Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features Tropical Cyclone Sean, which brought record-breaking rainfall to the Pilbara region of Western Australia.



“On January 17, 2025, a tropical low formed over the Indian Ocean off Western Australia. By January 19, the storm had strengthened into Tropical Cyclone Sean - the second tropical cyclone of Australia’s 2024–2025 season,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153852/tropical-cyclone-sean-lashes-western-australia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“The MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on NASA’s Terra satellite acquired this image at about 10 a.m. local time (02:00 Universal Time) on January 20, 2025. Later that afternoon, the cyclone had reached its peak strength as a Category 4 storm.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-tropical-cyclone-sean-nbsp">Impacts of Tropical Cyclone Sean&nbsp;</h2>



Despite not making landfall, Sean's proximity to the coast brought record-breaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> and strong winds to the Pilbara region. Karratha experienced its heaviest recorded daily rainfall of 10.8 inches in a 24-hour period. 



According to NASA, the storm flooded roads and homes, damaged power infrastructure, and prompted the closure of several ports.&nbsp;



“However, the storm also brought some relief from hot and humid conditions, according to news reports. Looking ahead, the abundant water could aid cattle station managers, allowing them to return their animals to grazing," noted NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-australia-s-tropical-cyclone-season">Australia's tropical cyclone season</h2>



Australia's tropical cyclone season typically peaks from November to April, coinciding with the warmer months in the Southern Hemisphere. This period is characterized by increased atmospheric instability and warm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-substantially-changing-the-seasons-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea surface temperatures</a> - both of which are essential for cyclone formation. 



The region includes the waters surrounding northern Australia, encompassing the Indian Ocean, Coral Sea, and the Timor Sea.



Cyclones during this season can vary in intensity, ranging from low-category systems that bring heavy rainfall and minor winds to severe storms with destructive winds, storm surges, and extensive flooding.&nbsp;



The northern regions of Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and Queensland are most affected, with the Pilbara Coast being particularly vulnerable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyclone-impacts-in-australia-nbsp">Cyclone impacts in Australia&nbsp;</h2>



The impacts of these cyclones are diverse. Coastal areas often face significant storm surges, where sea levels rise and flood low-lying areas.&nbsp;



Cyclones can lead to widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding</a>, particularly when systems move slowly or interact with other weather patterns. Wind damage to infrastructure, homes, and vegetation is also a common concern. 



Cyclones provide much-needed rainfall to some areas, replenishing water supplies and sustaining ecosystems, but they can also cause severe disruptions to communities and industries, such as agriculture and mining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-cyclone-activity">Monitoring cyclone activity</h2>



Australia uses advanced monitoring and forecasting systems to track cyclones, issuing timely warnings through the Bureau of Meteorology. These systems are vital for mitigating risks and aiding in disaster preparedness.&nbsp;



Community awareness campaigns and evacuation plans further help to minimize the loss of life and property during cyclone events.



Climate patterns such as La Niña and El Niño also influence cyclone activity. La Niña years typically bring more frequent and intense cyclones due to warmer waters around northern Australia, while El Niño years may suppress cyclone development.&nbsp;



Australia's preparedness for cyclones is supported by resilient building codes, emergency management practices, and community education. However, the increasing complexity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-experience-more-rainfall-than-surrounding-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> and environmental challenges requires ongoing adaptation to reduce the vulnerability of affected regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-cyclones">Climate change and cyclones</h2>



Recent research suggests that climate change could alter the dynamics of cyclone activity, potentially increasing the intensity of these storms even as their overall frequency may decline. This trend is primarily attributed to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-ocean-temperatures-highest-in-650-years-greatly-harming-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming of ocean waters</a>, which provides more energy to fuel cyclones. 



Warmer sea surface temperatures can lead to more moisture in the atmosphere, intensifying the rainfall associated with these storms and amplifying their destructive potential. In addition, higher ocean heat content can result in stronger wind speeds, making cyclones more severe and capable of causing extensive damage to coastal and inland areas.



Furthermore, shifts in atmospheric circulation patterns driven by climate change could influence the regions where cyclones form and make landfall. 



For example, some studies predict that the tropics may see a slight contraction, pushing cyclone activity closer to subtropical regions. This shift could expose new areas to significant storm risks, particularly those less equipped to handle such events.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Tropical Cyclone Sean brings record rainfall to Australia 

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of Lake Maracaibo, located in the northwestern part of Venezuela. The lake is a significant geographical and ecological feature of South America. 



Lake Maracaibo is often considered more of a tidal bay due to its direct connection to the Caribbean Sea through the Tablazo Strait. It is one of the oldest lakes on Earth, formed approximately 36 million years ago.



"With an area of over 13,000 sq km, Lake Maracaibo is generally considered the largest lake in South America, although by some estimates it should be considered an inlet of the Caribbean Sea since much of its water is brought in by its direct connection to the ocean," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"As a result, the water in the northern part of the lake is rather brackish, while the southern waters are fresh, owing to the many rivers that flow into the lake. The biggest, the Catatumbo River, can be seen entering the lake from southwest, where a large amount of sediment carried by the river appears as a yellowish plume."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-catatumbo-lightning">The Catatumbo lightning</h2>



The lake is renowned for a unique weather phenomenon - the Catatumbo lightning. This natural spectacle occurs primarily where the Catatumbo River meets the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-has-affected-almost-every-lake-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.



Known as the most persistent lightning storm in the world, it produces frequent and dramatic flashes of lightning, illuminating the night sky for an average of 260 nights per year.



These storms generate thousands of lightning strikes in a single night, making the region one of the most electrified places on the planet. 



The phenomenon is so intense that it has been recognized by the Guinness World Records as the place with the highest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-on-earth-can-influence-the-weather-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lightning</a> activity.



Scientists believe the lightning is influenced by the area's geography and climate, including the warm air rising from the lake and its surrounding mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economical-significance-of-lake-maracaibo">Economical significance of Lake Maracaibo </h2>



Home to one of the world's largest oil and gas reserves, Lake Maracaibo plays an important role in Venezuela’s economy.



The discovery of petroleum in the early 20th century transformed the region into a major oil-producing area, leading to the establishment of numerous oil rigs and platforms. 



However, this economic activity has come at a cost. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-losing-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pollution</a> from oil spills, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff has significantly degraded the lake's ecosystem.



The appearance of a green, slimy algae known as Lemna has further exacerbated environmental concerns, threatening marine life and the livelihoods of local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-ties-to-lake-maracaibo">Cultural ties to Lake Maracaibo </h2>



The cultural significance of Lake Maracaibo is deeply rooted in the traditions and lifestyle of the Indigenous Añu people, who have inhabited its shores for centuries. The Añu, also known as Paraujano, are known for their distinctive stilt houses, called palafitos.



