Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the little-observed southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-star-formation">Fuel for star formation </h2>



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionised nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers studying stellar evolution and the lifecycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that are rich in young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



The galaxy’s central bar is believed to play a role in driving gas towards the core, fueling both the star formation and the activity around its nucleus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



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Spiral galaxy NGC 1559 is a loner in outer space

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba, about 43 million light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.



“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. “Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;



“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;



“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”



Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-evolution">Galaxy evolution</h2>



Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



These early galaxies were small and irregular, composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space.&nbsp;



These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



As galaxies evolve, their morphology - their shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. 



The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;



In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;



Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.



Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee



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NGC 1792: A galactic powerhouse 

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko Glacier lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall.&nbsp;



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting. 



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the spiral galaxy IC 5332, which is located over 29 million light-years away from Earth.



The galaxy spans approximately 66,000 light-years in diameter. This makes it notably smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is just over 100,000 light-years in diameter. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-look-at-ic-5332">Unprecedented look at IC 5332</h2>



In a stunning photo release by NASA and ESA in 2022, the spiral galaxy IC 5332 was presented in an unprecedented level of detail. The images were captured by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-incredible-new-image-of-uranus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>.



This feat was made possible through the use of the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI), which captures images in the mid-infrared spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-perspective-from-earth">Unique perspective from Earth</h2>



One of the most striking features of IC 5332, as revealed by these observations, is its almost perfect face-on orientation relative to Earth.&nbsp;



This unique perspective allows astronomers to clearly observe and admire the symmetrical arrangement of its spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-unveils-ic-5332-in-new-light">Webb unveils IC 5332 in new light</h2>



The clarity of these images represents a significant advancement over previous observations made by the Hubble Space Telescope, which imaged IC 5332 in ultraviolet and visible light.&nbsp;



While Hubble’s images revealed the galaxy’s symmetrical spiral arms, James Webb’s MIRI has unveiled these structures as a complex web of gas that emits infrared light at various temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-miri-instrument-on-james-webb-nbsp">The MIRI instrument on James Webb&nbsp;</h2>



Capturing this range of infrared light is no simple task. It requires highly specialized instruments that must be maintained at extremely cold temperatures.&nbsp;



The MIRI instrument on the James Webb Space Telescope is specifically designed for this purpose and performs exceptionally well. Its capabilities allow astronomers to see aspects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> that are otherwise hidden in other wavelengths.



The detailed images provided by MIRI offer more than just a visual spectacle; they provide valuable data about the composition and temperature of the gases that make up the spiral arms of IC 5332. 



This can help scientists understand the processes of star formation within the galaxy and how these processes compare to those in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-finds-hidden-features-of-the-universe-nbsp">Webb finds hidden features of the universe&nbsp;</h2>



The images of IC 5332 served as a critical test of the James Webb Space Telescope’s capabilities in observing the universe in infrared light. 



As astronomers continue to explore with Webb’s full suite of instruments, many more hidden features of the universe will be revealed.



The information provided by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-second-most-distant-galaxy-in-pandoras-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> not only expands our understanding of the cosmos but also enhances our appreciation for the complex and beautiful structures that exist in our universe.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-galaxies-like-ic-5332">Spiral galaxies like IC 5332</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most visually striking objects in the universe, characterized by their rotating arms that extend from a central nucleus, giving them a distinct spiral appearance.&nbsp;



These galaxies are primarily made up of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. These are often surrounded by a much fainter halo of stars, many of which reside in globular clusters.



Spiral galaxies differ from other galaxy types, such as elliptical and irregular galaxies, in their structure and content. 



The spiral arms are sites of ongoing star formation and are brighter than the rest of the disk because of the young, hot stars that are typically found there. The arms appear distinct because of their density waves, which compress the gas and dust, leading to star formation.



The rotation of the spiral arms also contributes to the galaxy's flat shape due to the centrifugal forces acting on the disk. The central bulge can vary in size and often contains older, red stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Barred spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Some spiral galaxies have a bar-shaped structure that extends from the central bulge, making them barred spirals. This bar affects the motion of stars and gas within the galaxy and can influence star formation activity.



Spiral galaxies are an important focus of study because they contain a significant amount of visible matter and play a crucial role in understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies.&nbsp;



Their distinct features also make them particularly useful for studying the laws of physics under extreme conditions, such as high densities and velocities.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, J. Lee and the PHANGS-JWST and PHANGS-HST Teams



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Spiral galaxy IC 5332: A complex web of gas and light

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Ruki River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is a tributary of the Congo River, one of the largest rivers in the world by discharge and depth.&nbsp;



The Ruki River, previously known as the Busira, merges with the Momboyo River near the town of Basankusu to become the Lulonga River, which eventually flows into the Congo River at the town of Lisala.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-waters-of-the-ruki-river">Dark waters of the Ruki River</h2>



"If the appearance of the muddy Amazon River evokes a coffee cut with cream, the Ruki River, coursing gently through the Congo Basin, is like a dark tea," said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"On its slow path through mostly untouched lowland rainforest in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the water leaches organic material from vegetation, prompting some researchers to think it is one of the darkest blackwater rivers on Earth."



According to NASA, scientists are finding that the dissolved material in this distinctive water offers clues about the carbon cycle of tropical forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-compounds-in-the-ruki-river">Organic compounds in the Ruki River</h2>



In a recent study, researchers measured the chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warmer-rivers-keep-antimicrobial-resistant-genes-at-bay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">composition</a> and flow of the Ruki for the first time.&nbsp;



"The study reported that, as the water color suggests, the Ruki is rich in dissolved organic carbon compounds," said NASA.



