even discover other nearby sources contributing to the high-energy cosmic ray population. Stay tuned!



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.221001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Earth telescopes detect highest-energy cosmic rays ever observed, origin unknown

Our Universe is teeming with extreme objects that are often...

The Phlegraean Fields, now considered one massive supervolcano, are beginning to stir, making the scientific community uneasy. 



These volcanic fields, nestled just west of Naples, Italy, are among the top eight emitters of volcanic carbon dioxide worldwide. 



Since 2005, one spot in particular -- the Solfatara crater -- has been releasing increased volumes of gas, catching the attention of researchers and locals alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-emissions-at-solfatara-crater">Gas emissions at Solfatara crater</h2>



Gianmarco Buono, a volcanologist at the Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (<a href="https://www.ingv.it/en/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INGV</a>), is leading a study to understand what's behind this surge in gas emissions. 



"Estimating the source of the carbon dioxide is important to properly reconstruct what is happening in the magmatic system and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/knipovich-ridge-new-hydrothermal-field-arctic-intense-geological-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrothermal system</a>," says Buono. 



His team aims to provide a tool that can distinguish between carbon dioxide coming from magma and that released by other processes, a method that could be useful in volcanic regions around the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-a-supervolcano">What exactly is a supervolcano?</h2>



In the simplest of terms, a supervolcano is essentially a volcano on steroids. It's a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-survived-the-eruption-of-toba-supervolcano/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">massive volcanic system</a> capable of producing eruptions thousands of times more powerful than a regular volcano. 



These eruptions can eject more than 1,000 cubic kilometers of material into the atmosphere, which can have catastrophic effects on the global climate and environment.



You've probably heard of places like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-tourism-generates-over-1-megaton-carbon-annually/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone National Park</a> in the United States -- that's one of the most famous supervolcanoes. 



When a supervolcano erupts it can form a giant caldera, which is a huge crater that can span dozens of miles. 



The sheer scale of these eruptions makes them rare, but they're definitely something scientists keep an eye on due to their potential impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-supervolcano-holds-a-surprising-amount-of-magma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life across the planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-numbers-speak-volumes">Numbers speak volumes</h2>



Today, the Solfatara crater emits between 4,000 and 5,000 tons of carbon dioxide each day. To put that into perspective, that's equivalent to the emissions from burning about 500,000 gallons of gasoline daily. 



In their recent paper published in Geology, Buono and his colleagues estimate that 20% to 40% of this carbon dioxide comes from the dissolution of calcite in the surrounding rocks. The remaining 60% to 80% is traced back to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-affects-magma-formation-deep-within-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underground magma</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-solfatara-crater-gas">Science behind the Solfatara crater gas</h2>



When magma moves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-magma-traced-to-melting-in-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">closer to the Earth's surface</a>, the pressure decreases, causing gases that were trapped inside to escape. These gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. 



Scientists keep a close eye on volcanoes by monitoring earthquakes, measuring ground deformation, and analyzing gases emitted from fumaroles -- openings in the Earth's crust that release steam and gases.



An uptick in gas emissions can be a sign of potential volcanic activity. However, not every increase leads to an eruption. 



Sometimes, carbon dioxide is released when hot underground fluids interact with the rocks above, rather than from magma itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes-over-decades">Monitoring changes over decades</h2>



Since 1983, the Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology has been keeping tabs on the gas emissions from the Solfatara crater. 



By studying the ratios of nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide, researchers had initially concluded that the gases were primarily from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-affects-magma-formation-deep-within-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep magma sources</a>. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Phlegraean-fields_supervolcano_caldera_satellite-view_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Phlegraean-fields_supervolcano_caldera_satellite-view_1s.webp" alt="Satellite view of Phlegraean Fields and Solfatara crater showing a large caldera supervolcano west of Naples, Italy. It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, which includes Mount Vesuvius." class="wp-image-1951186"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Satellite view of Phlegraean Fields and Solfatara crater showing a large caldera supervolcano west of Naples, Italy. It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, which includes Mount Vesuvius.</figcaption></figure>



"We focused mainly on geochemical variation, especially for carbon dioxide, helium, and nitrogen, because they are non-reactive species. They contain information about what is happening in the magma," Buono explains.



But things started to change in 2005. The data began to deviate from the typical chemical signatures of magma-derived gases. This shift continued over time, accompanied by rising temperatures in the shallow hydrothermal system. 



By 2012, the alert level for the region was raised from green to yellow, signaling heightened activity but not an immediate threat of eruption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-the-earth-s-movements">Clues from the Earth's movements</h2>



The area didn't just experience changes underground. Small earthquakes and noticeable ground deformation were also observed. 