These wooden structures are built directly over the water, connected by walkways or small boats, allowing the Añu to live harmoniously with their aquatic environment. The architectural style of these stilt houses inspired the early Spanish explorers to nickname the region "The Venice of the Americas."



The Añu's way of life is closely tied to the lake. They rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> as a primary source of food and income, using traditional methods passed down through generations.



For the Añu, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-significantly-impacts-lake-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> is more than a resource - it is the spiritual and cultural foundation of their identity and daily lives. However, modernization and environmental challenges have disrupted this traditional lifestyle. 



The oil industry’s expansion around Lake Maracaibo has led to significant environmental degradation, which threaten the lake's biodiversity and the Añu’s primary sources of sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lake-maracaibo-and-venezuelan-history">Lake Maracaibo and Venezuelan history</h2>



Lake Maracaibo also played a pivotal role in Venezuelan history, particularly during the Battle of Lake Maracaibo in 1823. 



This naval battle was a decisive conflict in Venezuela’s war for independence from Spain and marked one of the final military engagements of the South American liberation movements led by figures like Simón Bolívar.



Today, the lake represents a remarkable blend of natural beauty, industrial significance, and cultural heritage. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-conservation-efforts">Ongoing conservation efforts </h2>



The need to protect the extraordinary environment of Lake Maracaibo is widely acknowledged. Ongoing efforts aim to harmonize ecological conservation with economic development.



Efforts to preserve the Añu culture and the lake's ecosystem have been initiated by local and international organizations. These initiatives focus on promoting sustainable development, preserving Indigenous languages and traditions, and mitigating the environmental damage caused by industrial activities. 



Despite these challenges, the Añu have shown remarkable resilience, maintaining their cultural identity and advocating for their rights and the health of their ancestral lands.



Image Credit: ESA



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Lake Maracaibo: The lightning capital of the world

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features an incredible image of the Crab Nebula in bright neon colors. 



“The unusual image was produced by combining data from telescopes spanning nearly the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to X-rays,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.&nbsp;



Colored in red, the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) provided information about the nebula gathered in the radio regime.



NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope took infrared images, which appear yellow, while the NASA/ESA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-captures-another-cosmic-masterpiece-in-galaxy-ngc-2217/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope provided images made in optical wavelengths, colored in green.&nbsp;



Blue colors represent ultraviolet observations made by ESA’s XMM-Newton telescope, and the purple colors are X-ray radiation data from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-about-the-crab-nebula-nbsp">About the Crab Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Crab Nebula, located in the constellation Taurus, contains the remnants of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosion</a> first observed on Earth in 1054 AD. This explosion was recorded by Chinese astronomers and possibly by Native American rock art.&nbsp;



The nebula spans about 11 light-years across and lies approximately 6,500 light-years away from Earth. It is one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied objects</a> in the sky, largely due to its status as a bright and dynamic supernova remnant.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-crab-pulsar">The Crab Pulsar</h2>



The Crab Nebula contains a pulsar at its center, which is a rapidly rotating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-spinning-neutron-star-completely-defies-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> that emits pulses of radiation. This pulsar, known as the Crab Pulsar, spins about 30 times per second and is a significant source of gamma rays and other forms of high-energy radiation.&nbsp;



The nebula itself is a complex structure of filaments and synchrotron radiation. The filaments are remnants of the original star's outer layers, while the synchrotron radiation emerges from electrons spiraling in the magnetic fields produced by the pulsar.



“Surrounding the pulsar lies a mix of material; some of it was originally expelled from the star before it went supernova, and the rest was ejected during the explosion itself,” explained ESA.&nbsp;



“Fast-moving winds of particles fly off from the neutron star, energizing the dust and gas around it. These different layers and intricacies of the nebula can be observed in all of the different wavelengths of light.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crab-nebula-observations">Crab Nebula observations </h2>



Throughout its history, the Crab Nebula has provided critical insights into the processes of stellar death, the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pulsars-are-helping-astronomers-pinpoint-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pulsars</a>, and the mechanics of supernova remnants.&nbsp;



Its continuous observation has revealed changes over time, such as the expansion of its filaments and variations in its brightness, offering a dynamic laboratory for astrophysical studies.



Overall, the Crab Nebula is a highly energetic and object, providing valuable insights into the processes following a supernova explosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-facts-about-nebulae">Fascinating facts about nebulae</h2>



Nebulae are some of the most breathtaking and intriguing structures in the universe. They are vast clouds of gas and dust, often considered stellar nurseries where new stars are born. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-of-nebulae">Colors of nebulae </h3>



One of the most fascinating aspects of nebulae is their ability to glow in different colors. This occurs because they either reflect the light of nearby stars or emit light due to the ionization of gases within them, particularly hydrogen. 



Some nebulae, like the famous Orion Nebula, are visible to the naked eye and serve as one of the nearest regions of active star formation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae">Planetary nebulae </h3>



Stars are born in dense regions of nebulae, and when they die, some will expel their outer layers, creating stunning structures known as planetary nebulae. The colorful clouds left behind can shine brightly for thousands of years. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-size">Massive size</h3>



Another amazing fact is that some nebulae are so vast that light can take years to travel from one side to the other, stretching across hundreds of light-years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-remnants">Star remnants </h3>



Perhaps even more mind-boggling is the fact that nebulae are the remnants of previous generations of stars. Supernova explosions of massive stars can create these glowing clouds of gas and dust, seeding the cosmos with the elements necessary for the formation of new stars and planets.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, G. Dubner (IAFE, CONICET-University of Buenos Aires) et al.; A. Loll et al.; T. Temim et al.; F. Seward et al.; VLA/NRAO/AUI/NSF; Chandra/CXC; Spitzer/JPL-Caltech; XMM-Newton/ESA; and Hubble/STScI



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Crab Nebula: The remains of a massive star explosion

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 6744 - a large, barred spiral galaxy located approximately 30 million light-years away in the constellation Pavo.&nbsp;



The galaxy is often considered a close analog to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> due to its similar structure and size, spanning about 175,000 light-years across.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The image was captured by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid</a> space telescope. NGC 6744 stands out as a prime example of the galaxies currently forming the majority of stars in the nearby universe, making it an ideal subject for study with the Euclid mission.&nbsp;



Euclid’s extensive field-of-view allows it to capture the entire galaxy, showcasing not only its large-scale spiral structure but also revealing intricate details on smaller scales across various wavelengths. These details include feather-like dust lanes, known as “spurs,” emerging from the spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-6744">Star formation in NGC 6744</h2>



Euclid's observations enable scientists to count individual stars within NGC 6744, trace the distribution of stars and dust throughout the galaxy, and map the dust associated with the gas that fuels the development of new stars. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star formation</a> is a key process in the growth of galaxies, making these studies crucial for understanding galaxy evolution.