"It contains four times as much organic carbon as the Congo River and 1.5 times as much as the Rio Negro, the world’s largest blackwater river and a major tributary of the Amazon."



Due to this heavy carbon load, the researchers concluded that tropical forests like those around the Ruki might not accumulate quite as much carbon as we once thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-river">Significance of the river </h2>



The river is vital for the livelihoods of local communities. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fishing-communities-cooperate-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fishing</a> is a crucial activity, with many people depending on it for sustenance and income. The river also supports agriculture along its banks, where communities grow crops.



In many parts of the DRC, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-are-warming-up-and-losing-oxygen-faster-than-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> like the Ruki are crucial transportation corridors due to the challenging and often nonexistent road infrastructure. 



The river enables the movement of people and goods, facilitating trade and access to markets, health care, and education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-of-the-ruki-river">Wildlife of the Ruki River </h2>



The region around the Ruki River is home to diverse wildlife. It is part of the Congo Basin, the second-largest tropical rainforest area in the world, which is a critical habitat for endangered species.



Among the most notable species are elephants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-mean-chimpanzees-fare-better-in-life-than-nice-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>, whose populations thrive in the surrounding forests. Other primates such as bonobos also live in this region, making it a critical area for primate conservation.



The river itself is home to various species of fish that are crucial to local livelihoods. Hippopotamuses and crocodiles are often found in the water.



Birds like kingfishers, herons, and egrets frequent the riverbanks - making it a haven for birdwatchers.



The Ruki River also supports several species of reptiles and amphibians - some of which are unique to the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-the-river-s-resources">Managing the river's resources </h2>



The region faces several challenges, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-directly-linked-to-atmospheric-mercury-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>, overfishing, and environmental degradation, which threaten its ecological balance and the livelihoods of people who depend on it. 



Efforts to manage and conserve the river's resources are vital for sustainable development.



Understanding and protecting the Ruki River and its surroundings are crucial for the DRC's environmental sustainability, economic development, and the well-being of its communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscapes-of-the-drc">Landscapes of the DRC</h2>



The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) boasts some of the most diverse and breathtaking landscapes in Africa, reflecting its vast size and ecological richness. Dominated by the Congo Basin, the country is a haven for biodiversity.



Beyond its rainforests, the DRC's landscapes shift dramatically. In the east, the terrain rises into rugged mountains, including the Virunga and Rwenzori ranges, where snow-capped peaks like Mount Stanley pierce the sky. 



This region is also marked by active volcanoes such as Mount Nyiragongo, which harbors one of the world’s largest lava lakes, creating a dramatic and otherworldly spectacle.



To the south and west, the country transitions to expansive savannas with rolling grasslands and scattered trees. These areas contrast sharply with the lushness of the forests, providing vital habitats for species like lions and antelope. 



Rivers like the Ruki are a dominant feature, with the mighty Congo River coursing through the heart of the country. Its tributaries shape the lives of millions.



The image was captured by the OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Ruki River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Hormuz Island off the coast of Iran. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Hormuz Island, which is located in the Persian Gulf off the coast of Iran.

The island is known for a rainbow of colors across its diverse landscapes, including beaches, salt caves, and mountains.

According to NASA, the island is a salt dome - a mound of rock salt, gypsum, anhydrite, and other evaporites that has risen upward through overlying layers of rock. 

Hormuz Island also contains layers of clay, carbonates, shale, and iron-rich volcanic rocks. Some of these rocks transformed into brilliant shades of red, yellow, and orange when they interacted with water and minerals from other rock layers as they emerged. Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the <a title="Elam" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elam">Elamite</a> kingdoms in the fourth millennium BC. It was first unified by the <a title="Iranian peoples" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_peoples">Iranian</a> <a title="Medes" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medes">Medes</a> in the seventh century BC, and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BC, when <a title="Cyrus the Great" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great">Cyrus the Great</a> founded the Achaemenid Empire, which became <a title="List of largest empires" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_empires">one of the largest empires in history</a>. The empire fell to Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC and was divided into several <a title="Hellenistic period" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic states</a>. An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC, which was succeeded in the third century AD by the <a title="Sasanian Empire" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, a major world power for the next four centuries.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran#cite_note-Norman_A._Stillman_p._22-18">[15]</a><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran#cite_note-Byzantine_Studies_2006,_p._29-19">[16]</a> <a title="Muslim conquest of Persia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia">Arab Muslims conquered the empire</a> in the seventh century AD, which led to the <a title="Islamization of Iran" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran">Islamization of Iran</a>, and it subsequently becoming a major center of Islamic culture and learning, with its art, literature, philosophy, and architecture spreading across the Muslim world and beyond during the <a title="Islamic Golden Age" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>. Over the next two centuries, a series of <a title="Iranian Intermezzo" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Intermezzo">native Muslim dynasties</a> emerged before the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuq dynasty" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuq_dynasty">Seljuq Turks</a> and the <a title="Ilkhanate" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanate">Mongols</a> conquered the region.

This natural-color image was acquired by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8. 

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hormuz Island off the coast of Iran

Pterosaurs, the extinct flying reptiles that soared alongside dinosaurs, are among the most intriguing creatures in Earth's history.&nbsp;



While some later species reached wingspans of up to 10 meters, early pterosaurs were significantly smaller, typically limited to around two meters.&nbsp;



Now, a newly described species, Skiphosoura bavarica, sheds light on the evolutionary steps that allowed these creatures to bridge this size gap and adopt advanced anatomical features.&nbsp;



The discovery, led by David Hone of <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, represents a rare find that enhances our understanding of pterosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pterosaur-fossil-unlike-any-other">A pterosaur fossil unlike any other</h2>



The name Skiphosoura bavarica translates to “sword tail from Bavaria,” reflecting its distinctive stiff, pointed tail and the southern German region where it was unearthed.&nbsp;



What makes this fossil truly remarkable is its state of preservation. Nearly every bone of the animal has been recovered, and unlike most pterosaur fossils, which are typically flattened, this specimen is preserved in three dimensions.&nbsp;



With a wingspan of about two meters - comparable to a golden eagle - Skiphosoura provides a rare glimpse into the morphology of transitional pterosaurs.