These signs pointed toward the circulation of hot fluids <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beneath the surface</a>. When these hot, acidic fluids interact with calcite in the rocks, they can release additional carbon dioxide.



Previous studies involving drill cores of the local rocks revealed that the calcite present has a composition similar to the gases being emitted. 



Based on this information, Buono's team estimated that 20% to 40% of the carbon dioxide at the Solfatara crater comes from the breakdown of calcite in the host rocks.



The Phlegraean Fields have a long volcanic history, with activity dating back approximately 40,000 years. The most recent eruption occurred in 1538. 



Since the 1950s, the region has experienced several phases of unrest, reminding us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-super-eruptions-build-up-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's geology is always in motion</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



Understanding the source of carbon dioxide emissions in volcanic regions is crucial for public safety and environmental monitoring. 



By distinguishing between gases released from magma and those from other processes, scientists can better predict <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> and assess potential risks.



Buono's research not only sheds light on the complex interactions beneath the Phlegraean Fields but also provides tools that could be applied to other volcanic areas. 



As he notes, "Our aim is to provide a tool to better discriminate the contribution of magmatic and non-magmatic carbon dioxide that can also be applied to other systems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solfatara-crater-and-the-future">Solfatara crater and the future</h2>



To sum it all up, figuring out what's really going on beneath the Phlegraean Fields and Solfatara crater is a big deal -- not just for the science buffs but for everyone living on Earth.



Buono's team has shown that the spike in carbon dioxide emissions isn't just magma pushing its way up. A good chunk of that gas is actually coming from hot fluids interacting with calcite-rich rocks underground. 



This kind of info is gold because it helps us keep a closer eye on volcanic activity and, more importantly, keeps people safe.



Looking ahead, keeping tabs on these emissions and understanding their sources is key. By knowing whether the carbon dioxide is from magma or from rock interactions, scientists can better predict what's coming next. 



The Phlegraean Fields are a vivid reminder that our planet is always on the move. Scientists like Buono will keep unraveling the mysteries beneath our feet, helping us understand the dynamic planet we call home.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/51/4/397/620796/Discriminating-carbon-dioxide-sources-during" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



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Supervolcano is starting to wake up, which would plunge the world into chaos

The Phlegraean Fields, now considered one massive supervolcano, are beginning...

The next time you clean out your closet and happily donate old clothes to charity, you might want to stop and think for a moment.



We are taught growing up that by donating clothes we don't need to charity, they will ultimately end up in the possession of people who actually do need those clothes, and who will put them to good use.



Unfortunately, that is no longer the case. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-fashion-donated-clothes-disaster">Fast fashion + donated clothes = disaster</h2>



Since the advent of the fast fashion industry, there is a constant stream of trendy, affordable clothing available to anyone with the click of a mouse. 



This abundance diminishes the demand for second-hand clothes, as people choose to buy new items instead.



Given that real clothing prices have decreased and real incomes have risen (when adjusting for inflation), people can purchase more clothing for the same amount of money compared to 30 years ago.



Today, the amount of donated clothes continues to grow exponentially, but there are not nearly enough people in the world who actually want to take possession of those donations. 



The resulting imbalance between supply and demand in the second-hand clothing market has caused enormous, unforeseen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-waste-is-growing-five-times-faster-than-recycling/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental problems</a>, impacting every corner of the planet.



A new study, published in the journal Nature Cities, has brought to light some shocking revelations about the destiny of our donated garments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unfortunate-fate-of-donated-clothes">Unfortunate fate of donated clothes</h2>



Researchers have been diligently following the trail of donated clothes and textiles across several western cities. 



The findings are quite disturbing. In most cities, spanning from Melbourne to Manchester to Manhattan, donated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fashion-industrys-plastic-waste-is-a-major-environmental-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">textiles</a> are either exported or dumped as waste.



It's alarming to consider that the weight of global textile waste each year is 92 million tons, a number that could see a scary doubling by 2030.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crucial-role-of-charity-shops">Crucial role of charity shops</h2>



Charity shops do an admirable job of handling a large volume of used and donated clothes. However, they face a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-fashion-toll-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex predicament</a>. 



Quite a few of the donations they receive are of poor quality, reducing the financial benefit of managing them locally. 



So, how do these charities adapt? They trade valuable items and discard or export the remainder.



An interesting case in point is Melbourne, where charities export high-quality, often vintage, second-hand clothes to Europe. 