Researchers are utilizing Euclid’s data to explore the relationship between dust, gas, and star formation; to map the distribution of different stellar populations and identify regions of active star formation; and to investigate the underlying physics of spiral galaxy structures.&nbsp;



Spiral arms play a significant role in star formation by compressing gas, yet the precise mechanisms behind this process are still unclear. The presence of “spurs” along NGC 6744’s spiral arms offers valuable insights into the dynamics of star formation within these structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-new-dwarf-galaxies-nbsp">Discovering new dwarf galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, Euclid's dataset will help scientists identify clusters of old stars (globular clusters) and discover new dwarf galaxies around NGC 6744. Remarkably, Euclid has already identified a new dwarf satellite galaxy of NGC 6744 - a surprising discovery given that the galaxy has been studied extensively.



With Euclid’s detailed observations, scientists are gaining a deeper understanding of the processes shaping galaxies, providing essential clues to the evolution and appearance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universes-expansion-rate-hubble-tension-puzzles-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ngc-6744">More about NGC 6744</h2>



NGC 6744's disk is rich in star-forming regions and contains numerous young, bright blue stars. The galaxy's nucleus is slightly elongated and has a bar structure, which influences the motion of the stars and gas within it.&nbsp;



The spiral arms of NGC 6744 are well-defined and extend outward, wrapping around the central bar. Additionally, NGC 6744 has a smaller companion galaxy, NGC 6744A, which is interacting with it, adding to the complexity and interest of this distant system.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-galaxies">Spiral galaxies</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are one of the most common types of galaxies in the universe, characterized by their distinct, spiral-shaped structure.&nbsp;



The galaxies typically consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, along with a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. This bulge is often surrounded by a halo of older stars.&nbsp;



The spiral arms, which extend from the central bulge, are regions of active star formation and are rich in young, hot stars, giving them a bright, bluish appearance.&nbsp;



These arms are also sites where interstellar gas and dust are concentrated, leading to the formation of new stars.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on the tightness of their spirals and the size of their central bulge, with classifications ranging from tightly wound arms in Sa galaxies to more loosely wound arms in Sc galaxies. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our home galaxy, is a prime example of a spiral galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-pavo">The constellation Pavo</h2>



Pavo, which means "peacock" in Latin, is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in the late 16th century, based on observations made during the Dutch explorations of the southern hemisphere. 



Pavo is one of the 12 constellations created by Plancius from the records of explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. 



The constellation is known for its distinctive shape, resembling a peacock with a long, curved tail. Pavo is not visible from most of the northern hemisphere, but it can be seen from the southern hemisphere, particularly during the winter months.



The constellation contains several interesting celestial objects, including the star Peacock, also known as Alpha Pavonis, which is the brightest star in the constellation. This star is a blue-white subgiant located about 179 light-years from Earth.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA&nbsp;



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Spiral galaxy NGC 6744 in the constellation Pavo

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko Glacier lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall.&nbsp;



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting. 



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.



“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;



The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.



NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.



Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.



“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;



Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;



However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;



Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.



The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change.&nbsp;Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

On a crisp autumn night, far from city lights, you can witness one of the most awe-inspiring sights in the sky - the Andromeda Galaxy.



Just northeast of the Great Square of Pegasus, this celestial wonder appears as a faint, elongated smudge, easily visible to the naked eye. 



Despite its dim glow, this galaxy is the largest and closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way, spanning an astonishing 220,000 light-years across.



The light reaching your eyes tonight&nbsp;left Andromeda 2.5 million years ago. At that time, early human ancestors,&nbsp;Homo habilis, had just begun making stone tools on Earth.



That means when you look at Andromeda, you are gazing into the distant past - at a galaxy whose light began its journey long before modern humans even existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edwin-hubble-and-the-andromeda-galaxy">Edwin Hubble and the Andromeda Galaxy </h2>



For centuries, astronomers debated the nature of Andromeda. Was it merely a nearby&nbsp;"spiral nebula," a swirling cloud of gas and dust within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-galaxy-shows-us-what-the-early-milky-way-looked-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>? Or was it something more? The answer arrived in the early&nbsp;20th century, thanks to the work of&nbsp;Edwin Hubble.



Using the&nbsp;Hooker Telescope&nbsp;at <a href="https://www.mtwilson.edu/100-telescope-observing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mount Wilson Observatory</a>, Hubble identified&nbsp;Cepheid variable stars&nbsp;in Andromeda - special stars whose brightness fluctuates predictably, allowing astronomers to calculate their distance.



Hubble’s calculations revealed something astonishing:&nbsp;Andromeda was far beyond the Milky Way, proving it was a separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-galaxy-with-quasar-jet-surprises-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> altogether. This revelation shattered the belief that the Milky Way encompassed the entire universe.



In the years that followed, our understanding of the cosmos expanded from a single galaxy to a vast universe teeming with billions of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-space-telescope-and-andromeda">Hubble Space Telescope and Andromeda</h2>



A century after Edwin Hubble’s remarkable discovery, the space telescope bearing his name set out to photograph Andromeda in&nbsp;unprecedented detail. 



The&nbsp;Hubble Space Telescope (<a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HST</a>), one of the most powerful astronomical tools ever built, spent over&nbsp;a decade capturing a high-resolution photomosaic of the Andromeda Galaxy.



This monumental survey required&nbsp;over 600 individual exposures, resulting in a final image containing&nbsp;2.5 billion pixels. The mosaic spans the full width of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a>, covering an area&nbsp;six times larger than the full Moon&nbsp;in the night sky. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="FTThfGq0yb-4239179-12187" type="single"]</div>



Because Hubble is designed for pinpoint accuracy rather than wide-field imaging, assembling a complete portrait of Andromeda was an immense challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-millions-of-stars">Mapping millions of stars</h2>



The first phase of this project, known as the Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury (PHAT), focused on Andromeda’s northern half. 



Using Hubble’s Advanced Camera for Surveys and Wide Field Camera 3, astronomers captured Andromeda’s stars at ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths.



A decade later, this work was expanded with the&nbsp;Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Southern Treasury (PHAST), a follow-up study led by&nbsp;Zhuo Chen&nbsp;at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>. 



This program mapped an additional&nbsp;100 million stars&nbsp;in the&nbsp;southern half&nbsp;of Andromeda - an area particularly valuable for studying the galaxy’s&nbsp;merger history.



The combined PHAT and PHAST mosaics now encompass the entire disk of Andromeda, revealing stunning details of its structure and stellar population. 