“This is an incredible find. It really helps us piece together how these amazing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying animals</a> lived and evolved. Hopefully this study will be the basis for more work in the future on this important evolutionary transition,” Hone said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broad-classification-of-pterosaur-fossils-nbsp">Broad classification of pterosaur fossils&nbsp;</h2>



For over 200 years, scientists have classified pterosaurs into two primary groups. Non-pterodactyloids were early pterosaurs with small heads, short necks, long tails, a short bone in their wing wrists, and a long fifth toe on their feet.



Pterodactyloids were a later species characterized by large heads, long necks, short tails, elongated wrist bones, and a short fifth toe.



While this broad classification was useful, it left significant gaps in understanding how pterosaurs transitioned between these forms. The discovery of in the 2010s helped address some of these questions.&nbsp;



These intermediate species revealed that the head and neck adapted first, with other anatomical changes following later. However, scientists were left wondering what occurred immediately before and after the darwinopterans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-the-evolutionary-gap">Bridging the evolutionary gap</h2>



Skiphosoura bavarica offers vital clues. Evolutionarily, it stands between darwinopterans and pterodactyloids, displaying a combination of features from both groups.&nbsp;



It possesses the pterodactyloid-like head and neck characteristic of darwinopterans but also exhibits advancements such as a lengthened wrist, a shorter fifth toe, and a reduced tail - though not as pronounced as in later pterodactyloids.



This discovery, combined with a newly reconstructed evolutionary tree, allows researchers to trace the progression of anatomical changes in pterosaurs.&nbsp;



The study also places the Scottish pterosaur Dearc as a transitional species between early pterosaurs and darwinopterans.&nbsp;



Together, Dearc and Skiphosoura complete a nearly unbroken sequence of evolutionary adaptations, providing a step-by-step account of how pterosaurs evolved into the large, advanced forms seen in the later pterodactyloids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptations-for-larger-sizes">Adaptations for larger sizes</h2>



Interestingly, both Dearc and Skiphosoura are unusually large compared to other species of their time.&nbsp;



This suggests that the adaptations that enabled pterodactyloids to achieve enormous sizes - such as larger heads and longer necks - began appearing in transitional forms like Skiphosoura.&nbsp;



These changes likely offered advantages such as improved flight capabilities and more efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foraging</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-pterosaur-fossil-nbsp">Analyzing the pterosaur fossil&nbsp;</h2>



The fossil preparation and analysis were feats of modern technology and expertise. Unlike typical flattened fossils, the three-dimensional preservation of Skiphosoura required meticulous work.&nbsp;



“As a preparator, I have worked on more than 60 pterosaur specimens from Solnhofen limestone,” said study co-author Stefan Selzer, who prepared the specimen.



“I recognized during the final prep this specimen showed features that combined characteristics of both major groups of pterosaurs, with the shortened tail as the most important diagnostic feature.”&nbsp;



Digital imaging also played a critical role in analyzing the fossil.&nbsp;



René Lauer of the <a href="https://www.lauerfoundationpse.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lauer Foundation for Paleontology, Science, and Education</a> explained: “The specimen was disarticulated with bones of varying quality often overlaid upon one another.”&nbsp;



“Digital photography of the specimen taken in both visible and UV light significantly aided in the process to identify these elements and to better analyze finer details that were not discernible in normal daylight alone.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-pterosaur-evolution">Redefining pterosaur evolution</h2>



The discovery of Skiphosoura bavarica provides a detailed roadmap of pterosaur evolution, offering insights into how these creatures developed the traits that would eventually enable them to dominate the skies.&nbsp;



By clarifying the sequence of anatomical changes, this fossil represents a major milestone in understanding the evolutionary history of pterosaurs.



“Pterosaurs have long been symbols of the unique life of the past. Skiphosoura represents an important new form for working out pterosaur evolutionary relationships and by extension how this lineage arose and changed,” said co-author Adam Fitch, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>.



As researchers continue to study this exceptional find, they hope to uncover even more details about how pterosaurs adapted and thrived in prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.&nbsp;



“This is an incredible find. It really helps us piece together how these amazing flying animals lived and evolved,” Hone said.



With Skiphosoura bavarica, scientists have a clearer view of the evolutionary journey that transformed small, early pterosaurs into the majestic flying reptiles of the Mesozoic era, cementing its role as a key link in the story of life on Earth.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01377-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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New fossil fills crucial gap in pterosaur evolution

Pterosaurs, the extinct flying reptiles that soared alongside dinosaurs, are...

Acupuncture, ketamine infusions, and electroconvulsive therapy are just a few of the options available for individuals diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Treatment-Resistant Depression (TRD). These treatments, while potentially effective, can often feel daunting or expensive. 



Now, research from <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a> suggests that psilocybin-assisted therapy (PSIL-AT), using the active ingredient in hallucinogenic mushrooms, could provide transformative benefits to more than five million people in the U.S., pending <a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a> approval.



The study highlights the urgent need for therapies featuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psilocybin</a> while addressing the logistical and economic considerations that policymakers, insurance providers, and public health agencies will face in making such treatments widely accessible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-could-benefit-from-psilocybin-therapy">Millions could benefit from psilocybin therapy</h2>



Using national data on individuals currently being treated for MDD and TRD, Emory researchers applied exclusionary criteria to identify those who would be medically eligible for PSIL-AT.&nbsp;



Factors such as comorbidities, including mania, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-close-to-bars-and-pubs-increases-the-risk-of-heart-failure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart failure</a>, and diabetes, were used to refine the eligible population.