This results in the city's independent resale businesses importing similar clothing back from Europe or the United States.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-high-volume-and-low-quality">Challenges of high volume and low quality</h2>



Over the past 15 to 20 years, charities and collectors have reported a concerning decrease in the quality of the garments they receive, which negatively impacts their resale potential.



According to Dr. Yassie Samie of <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RMIT University</a> in Melbourne, local governments and charities need a stronger and more efficient collaboration to manage textile waste.



"We're used to charities doing the heavy lifting, but they've been unable to fully handle the volume of donated clothes for a long time now," said Dr. Samie.



"Charities are driven by social welfare values and need to raise funds for their programs. However, their operations are ill-equipped to deal with the volume of used textiles that need to be reused and recycled."



Local government cooperation is essential in this regard, and Samie suggests that charities explore other business models, such as swapping and repair centers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-export-of-donated-clothes">Export of donated clothes</h2>



Overconsumption and oversupply are the main culprits behind the cities' textile waste crisis. These lead to the export of between 33% (Australia) and 97% (Norway) of donated clothes.



It's important to note that most local governments in the cities studied do not get involved in textile waste beyond providing public spaces and licenses for charity bins and commercial resellers. 



In fact, in cities like Melbourne, local governments send discarded textiles directly to landfill, instead of diverting them to recycling or reuse facilities, or other employing other, local alternatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-systemic-change">Need for systemic change</h2>



Dr. Samie noted that systemic change is vital to address the issue of textile waste. She emphasizes the importance of promoting local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eco-friendly-vegan-leather-could-transform-the-fashion-industry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alternatives</a> to fast fashion, including reselling, swapping, and repairing.



"Sustainable fashion initiatives, like second-hand retailers, struggle to compete with fashion brands' big marketing budgets and convenient locations," said Dr. Samie.



"Fast fashion alternatives exist but they are under-promoted, despite their potential to significantly reduce cities' textile waste."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-cost-of-donated-clothes">Hidden cost of donated clothes</h2>



The exportation of donated clothes presents another layer of complexity in the textile waste conundrum. 



While sending garments abroad might appear as a practical solution for local waste management challenges, it offloads the environmental and social costs onto less-regulated markets.



These exported textiles often end up in countries with weak waste management infrastructures, where they can accumulate in landfills, contributing to pollution and resource strain. 



Moreover, the influx of cheap, second-hand clothing can undermine local textile industries, impacting the livelihoods of workers who depend on traditional garment production.



Relying on exports as an easy fix not only perpetuates global inequalities but also stalls the necessary advancements in sustainable local solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-approaches-to-mitigating-waste">Approaches to mitigating waste</h2>



Transformative approaches to addressing textile waste are beginning to emerge, albeit at varying scales of impact. 



Some forward-thinking cities and organizations have started to implement circular economy strategies, focusing on keeping resources in use for as long as possible through upcycling, recycling, and the utilization of biodegradable materials. 



Collaborations between fashion brands, municipalities, and environmental organizations have led to the establishment of community repair cafes and textile recycling hubs. 



These initiatives not only reduce waste but also educate the public on the value of sustainable practices.



A multi-faceted approach incorporating education, policy change, and grassroots involvement is critical for creating lasting change. 



By promoting a culture of sustainability, cities can turn the tide on textile waste and lead the way towards a more environmentally responsible future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fashion-advertising-ban">Fashion advertising ban</h2>



The study's authors propose a ban on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-fashion-carbon-footprint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fashion</a> advertising in cities to make room for promoting more sustainable alternatives to donating clothes. 



Recently, France introduced a ban on advertising ultra-fast fashion. Dr. Samie supports such regulations and would like to collaborate with local governments to find better uses for discarded textiles.



Ultimately, the study sheds light on the urgent need for smarter methods of managing textile waste.



As the global textile waste burden continues to grow, each one of us must take responsibility for our shopping habits and make more sustainable choices. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44284-024-00140-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Cities</a>.



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Donating clothes to charity used to be a good thing, but now it has broken bad

The next time you clean out your closet and happily...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

The Yellowstone volcano last erupted some 640,000 years ago, according to experts. So does that mean that another explosion is long overdue? There are certainly those who think so. And if such a cataclysmic event does happen, it could wreak havoc across the United States and result in millions of deaths. Photo credit: Smith Collection / Gado / Getty Images

Waiting To Erupt

And Old Faithful tends to stick to tourist-pleasing jets of water and steam, rather than eerie relics from the past like Ear Spring. But that doesn’t mean that there isn’t something sinister lurking beneath. Because the whole of Yellowstone is precariously perched on top of a dormant supervolcano that some believe could erupt at any time. Photo credit: Ethan Hu / Unsplash