Hubble’s high-resolution imaging allows astronomers to study individual stars in Andromeda just as easily as those within our own Milky Way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-andromeda-s-violent-history">Andromeda’s violent history</h2>



While Andromeda and the Milky Way likely formed around the same time, their evolutionary paths have been strikingly different. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> has experienced relatively stable growth, while Andromeda appears to have undergone a much more chaotic past, marked by violent interactions and mergers.



"Andromeda’s a train wreck," said&nbsp;Daniel Weisz&nbsp;of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>. "It looks like it has been through some kind of event that caused it to form a lot of stars and then just shut down."



A key clue to this turbulent history lies in the presence of&nbsp;coherent streams of stars - trails of ancient stellar material likely left behind by smaller galaxies that Andromeda absorbed over time.



One possible culprit is the compact satellite galaxy&nbsp;Messier 32, which astronomers suspect may be the stripped-down core of a once-larger spiral galaxy that was devoured by Andromeda in the distant past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-andromeda-galaxy">What's next for the Andromeda galaxy</h2>



<a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Hubble_traces_hidden_history_of_the_Andromeda_Galaxy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The detailed stellar census provided by Hubble</a> helps astronomers reconstruct Andromeda’s merger history and predict its future evolution. 



The findings suggest that Andromeda is gradually transitioning from a star-forming spiral to a more elliptical structure, where star formation is winding down.



"Andromeda looks like a transitional type of galaxy that’s between a star-forming spiral and a sort of elliptical galaxy dominated by aging red stars," said&nbsp;Weisz.



However, Andromeda’s journey is far from over. In about&nbsp;4.5 billion years, it will&nbsp;collide with the Milky Way, triggering an immense cosmic event that will reshape both galaxies into a single, massive elliptical galaxy. 



This future merger - already set in motion by their mutual gravitational pull - will not be a destructive explosion but rather a slow gravitational dance that will mix and redistribute billions of stars over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-chapter-beyond-hubble">The next chapter: Beyond Hubble</h2>



Although the Hubble Space Telescope has provided humanity with an unprecedented view of Andromeda, its work is only the beginning. 



Future telescopes, such as&nbsp;NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>&nbsp;and the upcoming&nbsp;Nancy Grace <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Space Telescope</a>, will take this research even further.



James Webb’s&nbsp;infrared vision&nbsp;will allow astronomers to peer through Andromeda’s&nbsp;dusty regions, uncovering details about star formation, planetary systems, and the galaxy’s hidden structure. 



Meanwhile, the Roman Space Telescope, often described as a&nbsp;"wide-angle version of Hubble," will capture panoramic views of Andromeda with&nbsp;100 times the field of view of Hubble. This will provide an even broader perspective of its vast stellar population.



The Andromeda Galaxy stands as one of the most important astronomical objects in human history. 



From ancient civilizations who saw it as a mysterious celestial cloud to the Hubble Space Telescope’s&nbsp;2.5-billion-pixel portrait - Andromeda has continuously reshaped our understanding of the cosmos.



With each new observation, we learn more about our&nbsp;neighboring galaxy’s past, present, and future. 



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7e2b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 



Video Credit: NASA, ESA, Greg Bacon (STScI)



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Best space photo ever? Hubble's masterpiece took 10 years to complete, capturing 200 million stars

On a crisp autumn night, far from city lights, you...

Fast radio bursts are sudden flashes of radio waves, often lasting mere milliseconds. The first appeared on astronomers' radar in 2007, and for the most part, still remain a complete mystery. 



Scientists have since recorded thousands of them across the sky, each leaving behind questions about what kind of cosmic drama can generate such concentrated energy in so little time. 



The bursts usually come from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-radio-signal-reaches-earth-after-8-billion-years-frb-20220610a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">far beyond our own galaxy</a>, making them challenging to trace back to a specific source.



Last summer, one set of repeated bursts caught special attention. Intense radio signals in the northern constellation Ursa Minor suggested something unusual. Initial data pointed to a source lying well outside our galactic neighborhood. 



Researchers worked to narrow down its origin with a newly commissioned radio telescope that could combine signals from multiple arrays. 



They hoped to piece together a more precise map of these flashes to get clues about how and where they formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-frb-source">Unexpected FRB source</h2>



<a href="https://leungcalvin.github.io/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomer Calvin Leung</a>, a Miller Postdoctoral Fellowship recipient at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, helped develop the computer code that made it possible to pinpoint the fast radio bursts with high accuracy. 



When he and his team plotted the signals, they found that the source sat in the distant outskirts of an ancient elliptical galaxy about 2 billion light years from Earth. 



This galaxy is around 11.3 billion years old, leading experts to believe it should not contain the kind of young, magnetized neutron star that might create these flashes. 



Leung posits, "now the question was: How are you going to explain the presence of a magnetar inside this old, dead galaxy?"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aiming-telescopes-at-this-radio-burst">Aiming telescopes at this radio burst</h2>



Once the spot was identified, colleagues turned optical telescopes to that region. What they saw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-radio-bursts-traced-to-chaotic-magnetospheres-of-neutron-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">did not match expectations</a>.



Telescopes revealed a long-dead galaxy, lacking the active star factories known to give birth to the supermassive stars that collapse into magnetars. 



A graduate researcher at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> in Montreal, Canada, named Vishwangi Shah refined the calculations used to confirm the bursts’ location. 



"This is not only the first FRB to be found outside a dead galaxy, but compared to all other FRBs, it’s also the farthest from the galaxy it’s associated with," Shah explained. 



"The FRB’s location is surprising and raises questions about how such energetic events can occur in regions where no new stars are forming."



Shah’s paper on this unusual fast radio burst, designated FRB 20240209A, was published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9ddc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal Letters</a> on Tuesday, Jan. 21.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-fast-radio-burst-locations">Pinpointing fast radio burst locations</h2>



Further progress in Leung's FRB mapping mission came from the Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (<a href="https://chime-experiment.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHIME</a>), which has detected a large share of these bursts. 



Its main array in British Columbia recently gained partner stations called outriggers, designed to sharpen its imaging abilities. 



"When paired with the three outriggers, we should be able to accurately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farthest-known-fast-radio-burst-traced-to-rare-cluster-of-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pinpoint one FRB</a> a day to its galaxy, which is substantial. That's 20 times better than CHIME, with two outrigger arrays," Leung explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-both-optical-and-infrared-telescopes">Using both optical and infrared telescopes</h2>



A new site at <a href="https://www.seti.org/hcro" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hat Creek Observatory</a> in Northern California is also online this week, raising hopes that astronomers can identify many more locations of similar bursts.



With these improvements, researchers can steer optical and infrared telescopes to the same spot in the sky. They can then figure out whether these bursts come from star clusters or distinct structures within a galaxy.