The analysis revealed that 56 to 62% of patients with MDD and TRD - approximately 5.1 to 5.6 million people - could benefit from this therapy.



Study lead author Fayzan Rab is an M.D. candidate at Emory University’s School of Medicine.&nbsp;



“This information is significant because much of the current focus on psychedelic therapies is about its efficacy within clinical trials, and very few people are studying what would be the broader implications of implementing these novel therapeutics,” said Rab.&nbsp;



“Our study is one of the first to look at the bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-alone-in-america-an-escalating-public-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health</a> and economic consequences of a world where psilocybin therapy is made more available to Americans.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-actionable-data-for-fda-consideration">Actionable data for FDA consideration</h2>



Psilocybin-assisted therapy is currently designated as a breakthrough therapy by the FDA, allowing for an expedited review of Phase III clinical trial results due to its potential to address <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>.&nbsp;



The findings from this study provide actionable data to inform the FDA’s decision-making process.



“What is really timely about this research is that it provides a data-driven number that is interpretable to the FDA,” Rab said.&nbsp;



“This is how many Americans we think are at stake. I think that will be a meaningful estimate for the FDA to weigh when they consider whether to approve psilocybin for therapeutic use.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insurance-coverage-and-psilocybin-therapy-demand">Insurance coverage and psilocybin therapy demand</h2>



If approved, the availability of PSIL-AT will be heavily influenced by decisions from private and public insurance providers, including the <a href="https://www.cms.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services</a> (CMS).&nbsp;



According to the study, nearly 20% of Medicaid’s 85 million beneficiaries - approximately 17 million people - are likely to have clinical depression. How Medicaid and other insurers decide to reimburse for psilocybin-assisted therapy will significantly impact its accessibility and demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-acting-relief-from-psilocybin-nbsp">Fast-acting relief from psilocybin&nbsp;</h2>



One notable advantage of psilocybin therapy is its rapid efficacy. Previous clinical trials have shown that a single 25 mg dose of psilocybin can substantially reduce symptoms of depression.&nbsp;



Dr. George Grant, co-director of Emory University’s <a href="https://psychedelics.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Psychedelics and Spirituality</a> (ECPS), emphasized the potential cost savings for the healthcare system.



“Psychedelic medicines have promise because the intervention is so fast-acting, whereas right now, insurance providers and payers often need to fund the use of antidepressants throughout their lives,” said Grant, who is also the executive director for Spiritual Health at the <a href="https://whsc.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woodruff Health Sciences Center</a>.



This quick-acting treatment could alleviate the financial burden on both insurers and patients while delivering significant relief for those with depression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-holistic-approach-to-mental-and-spiritual-wellness">Holistic approach to mental and spiritual wellness</h2>



Supported by Emory University’s ECPS, the study integrates clinical psychiatry with spiritual health to explore the therapeutic potential of psychedelic medicines. The center aims to foster a deeper understanding of how psychedelics can bring patients to a state of mental and spiritual wellness.



“Coming to the aid of people who are suffering is very important, and psilocybin-assisted therapy could help people arrive at a place of satisfaction within themselves so that their lives achieve optimal meaning and purpose,” Grant said.



Rab also highlighted the impartial academic environment in which the research was conducted, stressing that it was independent of pharmaceutical influence.&nbsp;



“I am glad to be supported by the Center for Psychedelics and Spirituality, which is an academic environment, providing an objective third-party perspective to policymakers, the FDA, and public health agencies,” Rab said.&nbsp;



“I am really hopeful that continued research in the area of psychedelic medicine and therapeutics could benefit the millions of Americans that might qualify for it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-for-psilocybin-therapy">A path forward for psilocybin therapy</h2>



The study provides a roadmap for the potential rollout of psilocybin-assisted therapy, offering actionable insights for healthcare providers, insurers, and policymakers.&nbsp;



By addressing the needs of millions of Americans suffering from MDD and TRD, PSIL-AT could represent a paradigm shift in the treatment of depression, bridging clinical efficacy with accessible and holistic care.



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Psilocybin therapy offers hope for millions with depression

Acupuncture, ketamine infusions, and electroconvulsive therapy are just a few...

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small events; brewing morning coffee, letting the dog out, starting the laptop, letting the dog back in. 



Our brains are constantly on the job, observing and processing these pieces that together make up our day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-start-and-finish-of-events">Start and finish of events</h2>



Professor Jeff Zacks, head of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences at Washington University, shines light on an essential fact.



“Knowing where events begin and where they end is crucial to understanding the world.” 



Professor Zacks' research has focused on understanding this fundamental aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human cognition</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computer-models-learning-from-uncertainty">Computer models learning from uncertainty</h2>



To comprehend these processes better, Professor Zacks and his research team embarked on two separate studies.



In the first project, they trained computer models to watch over 25 hours of videos featuring people performing simple, daily tasks. After this, they asked the computer models to predict what would happen next. 



Interestingly, the results showed that these models performed best when they responded to uncertainty. 



In situations where predictions of next actions puzzled them, the models would assess the scene from scratch - a strategy that improved their understanding remarkably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-turn-of-events-in-the-brain">Unexpected turn of events in the brain</h2>



Professor Zacks had previously hypothesized that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-changes-how-we-recall-memories-making-them-seem-frightening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human brain</a> was particularly sensitive to life’s little surprises and would reassess a situation every time something unexpected happened. 



He proposed that surprising situations forced people to re-evaluate their surroundings, a concept known as "prediction error."