After Shah's paper on FRB 20240209A was submitted, observers at the <a href="https://greenbankobservatory.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Green Bank Observatory</a> in West Virginia, led by MIT’s Shion Andrew, used a second outrigger to verify the position of that newly discovered signal.



<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9de2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A related study</a> by scientists at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> in Illinois, led by Einstein Postdoctoral Fellow <a href="https://www.tarraneheftekhari.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tarraneh Eftekhari</a>, was also published that day. 



Eftekhari said, "It's clear that there's still a lot of exciting discovery space when it comes to FRBs and that their environments could hold the key to unlocking their secrets,"



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/fast-radio-burst_frb_dead-galaxy_credit-gemini-observatory_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/fast-radio-burst_frb_dead-galaxy_credit-gemini-observatory_1s.webp" alt="The location of the fast radio burst, indicated by the oval outlines, is on the outskirts of a massive elliptical galaxy, the yellow oval at right. Credit: Gemini Observatory" class="wp-image-1957540"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The location of the fast radio burst, indicated by the oval outlines, is on the outskirts of a massive elliptical galaxy, the yellow oval at right. Credit: Gemini Observatory</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explaining-this-radio-burst">Explaining this radio burst</h2>



The presence of such a powerful burst in the outskirts of a silent elliptical galaxy hints at a new chapter in FRB studies. 



"This result challenges existing theories that tie FRB origins to phenomena in star-forming galaxies," Shah noted.



Because active star-forming regions are known breeding grounds for magnetars, this development opens the door to alternative ideas about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glitching-star-explains-cosmic-radio-bursts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how these bursts arise</a>. 



"The source could be in a globular cluster, a dense region of old, dead stars outside the galaxy. If confirmed, it would make FRB 20240209A only the second FRB linked to a globular cluster," Shah concluded.



This galaxy stopped forming new stars long ago, yet the data point to a burst generated by something akin to a magnetar. If that scenario is correct, it might mean these exotic objects can emerge in places once deemed unlikely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Researchers want to learn more about how an old galaxy could host events usually tied to younger environments. Leung sees huge promise in better pinpointing tools. 



"CHIME and its outrigger telescopes will let us do astrometry at a level unmatched by the Hubble Space Telescope or the James Webb Space Telescope. It'll be up to them to drill down to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-alien-radio-signals-may-be-caused-by-starquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">find the source</a>. It's an amazing radio telescope," Leung enthusiastically concluded.



To sum it all up, what we learned is that astronomers still have a lot to learn about fast radio bursts. What causes them? Where do they come from? 



As with most things in the universe, FRB answers are elusive, but that won't keep us from continuing to ask the questions and doing the the work that it takes to find the answers, because that's what science is all about.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9ddc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Deep space radio burst is detected from a 'dead galaxy,' baffling scientists

Fast radio bursts are sudden flashes of radio waves, often...

Less than six months after beginning its science operations, the Webb Telescope (JWST) unveiled numerous red objects in the sky that puzzled scientists. These objects, initially dubbed "little red dots" (LRDs), appeared small but were abundant across the cosmos.



However, their exact nature, the reasons for their striking color, and their significance in understanding the early universe have left astronomers intrigued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-little-red-dots-and-black-holes">Little red dots and black holes</h2>



In a recent study, experts have compiled one of the largest samples of LRDs to date. Nearly all of these objects existed during the first 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.



The findings are intriguing: a large fraction of these dots appear to harbor growing supermassive black holes.



"We’re confounded by this new population of objects that Webb has found. We don’t see analogs of them at lower redshifts, which is why we haven’t seen them prior to Webb," said Dale Kocevski, lead author of the study and an astronomer at <a href="https://www.colby.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colby College</a> in Waterville, Maine. 



"There’s a substantial amount of work being done to try to determine the nature of these little red dots and whether their light is dominated by accreting black holes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-little-red-dots">Discovery of the little red dots</h2>



The team of astronomers sifted through Webb’s data, compiled from multiple surveys, to analyze these peculiar objects. 



The Cosmic Evolution Early Release Science (<a href="https://ceers.github.io" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CEERS</a>) survey, along with other major surveys like the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (<a href="https://jades-survey.github.io" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JADES</a>) and Next Generation Deep Extragalactic Exploratory Public (NGDEEP), provided a wealth of information. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/little-red-dots_webb-telescope_discovery_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/little-red-dots_webb-telescope_discovery_NASA_1s.webp" alt="From their sample, they found that these mysterious red objects that appear small on the sky emerge in large numbers around 600 million years after the big bang and undergo a rapid decline in quantity around 1.5 billion years after the big bang. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Dale Kocevski (Colby College)" class="wp-image-1956670"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">From their sample, they found that these mysterious red objects that appear small on the sky emerge in large numbers around 600 million years after the big bang and undergo a rapid decline in quantity around 1.5 billion years after the big bang. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Dale Kocevski (Colby College)</figcaption></figure>



Their work revealed that LRDs first emerged in large numbers around 600 million years after the Big Bang. Then, they underwent a rapid decline around 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.



The images, such as the six Webb images in the CEERS survey, show these mysterious dots surrounded by fuzzy red halos, each containing a yellow-white core. The survey data provides a deeper understanding of the LRDs' distribution and their link to cosmic history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-black-hole-growth">Early black hole growth</h2>



A significant discovery was the presence of rapidly orbiting gas, moving at speeds of up to 2 million miles per hour (1,000 km/s), around about 70% of the LRDs in the sample. 



This is a sign of an accretion disk around a supermassive black hole. These findings suggest that many of the LRDs are in fact active galactic nuclei (AGN), where black holes are actively accreting matter.



“The most exciting thing for me is the redshift distributions. These really red, high-redshift sources basically stop existing at a certain point after the big bang,” explained Steven Finkelstein, a co-author of the study from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>. 



“If they are growing black holes, and we think at least 70 percent of them are, this hints at an era of obscured black hole growth in the early universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-universe-isn-t-broken-just-evolving">The universe isn't broken, just evolving</h2>



When the little red dots were first discovered, some suggested that cosmology might be "broken" due to the unexpected size and rapid growth of these objects. 



If the light from these dots came entirely from stars, it would imply that some galaxies had formed too quickly for existing models to explain. The team’s research, however, counters this.



The study supports the idea that much of the light from these objects comes from accreting black holes rather than stars. With fewer stars involved, the galaxies are likely smaller and more consistent with current cosmological theories.



"This is how you solve the universe-breaking problem," said study co-author Anthony Taylor from the University of Texas at Austin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-arise">New questions arise</h2>



Despite these breakthroughs, the nature of LRDs still raises many questions. One of the most pressing is why LRDs do not appear at lower redshifts. One possible explanation could be the process of inside-out growth. 