However, the study's findings threw a wrench in this theory, with the model paying more attention to uncertainty than to prediction errors. The researchers were undeterred by these findings.



“We’re doing science here. We revise theories when faced with new data," said Professor Zacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-act-of-events-in-the-brain">Balancing act of events in the brain</h2>



Surprises continue to matter, however, and the concept of prediction error should not be entirely discarded.



Tan Nguyen, a graduate student in Zacks’ Dynamic Cognition Laboratory proposes an alternative approach - the brain possibly uses both mechanisms in balance. 



"It’s not a case of either/or. Each model can make unique contributions to our understanding of human cognition,” explained Nguyen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-memory-and-event-comprehension">Exploring memory and event comprehension</h2>



Taking the research further, another member of the <a href="https://dcl.wustl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dynamic Cognition Lab</a>, Maverick Smith, is inspecting the correlation between event comprehension and memory.



Smith collaborated with Heather Bailey, an associate professor at Kansas State University and a former postdoc at WashU.



Their work collates evidence suggesting that long-term memory is closely tied to one’s ability to discern logically and accurately where one event ends and another begins. 



“There are a lot of individual differences in the ability to identify when events start and stop, and those differences can strongly predict how much people remember later on,” noted Smith.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-capacity-to-process-events">Brain's capacity to process events</h2>



Smith’s research shows that older people often have difficulty processing events, a problem that potentially contributes to age-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> loss.



“Maybe there’s a way we can intervene to help them better remember the events in their lives,” said Smith.



Professor Zacks, Nguyen, Smith, and other members of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences have ambitious plans to deepen their understanding of the brain’s capacity to process and remember events.



Currently, they're using fMRI brain imaging to monitor real-time responses to everyday event videos from 45 study participants.



In one ongoing study, the team is tracking eye movements, revealing how we visually process the world around us. 



Another of Smith's video-based experiments aims to improve the memory of study subjects - including older people and Alzheimer's patients - by making event boundaries more identifiable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-understanding-of-events">The brain's understanding of events</h2>



“Some people are definitely better than others at segmenting events into meaningful chunks. Can that ability be improved, and can that lead to improvements in memory? Those are the questions we’re still asking,” Smith concluded.



In the end, our understanding of the world hinges on how we comprehend the mundane, everyday occurrences that make up our lives. 



In a world driven by big events, we often overlook these smaller instances. Yet, it's these "little things" that allow our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> to comprehend and navigate our lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/3/10/pgae459/7818226?login=false">PNAS Nexus.</a>



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Our brain breaks life into 'events' to make sense of the chaos

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small...

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be detected by the simple prick of a finger?



This could soon be a reality in the world of Alzheimer's testing, which would increase accessibility to this critical information for people across the globe. In fact, it could be as easy as dropping a little blood onto a card, popping it into the mail and awaiting your results.



Thanks to the hard work of European researchers based primarily at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a> in Sweden, this simplified testing method is on the horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-magic-behind-the-method">The magic behind the method</h2>



The promising test involves gathering a couple of blood drops from a finger prick onto a uniquely crafted card that is specifically designed for optimal sample preservation.



The primary function of this innovative card is to separate blood cells from plasma, thereby ensuring that the sample remains viable for further analysis.



After about 15 minutes, and once it has had a chance to dry completely, the card is securely packaged and ready to be mailed in the regular post to a specialized lab.



There, contemporary high-sensitivity techniques are utilized to examine and analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-biomarkers-predict-dementia-onset-15-years-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers</a> within the plasma.



This refined method is the culmination of years of extensive development and fine-tuning to identify certain biomarkers that have demonstrated impressive accuracy and reliability in identifying potential Alzheimer's sufferers.



Impressively, these markers have shown significant efficacy, initially when tested in cerebrospinal fluid, and then in venous blood samples. The idea is now to assess their presence in the blood from superficial vessels in the finger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-the-new-with-the-old">Comparing the new with the old</h2>



To illustrate the effectiveness of this new method, a recent study included capillary blood samples from 203 people all of whom underwent the finger prick test. 



The memory clinics responsible for administering these tests are spread across five different locations in Europe. 



Once the tests were completed, they were sent over to the Neurochemistry Department at the University of Gothenburg for detailed analysis, which included testing for the presence of established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-earliest-biomarker-protein-psd-95-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers for Alzheimer's</a>, such as pTau217.



The outcomes of the study were shared by Hanna Huber, a researcher at the University of Gothenburg’s Sahlgrenska Academy, at the CTAD (Clinical Trials on Alzheimer’s Disease) conference in Madrid, Spain, on October 30, 2024. 



"The simple capillary blood test works almost as well as venous samples,' explained Huber. "But, unlike traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-tests-offer-new-hope-in-detecting-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood tests</a>, this new test does not require transport on dry ice. This could significantly increase accessibility to Alzheimer's testing in countries and regions lacking the infrastructure needed for high-sensitivity analyses."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-alzheimer-s-testing">The future of Alzheimer's testing</h2>



Looking ahead, this test could become available within a matter of years, with a new European study already underway to explore whether it can be self-administered.



This capability would empower individuals to perform their own finger prick and then mail the sample to a lab, which would bypass the need for healthcare personnel.



The test arrives just in time as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pomegranates-may-be-key-in-preventing-and-treating-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's treatments</a> are making strides, with drugs like lecanemab already being approved in a variety of countries outside the EU. 



For these treatments to work, early detection is crucial. The new test could pave the way for new research opportunities with regard to Alzheimer's disease, including into its genetic makeup and its prevalence among different global populations.



It is important to note that this test is not designed for general screening purposes. 



The World Health Organization (WHO) currently discourages general screening for Alzheimer's disease, as past treatment options have been limited, which renders widespread screening ethically unjustified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-global-access-to-alzheimer-s-testing">Expanding global access to Alzheimer's testing</h2>



One of the most promising aspects of this new finger-prick test is its potential to close the gap in global access to Alzheimer's diagnostics.



Many regions, particularly in low-resource countries, struggle to provide the necessary infrastructure for traditional testing methods, which often require specialized equipment and transportation of samples under strict conditions, such as on dry ice.



By simplifying the process and eliminating the need for complex logistics, this test could bring early detection and intervention to communities that have historically been underserved. 



This advancement could also encourage more research collaborations and support the collection of diverse data sets, which would potentially enhance the understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's disease</a> manifests across different populations and contribute to more targeted and inclusive treatments.



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Finger prick method could simplify Alzheimer's testing

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be...

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have identified, for the first time, pairs of white dwarf and main sequence stars within young star clusters.&nbsp;



This significant finding, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7500" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>, opens a new window into an extreme phase of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a>, offering a critical link in understanding the lifecycle of binary star systems. These insights may also shed light on cosmic events such as supernova explosions and gravitational waves.



Binary systems - where two stars orbit a shared center of gravity - are central to the universe's evolution.&nbsp;



The discovery of these rare systems could help astronomers piece together the transition between the early and final stages of binary stars, advancing our understanding of how stars and galaxies evolve and how elements are created.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-stage-of-stellar-evolution-nbsp">Mysterious stage of stellar evolution&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binary star systems</a> are widespread, with about half of all stars similar to the Sun existing in such pairings. 



Typically, these stars vary in mass, which influences how they evolve. Massive stars age more rapidly, transitioning through life stages far faster than their lower-mass companions.



In the later stages of a massive star’s life, it swells dramatically during the red giant or asymptotic giant branch phases.&nbsp;



In close binary systems, this expansion can engulf the smaller companion star in a shared layer of material, a phenomenon known as the common envelope phase.&nbsp;



This mysterious stage plays a critical role in stellar evolution, but its details have long eluded scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-binary-star-systems-nbsp">The role of binary star systems&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">White dwarfs</a> - the dense remnants of dead stars - provide a unique opportunity to study this phase. 



Identifying systems that pair white dwarfs with main sequence stars, known as white dwarf-main sequence binaries, offers critical clues about what happens during and after the common envelope stage.



“Binary stars play a huge role in our universe,” said lead author Steffani Grondin, a graduate student at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics. 



“This observational sample marks a key first step in allowing us to trace the full life cycles of binaries and will hopefully allow us to constrain the most mysterious phase of stellar evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-star-pair-discovery">Machine learning and star pair discovery</h2>



Despite their predicted abundance, white dwarf-main sequence binaries have been notoriously difficult to find. Before this study, only two candidates had been confirmed within star clusters.&nbsp;



Using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a>, the researchers analyzed data from three astronomical surveys: the European Space Agency’s Gaia mission, the 2MASS infrared survey, and the Pan-STARRS1 optical survey. This innovative approach uncovered 52 potential binaries across 38 star clusters.



Study co-author Joshua Speagle is a professor in U of T’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics and Department of Statistical Sciences.&nbsp;



“The use of machine learning helped us to identify clear signatures for these unique systems that we weren't able to easily identify with just a few datapoints alone,” said Speagle.&nbsp;



“It also allowed us to automate our search across hundreds of clusters, a task that would have been impossible if we were trying to identify these systems manually.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-timeline-of-binary-star-systems">Evolutionary timeline of binary star systems</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-origins-of-young-star-clusters-traced-to-three-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star clusters</a> are invaluable for studying the evolution of stars because all stars in a cluster are believed to have formed simultaneously. Finding white dwarf-main sequence binaries within these clusters allows researchers to determine the systems' ages and trace their evolutionary paths.



“It really points out how much in our universe is hiding in plain sight - still waiting to be found,” said co-author Maria Drout, an astronomer at U of T.&nbsp;



“While there are many examples of this type of binary system, very few have the age constraints necessary to fully map their evolutionary history. While there is plenty of work left to confirm and fully characterize these systems, these results will have implications across multiple areas of astrophysics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrophysics-and-beyond">Implications for astrophysics and beyond</h2>



Binary systems containing compact stellar remnants are linked to some of the universe’s most dramatic events, such as Type Ia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-travels-back-in-time-to-better-understand-supernovae-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a> and gravitational wave-producing mergers. 



Type Ia supernovae are crucial tools for measuring cosmic distances, while gravitational waves - ripples in spacetime - are detectable by instruments like the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).



The team plans to refine their findings using data from telescopes such as Gemini, Keck, and Magellan.&nbsp;



As they confirm and measure the properties of these binaries, the researchers hope their work will provide a deeper understanding of the transient phenomena that shape our universe.



Image Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), Olofsson et al. Acknowledgement: Robert Cumming.



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Binary systems with living and dead stars reveal stellar secrets 

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have...

The devastating rainfall from Storm Boris, which caused severe flooding across Central and Eastern Europe, could have been nearly nine percent less intense without the current levels of global warming. This is the conclusion of a recent analysis from the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI).



This finding was made possible by a novel modeling technique called “storylines,” which provides a new way to trace the fingerprints of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-tens-of-millions-of-people-love-watching-videos-of-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> in real time. 



This approach is described in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01847-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a> and is accessible via a new online tool developed by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-a-warmer-climate">The impact of a warmer climate</h2>



In mid-September, Storm Boris unleashed torrential rain across Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, and Romania, resulting in catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding</a> and displacing countless families. 



Boris produced one of the highest rainfall totals ever recorded in several areas over a five-day period, and the floods claimed at least 27 lives. While cleanup is underway, public and media inquiries are focusing on whether global climate change played a role in this tragic event.