As star formation spreads outward from the center of a galaxy, the gas feeding the accreting black hole may diminish, leading to less obscuration of the black hole. This process could cause the black hole to become bluer and lose its "red dot" status.



Another mystery is that LRDs do not emit much X-ray light, unlike most black holes at lower redshifts. This has led scientists to speculate that LRDs might be heavily obscured black holes, with X-ray photons trapped in dense gas regions.



“There’s always two or more potential ways to explain the confounding properties of little red dots. It’s a continuous exchange between models and observations, finding a balance between what aligns well between the two and what conflicts,” explained Kocevski.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-the-boundaries-of-space-science">Pushing the boundaries of space science</h2>



The team’s work has sparked a wave of new questions and possibilities, and further investigations are underway. Deep spectroscopic observations and mid-infrared property analysis of these objects will provide more clarity in the coming years.



These findings were presented at the 245th meeting of the American Astronomical Society and have been submitted for publication.



The James Webb Space Telescope continues to push the boundaries of space science, unveiling the mysteries of the universe. With its exceptional capabilities, Webb is helping to answer fundamental questions about the origins of the universe, the formation of galaxies, and the nature of black holes.



As the puzzle pieces slowly fall into place, the universe keeps revealing its secrets - one "little red dot" at a time.



The study is published in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2404.03576" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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Webb finds strange objects called "little red dots" in the early universe that no one can explain

Less than six months after beginning its science operations, the...

The existence of water on Mars has long been a subject of curiosity and debate. A recently published study presents compelling evidence of ancient "wave ripples" in rocks that were shaped by Martian water and winds billions of years ago.



These ripples, imprinted on the Martian surface, speak to a time when shallow bodies of water were open to the Martian air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-ripples-on-mars">Mysterious ripples on Mars</h2>



The importance of these ripples cannot be overemphasized as they provide clear evidence of the existence of a standing body of water on Mars approximately 3.7 billion years ago.



This profound discovery paints a picture of a time when the Martian climate was seemingly warm enough to support liquid bodies water, not just frozen ice fields, that were open to the air.



"The shape of the ripples could only have been formed under water that was open to the atmosphere and acted upon by wind," observed Claire Mondro, a postdoctoral scholar from The California Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CalTech</a>) and the study's first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-mars-ripples-tell-us">What the Mars ripples tell us</h2>



Dr. Michael Lamb, a geology professor at Caltech, painstakingly created computer models based on these ripples to estimate the size of the ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-samples-bunsen-peak-rock-jezero-crater-martian-lake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian lake</a>.



Lamb’s extensive experience in studying sediment, water, and atmosphere interactions on Earth lent credibility to this model. 



The ripples, a mere 6 millimeters high and spaced 4 to 5 centimeters apart suggest the existence of a shallow lake, no deeper than about 2 meters (6.5 feet).



Mondro’s observations lend further weight to these inferences. “Extending the length of time that liquid water was present extends the possibilities for microbial habitability later into Mars's history,” she pointed out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-martian-surface">Exploring the Martian surface</h2>



These marvelous ripples went unnoticed until NASA's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-mars-rover-finds-more-compelling-evidence-for-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity rover</a> documented them in 2022 during its expedition across the Gale Crater region of Mars, a region that was once home to wind-blown dunes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mars_lakes_ponds_ice-free_ripples_rock-formation_credit-Science-Advances_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mars_lakes_ponds_ice-free_ripples_rock-formation_credit-Science-Advances_1s.webp" alt="Symmetric ripple marks in the AMB outcrop. Credit: Science Advances (2025)." class="wp-image-1957535"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Symmetric ripple marks in the AMB outcrop. Credit: Science Advances (2025).</figcaption></figure>



A nearby band of rock, the Amapari Marker Band, hinted at the existence of another lake, approximately 6.5 feet (2 meters) deep, that formed slightly later in Mars's history than the previous one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-mars-ripples-matter">Why do Mars ripples matter?</h2>



“The discovery of wave ripples is an important advance for Mars paleoclimate science," noted John Grotzinger, the Harold Brown Professor of Geology at Caltech.



"The Curiosity rover discovered evidence for long-lived ancient lakes in 2014, and now, 10 years later, Curiosity has discovered ancient lakes that were free of ice, offering an important insight into the planet's early climate,” added Grotzinger, a former project scientist for Curiosity's Mars Science Laboratory (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/msl-curiosity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSL</a>) mission.



It seems we are just scratching the surface of understanding the red planet’s past, and with each discovery, we inch closer to unraveling the mysteries of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-may-be-lurking-deep-underground-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars and its potential for supporting life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-mars-climate-evolution">Clues to Mars' climate evolution</h2>



The discovery of these ancient ripples offers a crucial glimpse into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-mars-past-climate-supportive-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars's climate history</a>, providing scientists with valuable data to reconstruct the environmental conditions that existed billions of years ago.



The presence of liquid water suggests that Mars once had a significantly thicker atmosphere that was capable of sustaining warmer temperatures.



Over time, the planet's climate underwent drastic changes, leading to the loss of surface water and the thinning of its atmosphere. 



Understanding these transitions is key to determining how long Mars could have supported habitable conditions and whether it might have once harbored microbial life. 



Scientists believe that further exploration of ripple formations could shed light on the duration and stability of these ancient lakes, helping to piece together the timeline of Mars' environmental shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-mars-missions">Implications for future Mars missions</h2>



The findings from Curiosity's observations could play a pivotal role in shaping the objectives of upcoming Mars missions. 



Future rovers and landers, equipped with more advanced instruments, may focus on analyzing ripple formations in greater detail, searching for chemical signatures that indicate past life-supporting conditions. 



The Perseverance rover, currently exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a>, has already been tasked with collecting samples that might contain traces of ancient microbial activity.



These efforts align with NASA's long-term goal of bringing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian samples</a> back to Earth for comprehensive laboratory analysis.



The ripple evidence on Mars is also encouraging for future crewed missions, as understanding past water sources could help identify potential locations for human exploration and resource utilization.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr0010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Wave 'ripples' found on Mars prove it once had flowing liquid water, not just ice

The existence of water on Mars has long been a...

Preterm birth remains a significant concern for expectant parents because it means that babies are born immature - before completing 37 weeks of gestation.



While human pregnancy typically lasts around 40 weeks, any parent can confirm that this figure is vague at best. 



The timeline of birth is highly unpredictable. Babies arrive anytime between 38 and 42 weeks, with 10% of all births occurring preterm. Premature birth puts the newborns at risk of various complications.



A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Francisco</a> has stumbled upon a significant finding: a molecular timekeeper in mice that possibly regulates the time of birth.



Intriguingly, this clock starts ticking right at the onset of pregnancy and operates within the uterus. 



This discovery could hold immense potential for human pregnancies as it paves the way for diagnostic tests to pinpoint women who are at higher risk of preterm labor and who would benefit from interventions to prolong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-may-speed-up-aging-in-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pregnancy</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preterm-birth-a-global-issue">Preterm birth: A global issue</h2>



Preterm birth is a prevalent issue worldwide, yet its underlying mechanism has puzzled experts for years.



“We hope our work can start to shed light on the underlying mechanism,” noted Dr. Adrian Erlebacher, a professor of laboratory medicine at UCSF who led the research.



“The new findings raise the possibility that preterm birth is triggered by things that happen much earlier in pregnancy than we expected.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dna-packaging-influences-pregnancy">How DNA packaging influences pregnancy</h2>



Pregnancy triggers significant biological transformations in the female body, which result in the fluctuation of hundreds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-transposons-control-early-human-development-not-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> within the uterus.



The researchers were particularly interested in studying KDM6B, a protein that assumes a regulatory role over gene activity and possibly over the genes responsible for the shift to labor.



This protein orchestrates gene expression by removing methyl chemical groups from histones - structures that organize and package <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-damage-can-persist-for-years-increasing-cancer-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> within cells.



Upon interaction with KDM6B, DNA becomes more receptive to other factors, thus accelerating the action of nearby genes.



Through their work, the team observed that blocking KDM6B resulted in prolonged mice pregnancies and delayed birth timings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quiet-role-of-fibroblasts">The quiet role of fibroblasts</h2>



While the initial suspicion was that KDM6B activates genes in the uterus's epithelial cells late in pregnancy, detailed analyses revealed otherwise. 



It was found that the protein’s effects on pregnancy length were instead linked to fibroblasts, the structural cells not typically considered in labor regulation. 



Surprisingly, the regulation of these cells by KDM6B took place during the early days of pregnancy.



“This wasn’t something we anticipated, and it completely reshaped our understanding of the cell types and processes driving labor onset,” said Tara McIntyre, UCSF graduate student and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-countdown-to-labor-molecular-timer-in-action">Countdown to labor: Molecular timer in action</h2>



In-depth experiments showed that, soon after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/calcium-zinc-are-keys-to-healthier-pregnancy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conception</a>, methyl groups increase around certain genes in the uterine fibroblasts, which keeps these genes inactive and enables the uterus to support pregnancy.



As pregnancy progresses, the methylation levels on these histones gradually decrease, eventually activating the nearby genes related to events like labor. This progressive reduction functions as a timer.



“When histone methylation erodes enough, nearby genes flip on," explained Erlebacher.



When the team blocked KDM6B, histones near a selection of genes accumulated excess methylation early in pregnancy. 



This lead to delayed labor as the genes associated with birth were not activated in time despite methylation erosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-preterm-birth-a-connection-unearthed">Decoding preterm birth: A connection unearthed</h2>



Although the researchers did not directly analyze preterm births, the newly discovered molecular timer could potentially determine the length of pregnancy in humans.



“The big question from here is whether these same processes are relevant in humans,” said Erlebacher. “If they are, then can we use them to predict or control pregnancy length?”



If these molecular signals are disrupted in humans, they could be linked to preterm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-increased-premature-birth-risk-by-60/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth risk</a>. 



For instance, women commencing pregnancy with lower than usual levels of histone methylation could prematurely activate labor-related genes due to the swift erosion of methylation.



Erlebacher noted that previous studies on preterm birth have primarily focused on the period immediately before labor. However, these new findings suggest an emphasis on the early stages of pregnancy, opening up new avenues of research.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(24)01432-6?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867424014326%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Cell</a>.



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Molecular timer may hold the key to preventing preterm birth

Preterm birth remains a significant concern for expectant parents because...

West Greenland is renowned for its blue lakes that supply drinking water and help sequester atmospheric carbon.&nbsp;



However, following two months of record heat and heavy rainfall in fall 2022, researchers discovered that an estimated 7,500 of these lakes turned brown, began emitting carbon, and suffered a decline in water quality.&nbsp;



This dramatic change, reported in a study published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2413855122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS), underscores how extreme climate events can push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-lakes-produce-less-methane-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic lakes</a> past critical tipping points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-changes-in-a-short-time">Unprecedented changes in a short time</h2>



Led by Fulbright Distinguished Arctic Scholar Jasmine Saros of the <a href="https://climatechange.umaine.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maine Climate Change Institute</a>, an international team investigated the rapid transformation of these lakes. 



By July 2023, less than a year after the extreme fall weather, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the lakes had undergone widespread alterations - changes that would normally unfold over centuries.



“The magnitude of this and the rate of change were unprecedented,” said Saros, who also serves as a professor of paleolimnology and lake ecology at UMaine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-extremes-affected-greenland-lakes">How climate extremes affected Greenland lakes</h2>



Greenland typically sees snowfall in the fall, but record temperatures turned precipitation into rain. This shift, combined with the heat, caused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-no-longer-permanent-arctic-communities-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost</a> - frozen soil rich in organic carbon and minerals - to thaw. 



As rainwater washed through the thawing ground, it carried an abundance of carbon, iron, magnesium, and other elements into the lakes, turning their waters brown.



The influx of dissolved organic carbon and nutrients fueled bacterial growth, affecting the lakes’ taste, odor, and color. Increased metals in the water raised health concerns as well.



“The increased dissolved organic material can interact with drinking water treatment processes to produce chlorination byproducts called trihalomethanes, which may be carcinogenic,” Saros explained.



Such changes not only impact water quality but also have broader implications for local communities relying on these lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupted-ecosystems-and-the-carbon-cycle">Disrupted ecosystems and the carbon cycle</h2>



As the lakes turned brown, water transparency declined, reducing light penetration and altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-at-risk-global-warming-threatens-the-oceans-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a> dynamics. Reduced light hindered phytoplankton that normally absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, while organisms that break down organic matter increased. 



This shift transformed the lakes from carbon sinks into significant sources of carbon dioxide, with emissions rising by 350%.



“Because the lakes turned so brown, it reduced the light coming into the system, which tends to favor organisms that use organic carbon pathways instead of photosynthesis,” Saros said.



This change in plankton behavior and carbon cycling has major ramifications for the Arctic carbon budget and local biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-atmospheric-rivers">The role of atmospheric rivers</h2>



The researchers pinpointed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-rivers-will-become-more-intense-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric rivers</a> - long, narrow streams of water vapor - as the likely cause of the extreme weather. These phenomena brought record-breaking heat and rainfall to the region. 