“For the past few years, science has been able to provide robust answers to this absolutely legitimate question,” said lead author Marylou Athanase, a climate physicist at AWI.&nbsp;



“As early as one or two weeks after a given event, so-called probabilistic attribution studies can be used to draw initial conclusions on how much more probable the event was, due to climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-climate-trends-and-weather-events">Connecting climate trends and weather events</h2>



Yet explaining these probabilities to the public has often proven challenging. Probabilistic studies, while valuable, may lack clarity when connecting global climate trends with specific weather events.&nbsp;



“That’s why we at the AWI have worked so hard to advance a totally new way - the ‘storyline’ approach,” explained co-lead author Antonio Sánchez-Benítez.&nbsp;



“Essentially, we apply the ‘what if?’ principle. What would a given catastrophe look like in a world without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>? And what about in a climate that was even warmer?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact-on-specific-storms">Climate impact on specific storms</h2>



Using the storm as a case study, AWI’s team illustrated the power of this approach. Their analysis showed that, if not for climate change, Storm Boris would have dropped about nine percent less rain.&nbsp;



On its journey from the eastern Mediterranean toward Central Europe, Boris intensified as it encountered water roughly two degrees Celsius warmer than preindustrial levels, which increased the water vapor in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



While nine percent may sound minimal, it can make a significant difference in areas where the additional water exceeds the capacity of rivers, dams, or drainage systems, leading to potentially devastating consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-models-and-real-world-weather">Climate models and real-world weather</h2>



One of the key challenges was to accurately connect long-term climate modeling with the actual, observed conditions of specific weather events.&nbsp;



To address this, the team used a process called “nudging,” where actual wind data, including jet stream information, is fed into the model to align it more closely with real-world conditions.&nbsp;



“Climate models normally simulate a specific, quasi-random sequence of weather conditions,” explained Helge Gößling, a climate physicist and head of storyline research at AWI.&nbsp;



“With nudging, we provide the model with actually observed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-winds-make-it-difficult-for-albatrosses-to-feed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind</a> data, and we nudge the model a bit in the direction of the actually observed wind. In this way, we can accurately reproduce real weather in the real climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-the-influence-of-global-warming-nbsp">Quantifying the influence of global warming&nbsp;</h2>



In their models, the researchers could simulate a pre-climate change world by reducing greenhouse gas levels and adjusting other variables.&nbsp;



By rerunning the scenario, they produced a side-by-side comparison of current and hypothetical climates. This approach allows scientists to quantify the influence of global warming on specific events, from extreme storms to more typical weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-climate-data-and-technology">Advanced climate data and technology</h2>



The researchers used the CMIP6 version of the AWI climate model, which contributed to the IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report, incorporating real-time wind data from the <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</a> (ECMWF). 



“We have since automated the system to the point where daily analyses on the current weather are run on the supercomputer at the <a href="https://www.dkrz.de/en/about-en/about-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Climate Computing Center</a> (DKRZ),” Athanase said



The results are then made available to the public on AWI’s online platform. This <a href="https://climate-storylines.awi.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tool</a>, updated with a three-day lag from real-time, provides users with access to maps and interactive timelines showing the “Climate Change Signal of the Day” for extreme and daily weather events worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-science-and-public-understanding-nbsp">Climate science and public understanding&nbsp;</h2>



By offering a visual and interactive way to examine climate change’s influence, AWI hopes to bridge the gap between complex climate science and public understanding.&nbsp;



For now, the tool tracks temperature and precipitation data starting from January 2024, allowing users to explore climate impacts on recent weather events.&nbsp;



“Our goal is to promote a better understanding of the connections between climate change and extreme weather events, and to supply concrete and timely answers that can also be used in media coverage of these events,” Athanase said.



The AWI’s storyline model and online tool represent an innovative step forward in climate science communication, helping researchers, decision-makers, and the public see, in real terms, how global warming affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns</a> and extreme events.



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How much does climate change influence extreme weather events?

The devastating rainfall from Storm Boris, which caused severe flooding...

Curiosity, the renowned Mars rover from NASA, is enriching our understanding of the Red Planet's mysterious landscapes and puzzling geological features.



Around the corner awaits a new expedition for Curiosity, this time to investigate a formation known as a boxwork. This intriguing network of patterns lies in a region at the foot of Mount Sharp and promises even more fascinating discoveries. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curiosity-finds-yellow-sulfur-stones">Curiosity finds yellow sulfur stones</h2>



Before embarking on this new quest, Curiosity bids farewell to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-explores-mars-ridge-with-intriguing-watery-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gediz Vallis</a>, a channel that is shrouded in enigma.



Details of the formation of this channel during a period of transition to a drier climate continue to elude scientists. 



But it is not just the channel that piques their interest. Curiosity stumbled upon a strange field of yellow sulfur stones during the summer, literally crushing them with its wheels as it drove along. This adds another layer of mystery to the Martian puzzle.



Before moving out, Curiosity provided scientists with invaluable imagery. The rover captured 360-degree panoramas of the stones, along with channel features, making sure no detail was overlooked.



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<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quest-for-ancient-life">The quest for ancient life</h2>



A fundamental purpose of the rover's mission is probing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-found-for-life-on-mars-where-ancient-rivers-once-flowed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars' past</a>, with the hope of finding traces of ancient life.



Billions of years ago, Mars was flush with lakes and rivers, potentially creating conditions conducive to microbial life. 



Nestled in the foothills of Mount Sharp, which is a towering mountain, Gediz Vallis might hold the key to understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mars-became-uninhabitable-after-being-life-supporting-ocean-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how Mars looked</a> as water dwindled on its surface.