The <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) predicts that atmospheric rivers will become much more frequent in Greenland and other parts of the world by the end of the century, potentially leading to more events like those of fall 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-the-lakes-of-greenland-recover">Will the lakes of Greenland recover?</h2>



The abrupt transformation raises pressing questions about recovery: Will the lakes return to their former blue state, or will changes persist?&nbsp;



“It was such an overwhelming climate force that drove all the lakes to respond in the same way. When it comes to recovery, will it be the same across lakes or different?” Saros pondered.



Ongoing monitoring and additional research are crucial. The team’s work relied on long-term observations, including annual water sampling and year-round remote sensors, which allowed them to capture the rapid changes caused by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme climate event</a>.



“Our study demonstrates the power of long-term observation. I’ve been working in this area since 2013, and have worked on many projects here. But in the background, my colleagues and I have been trying to maintain a consistent data set of observations,” Saros said.&nbsp;



“That’s how we were able to capture and quantify the effects of this extreme climate event.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-greenland-lakes">Future research on Greenland lakes</h2>



The study was made possible through extensive collaboration among researchers from UMaine, NOAA, and various international institutions, as well as contributions from numerous PhD students.&nbsp;



This collective effort has provided valuable insights into how extreme weather events can drastically alter lake ecosystems and carbon dynamics.



As atmospheric rivers become more frequent, understanding their impact on Arctic lakes like those in West Greenland is essential.&nbsp;



Further research into how these lakes recover and how similar events affect other regions will help scientists develop strategies to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change.



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Thousands of lakes in Greenland have crossed a tipping point from which they can't recover

West Greenland is renowned for its blue lakes that supply...

For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his collaborators have worked to compile an unparalleled database of human history - the Seshat Global History Databank. Recently, Turchin and computer scientist Maria del Rio-Chanona turned their attention to artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots, questioning whether these advanced models could aid historians and archaeologists in interpreting the past. 



The study, which is the first of its kind, evaluates the historical knowledge of leading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-ai-models-pose-an-existential-threat-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI models</a> such as ChatGPT-4, Llama, and Gemini.



The results, presented at the <a href="https://neurips.cc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeurIPS conference</a>, reveal both potential and significant limitations in AI’s ability to grasp historical knowledge, especially at the nuanced, expert level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-historical-competence-in-ai">Limited historical competence in AI</h2>



“Large language models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT, have been enormously successful in some fields - for example, they have largely succeeded by replacing paralegals," said Turchin, who leads the <a href="https://csh.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complexity Science Hub</a>’s (CSH) research group on social complexity and collapse.



"But when it comes to making judgments about the characteristics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-linked-to-the-rise-and-fall-of-early-human-societies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past societies</a>, especially those located outside North America and Western Europe, their ability to do so is much more limited.” 



The study’s findings highlight that AI’s capabilities are domain-specific. While LLMs excel in some applications, they struggle with expert-level historical analysis. GPT-4 Turbo, the best-performing model, achieved a balanced accuracy of just 46% on a four-choice question test. 



This result, though an improvement over random guessing (25%), underscores the substantial gaps in AI’s understanding of global history.



“I thought the AI chatbots would do a lot better,” said del Rio-Chanona, corresponding author of the study and assistant professor at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London.</a> “History is often viewed as facts, but sometimes interpretation is necessary to make sense of it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-ai-understand-expert-level-history">Does AI understand expert-level history?</h2>



The study leveraged the <a href="https://seshat-db.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seshat Global History Databank</a>, a comprehensive resource documenting historical data from 600 societies worldwide, encompassing over 36,000 data points and 2,700 scholarly references. Using Seshat as a benchmark, researchers tested LLMs on questions requiring graduate or expert-level knowledge.



“We wanted to set a benchmark for assessing the ability of these LLMs to handle expert-level history knowledge,” explained first author Jakob Hauser, a resident scientist at CSH.&nbsp;



“A key component of our benchmark is that we not only test whether these LLMs can identify correct facts, but also explicitly ask whether a fact can be proven or inferred from indirect evidence.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-and-temporal-disparities">Regional and temporal disparities</h2>



The study revealed that AI performance varied significantly across time periods and geographic regions. LLMs demonstrated greater accuracy when addressing questions about ancient history, particularly between 8,000 BCE and 3,000 BCE, but struggled with more recent events, especially from 1,500 CE to the present.



Geographically, OpenAI models like GPT-4 performed better for regions such as Latin America and the Caribbean, while Llama models excelled in Northern America. However, both systems underperformed in Sub-Saharan Africa, with Llama also showing weaker results for Oceania.&nbsp;



These disparities highlight potential biases in training data, which may prioritize certain historical narratives while neglecting others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-depth-in-ai-models">Lack of depth in AI models</h2>



LLMs performed best on questions related to legal systems and social complexity, but they struggled significantly with topics such as discrimination and social mobility.



“The main takeaway from this study is that LLMs, while impressive, still lack the depth of understanding required for advanced history,” said del Rio-Chanona. “They're great for basic facts, but when it comes to more nuanced, PhD-level historical inquiry, they're not yet up to the task.”



Among the tested models, GPT-4 Turbo ranked highest with 46% accuracy, while Llama-3.1-8B scored the lowest at 33.6%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-dataset-and-reducing-bias">Expanding the dataset and reducing bias</h2>



The researchers aim to address the shortcomings revealed in this study by expanding the dataset and refining the benchmark. Hauser emphasized plans to incorporate more data from underrepresented regions, especially in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-across-the-global-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global South</a>, and to include more complex historical questions.



“We also look forward to testing more recent LLM models, such as o3, to see if they can bridge the gaps identified in this study,” Hauser said.



The team believes the findings are valuable not only for AI developers but also for historians and archaeologists.&nbsp;



For academics, understanding AI’s limitations can guide its use in research, while for developers, the study highlights areas for improvement, such as addressing regional biases and enhancing models’ capacity for handling nuanced historical evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-ai-s-understanding-of-history">Improving AI’s understanding of history</h2>



The study highlights both the potential and the current limitations of AI in historical research. While LLMs have proven valuable for generating basic historical facts, they fall short when tasked with interpreting complex and nuanced historical contexts.&nbsp;



For researchers and developers alike, these findings offer a roadmap for improving AI’s understanding of global history, paving the way for tools that better support scholarly inquiry into the past.



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AI struggles to understand human history and fails miserably when tested

For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

Steele continued, “I’m not exactly trained. I’ve just always been in the outdoors and in the outdoor industry. [In] my first job back in high school for five years I worked at a gear shop, so I was familiar with all the technical, you know, fire starting equipment. Axes, bush craft… [I’ve] watched a lot of YouTube videos.” Photo Credit: Westend61/Getty Images

Living Outdoors In The Snow