Scientists aren't just interested in understanding the climate shift. The team is also investigating different features within the channel, including a debris mound aptly nicknamed “Pinnacle Ridge.”



Evidence suggests that rivers, wet debris flows, and dry avalanches have all left their signatures on this formation.



Intriguingly, the process of constructing a timeline of these events is well underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-stones-the-latest-martian-mystery">Sulfur stones: The latest Martian mystery</h2>



The sprawling field of sulfur stones, originally appearing as an unremarkable patch of light-colored terrain in images from NASA’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-photo-of-martian-space-potato-moon-phobos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a>, has sprung a pleasant surprise.



A close inspection by Curiosity revealed that these sulfur stones were teeming with yellow crystals, a find unlike anything seen on Mars before.



The rover's instruments confirmed that the stones were pure sulfur - an unusual occurrence that raises more questions than it answers.



On our home planet, sulfur is usually linked with the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-frost-detected-on-mars-enormous-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and hot springs. Yet, no evidence on Mount Sharp suggests these phenomena as likely candidates.



Ashwin Vasavada is a Curiosity project scientist at NASA’s <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California.



“We looked at the sulfur field from every angle - from the top and the side - and looked for anything mixed with the sulfur that might give us clues as to how it formed. We’ve gathered a ton of data, and now we have a fun puzzle to solve," said Vasavada.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treading-on-martian-spiderwebs">Treading on Martian "spiderwebs"</h2>



Having completed a thorough survey of the Gediz Vallis, Curiosity is all set to traverse the edge of the channel, capturing a few more panoramas before making its way to the boxwork region.



This formation of ridges, likened to spiderwebs sprawling across the surface, is believed to be linked to minerals settling into rock crevices and hardening over time. They have been left behind as the surrounding rock eroded.



“These ridges will include minerals that crystallized underground, where it would have been warmer, with salty liquid water flowing through. Early Earth microbes could have survived in a similar environment. That makes this an exciting place to explore,” said Kirsten Siebach, a Curiosity scientist from <a href="https://www.rice.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a> in Houston.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-curious-legacy-of-curiosity">The curious legacy of Curiosity</h2>



Curiosity, a brainchild of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory managed by Caltech, continues to be a cornerstone of Martian exploration for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. 



The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Project, under the management of the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, and its High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) instrument, constructed by BAE Systems, also play significant roles in taking our understanding of Mars to new heights.



Video Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS



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Sulfur stones and spiderwebs: Curiosity's latest discoveries on Mars

Curiosity, the renowned Mars rover from NASA, is enriching our...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

The fascinating coastline of Tahiti. Today&#8217;s Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the coastline of Tahiti, including the Isthmus of Taravao and the surrounding coral reefs. The isthmus connects two ancient volcanoes, Tahiti-Nui and Tahiti-Iti, as well as villages along the coast. 
Tahiti is the largest of the 118 islands that make up French <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-beautiful-coastline-of-tahiti/">Polynesia.</a> The island is known for its breathtaking landscape, which includes dense rainforest and waterfalls. 
Most of Tahiti&#8217;s population is concentrated along the coast, where sea-level rise and beach erosion are increasing threats to the shoreline. The fascinating coastline of Tahiti. Tahiti is the economic, cultural, and political centre of French Polynesia, an <a title="Overseas collectivity" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_collectivity">overseas collectivity</a> (and one of two <a title="Overseas country of France" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_country_of_France">overseas countries</a>, the other being <a title="French Guiana" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Guiana">French Guiana</a>) of the <a title="France" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France">French Republic</a>. The capital of French Polynesia, <a title="Papeete" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papeete">Papeete</a>, is located on the northwest coast of Tahiti. The only international airport in the region, <a title="Faa'a International Airport" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faa%27a_International_Airport">Faa&#8217;a International Airport</a>, is on Tahiti near Papeete. Tahiti was originally settled by <a title="Polynesians" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesians">Polynesians</a> between 300 and 800 AD. They represent about 70% of the island&#8217;s population,The island was part of the <a title="Kingdom of Tahiti" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tahiti">Kingdom of Tahiti</a> until its <a title="Annexation" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation">annexation</a> by France in 1880, when it was proclaimed a <a title="French colonial empire" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire">colony of France</a>, and the inhabitants became <a title="French nationality law" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_nationality_law">French citizens</a>. French is the only official language, although the <a title="Tahitian language" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahitian_language">Tahitian language</a> (Reo Tahiti) is widely spoken. The fascinating coastline of Tahiti
Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 
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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The fascinating coastline of Tahiti

Blue swirls of phytoplankton in the South Atlantic. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features a phytoplankton bloom in the South Atlantic between South America and the Falkland Islands. The swirls of milky blue water show where large numbers of phytoplankton are present off the western Jason Islands, an archipelago off of West Falkland Island. 

"The bright color suggests this might be coccolithophores, although its hard to say for sure,” said Marina Marrari, a biological oceanographer with the Costa Rica Fishing Federation. “In general, there is a species succession at the shelfbreak from diatoms in spring to dinoflagellates to coccolithophores in summer, and this also varies with latitude. October seems early in the season but with the right nutrients it is possible.”

“This is such a beautiful image. To me it really looks like a patch of coccolithophorids because there are no rivers in the Falklands capable of providing such an amount of sediments,” said Priscilla Lange, an expert at the Blue Marble Space Institute of Science. “It is a pretty large patch, and blooms of coccolithophorids are so common in this area. It is also possible to see blooms of other phytoplankton (dark patches) in the middle of the white swirls.” Blue swirls of phytoplankton in the South Atlantic

The image was captured on October 18, 2020 by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on the Landsat 8 satellite.

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer