Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a strong extratropical cyclone, which struck the Pacific Northwest on November 19, 2024.



“The storm knocked over trees and left nearly 600,000 people without power in Washington state on November 20, according to news reports,” noted <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2Fimages%2F153605%2Fextratropical-cyclone-whips-over-the-pacific-northwest&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “This image shows the storm system at 1:50 p.m. Pacific Time on November 19.” 



According to NASA, mature extratropical cyclones like this often feature comma-shaped cloud patterns that are the product of ‘conveyor belt’ circulation. “Heavy precipitation is often present near the low-pressure head of the comma.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-the-extratropical-cyclone-nbsp">Impacts of the extratropical cyclone&nbsp;</h2>



The “bomb cyclone” brought <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fhow-much-does-climate-change-influence-extreme-weather-events%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">severe weather</a>, including strong winds exceeding 70 mph, heavy rainfall, and snow in higher elevations. These conditions led to significant disruptions, including downed trees and hazardous travel conditions.



In urban and rural areas, damage to infrastructure and properties was substantial, with emergency responders and utility crews working around the clock to restore services.&nbsp;



Additionally, mountain passes faced dangerous blizzard conditions, with up to 20 inches of snow accumulating in some areas, severely affecting travel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-pace-of-acceleration">Rapid pace of acceleration</h2>



Chris Dolce is a meteorologist at The Weather Channel. He noted that on the evening of November 19, the storm’s central pressure dropped to levels on par with a storm in October 2021, which saw the lowest pressure in about 50 years of records for that region.



“The pace of the storm’s intensification was more than double the criteria for bombogenesis - a popular term that describes a midlatitude cyclone that rapidly intensifies into a ‘bomb cyclone,’” said NASA.



The rapidly dropping atmospheric pressure at the center of the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fcoastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm</a> caused winds to intensify quickly. According to the National Weather Service in Seattle, wind gusts reached up to 77 miles per hour in the mountains southeast of the city.



“The cyclone kicked off a long-duration atmospheric river that forecasters expect will park over Northern California and southern Oregon through November 22. The National Weather Service estimates that these areas could see rainfall totals of 12 to 16 inches over the duration of the storm,” noted NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-an-extratropical-cyclone">What is an extratropical cyclone?</h2>



An extratropical cyclone is a large-scale weather system that forms outside the tropics, typically between 30° and 60° latitude, and is associated with areas of low pressure.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-source">Energy source</h3>



These cyclones obtain their energy from the contrast in temperature between air masses, such as cold polar air and warm subtropical air. This contrast creates instability and drives atmospheric circulation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-extratropical-cyclones-nbsp">Development of extratropical cyclones&nbsp;</h3>



Extratropical cyclones usually have well-defined warm and cold fronts. They often develop along the polar front, where cold and warm air masses meet.



A common area for their development is the mid-latitudes, particularly in regions like the North Atlantic and North Pacific.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weather-conditions">Weather conditions</h3>



Extratropical cyclones can bring a variety of <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fhuman-activity-is-rapidly-changing-weather-in-north-america%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather conditions</a>, including heavy rain, snow, strong winds, and severe storms. They are responsible for much of the day-to-day weather in mid-latitude regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-vs-extratropical-cyclones-nbsp">Tropical vs. extratropical cyclones&nbsp;</h3>



While <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Ffast-moving-tropical-cyclones-are-becoming-more-powerful%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical cyclones</a> derive energy from warm ocean waters and have a warm core, extratropical cyclones gain energy from temperature contrasts and have a cold core.



Tropical cyclones typically lack fronts, whereas extratropical cyclones are defined by them.



These systems are essential in distributing heat and energy across the planet, playing a critical role in the Earth's climate system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caught-off-guard-by-the-weather">Caught off guard by the weather</h2>



The bomb cyclone in the Pacific Northwest highlights the importance of <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fnew-era-in-forecasting-ai-will-improve-extreme-weather-warnings%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparedness</a>, as residents were urged to secure loose outdoor items, stock emergency supplies, and avoid unnecessary travel.



The fire department in Bellevue, east of Seattle, posted a Severe Weather Safety alert on Facebook: “It’s severe out there. Trees are coming down all over the city, with multiple falling onto homes. If you are able, head to the lowest floor you can and stay away from windows. Do not go outside if you can avoid it.”



The image was captured by the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on NOAA’s JPSS-1 (Joint Polar Satellite System-1).



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Bomb cyclone rapidly intensified in the Pacific Northwest

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the little-observed southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-star-formation">Fuel for star formation </h2>



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionised nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers studying stellar evolution and the lifecycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that are rich in young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



The galaxy’s central bar is believed to play a role in driving gas towards the core, fueling both the star formation and the activity around its nucleus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



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Spiral galaxy NGC 1559 is a loner in outer space

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba, about 43 million light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.



“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. “Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;



“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;



“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”



Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-evolution">Galaxy evolution</h2>



Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



These early galaxies were small and irregular, composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space.&nbsp;



These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



As galaxies evolve, their morphology - their shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. 



The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;



In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;



Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.



Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee



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NGC 1792: A galactic powerhouse 

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko Glacier lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall.&nbsp;



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting. 



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the spiral galaxy IC 5332, which is located over 29 million light-years away from Earth.



The galaxy spans approximately 66,000 light-years in diameter. This makes it notably smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is just over 100,000 light-years in diameter. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-look-at-ic-5332">Unprecedented look at IC 5332</h2>



In a stunning photo release by NASA and ESA in 2022, the spiral galaxy IC 5332 was presented in an unprecedented level of detail. The images were captured by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-incredible-new-image-of-uranus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>.



This feat was made possible through the use of the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI), which captures images in the mid-infrared spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-perspective-from-earth">Unique perspective from Earth</h2>



One of the most striking features of IC 5332, as revealed by these observations, is its almost perfect face-on orientation relative to Earth.&nbsp;



This unique perspective allows astronomers to clearly observe and admire the symmetrical arrangement of its spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-unveils-ic-5332-in-new-light">Webb unveils IC 5332 in new light</h2>



The clarity of these images represents a significant advancement over previous observations made by the Hubble Space Telescope, which imaged IC 5332 in ultraviolet and visible light.&nbsp;



While Hubble’s images revealed the galaxy’s symmetrical spiral arms, James Webb’s MIRI has unveiled these structures as a complex web of gas that emits infrared light at various temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-miri-instrument-on-james-webb-nbsp">The MIRI instrument on James Webb&nbsp;</h2>



Capturing this range of infrared light is no simple task. It requires highly specialized instruments that must be maintained at extremely cold temperatures.&nbsp;



The MIRI instrument on the James Webb Space Telescope is specifically designed for this purpose and performs exceptionally well. Its capabilities allow astronomers to see aspects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> that are otherwise hidden in other wavelengths.



The detailed images provided by MIRI offer more than just a visual spectacle; they provide valuable data about the composition and temperature of the gases that make up the spiral arms of IC 5332. 



This can help scientists understand the processes of star formation within the galaxy and how these processes compare to those in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-finds-hidden-features-of-the-universe-nbsp">Webb finds hidden features of the universe&nbsp;</h2>



The images of IC 5332 served as a critical test of the James Webb Space Telescope’s capabilities in observing the universe in infrared light. 



As astronomers continue to explore with Webb’s full suite of instruments, many more hidden features of the universe will be revealed.



The information provided by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-second-most-distant-galaxy-in-pandoras-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> not only expands our understanding of the cosmos but also enhances our appreciation for the complex and beautiful structures that exist in our universe.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-galaxies-like-ic-5332">Spiral galaxies like IC 5332</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most visually striking objects in the universe, characterized by their rotating arms that extend from a central nucleus, giving them a distinct spiral appearance.&nbsp;



These galaxies are primarily made up of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. These are often surrounded by a much fainter halo of stars, many of which reside in globular clusters.



Spiral galaxies differ from other galaxy types, such as elliptical and irregular galaxies, in their structure and content. 



The spiral arms are sites of ongoing star formation and are brighter than the rest of the disk because of the young, hot stars that are typically found there. The arms appear distinct because of their density waves, which compress the gas and dust, leading to star formation.



The rotation of the spiral arms also contributes to the galaxy's flat shape due to the centrifugal forces acting on the disk. The central bulge can vary in size and often contains older, red stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Barred spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Some spiral galaxies have a bar-shaped structure that extends from the central bulge, making them barred spirals. This bar affects the motion of stars and gas within the galaxy and can influence star formation activity.



Spiral galaxies are an important focus of study because they contain a significant amount of visible matter and play a crucial role in understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies.&nbsp;



Their distinct features also make them particularly useful for studying the laws of physics under extreme conditions, such as high densities and velocities.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, J. Lee and the PHANGS-JWST and PHANGS-HST Teams



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Spiral galaxy IC 5332: A complex web of gas and light

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Phytoplankton transform the Baltic Sea. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features a phytoplankton bloom in the Baltic Sea off the coast of southeast Sweden.

While the photograph shows a region of the sea between the islands of Öland and Gotland, the extent of the late-summer bloom is actually much larger. 

Vibrant phytoplankton blooms appear in the Baltic Sea every summer, and their swirling patterns shaped by ocean currents and eddies are often captured in satellite images. Phytoplankton transform the Baltic Sea

The specific type of phytoplankton involved in this particular bloom has not been tested, but experts report that it is likely to be an ancient type of marine bacteria known as cyanobacteria.

The natural-color image was obtained on August 15, 2020 by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8.

The Baltic Sea is an arm of the <a title="Atlantic Ocean" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, enclosed by <a title="Denmark" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a title="Estonia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a title="Finland" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland">Finland</a>, <a title="Latvia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia">Latvia</a>, <a title="Lithuania" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a title="Sweden" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden">Sweden</a>, northeast <a title="Germany" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany">Germany</a>, <a title="Poland" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland">Poland</a>, <a title="Russia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia">Russia</a> and the <a title="North European Plain" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_European_Plain">North and Central European Plain</a>.

The sea stretches from <a title="53rd parallel north" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/53rd_parallel_north">53°N</a> to <a title="66th parallel north" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/66th_parallel_north">66°N</a> <a title="Latitude" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude">latitude</a> and from <a title="10th meridian east" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_meridian_east">10°E</a> to <a title="30th meridian east" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30th_meridian_east">30°E</a> <a title="Longitude" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude">longitude</a>. A <a class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_sea">marginal sea</a> of the Atlantic, with limited water exchange between the two water bodies, the Baltic Sea drains through the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Danish Straits" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Straits">Danish Straits</a> into the <a title="Kattegat" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kattegat">Kattegat</a> by way of the <a title="Øresund" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98resund">Øresund</a>, <a title="Great Belt" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Belt">Great Belt</a> and <a title="Little Belt" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Belt">Little Belt</a>. It includes the <a title="Gulf of Bothnia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Bothnia">Gulf of Bothnia</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Bay of Bothnia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Bothnia">Bay of Bothnia</a>, the <a title="Gulf of Finland" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland">Gulf of Finland</a>, the <a title="Gulf of Riga" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Riga">Gulf of Riga</a> and the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Bay of Gdańsk" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Gda%C5%84sk">Bay of Gdańsk</a>.

The <a title="Baltic Proper" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Proper">Baltic Proper</a> is bordered on its northern edge, at the latitude <a title="60th parallel north" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/60th_parallel_north">60°N</a>, by the <a title="Åland Islands" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85land_Islands">Åland Islands</a> and the <a title="Gulf of Bothnia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Bothnia">Gulf of Bothnia</a>, on its northeastern edge by the <a title="Gulf of Finland" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland">Gulf of Finland</a>, on its eastern edge by the <a title="Gulf of Riga" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Riga">Gulf of Riga</a>, and in the west by the <a title="Sweden" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden">Swedish</a> part of the southern Scandinavian Peninsula.

The Baltic Sea is connected by <a title="Canal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal">artificial waterways</a> to the <a title="White Sea" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sea">White Sea</a> via the <a class="mw-redirect" title="White Sea-Baltic Canal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sea-Baltic_Canal">White Sea-Baltic Canal</a> and to the <a title="German Bight" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Bight">German Bight</a> of the <a title="North Sea" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea">North Sea</a> via the <a title="Kiel Canal" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiel_Canal">Kiel Canal</a>.

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Phytoplankton transform the Baltic Sea

Over the past few weeks, you've probably heard somewhere that Earth was going to get a second moon. Well, we can now confirm that Earth now officially has two moons after capturing asteroid 2024 PT5.



On Sunday, September 29, our planet captured the tiny asteroid named 2024 PT5, turning it into a temporary mini-moon.



This intriguing event was first spotted by astronomers at the <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complutense University</a> of Madrid. Richard Binzel, an astronomer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), shared some insights about these celestial visitors.



“These happen with some frequency, but we rarely see them because they’re very small and very hard to detect,” Binzel said. “Only recently has our survey capability reached the point of spotting them routinely.”



Using a powerful telescope located in Sutherland, South Africa, the team from Complutense University detected the small space rock back in August. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-mini-moons">What are mini-moons?</h2>



What exactly are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-new-quasi-moon-will-stick-around-for-hundreds-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mini-moons</a>, and how often do they visit us?



Mini-moons like 2024 PT5 are small asteroids that Earth's gravity grabs for a bit, letting them orbit our planet before they move on. 



These little guys usually travel around the sun like other asteroids, but when they get close enough to Earth, our gravitational pull can pull them into a temporary orbit.



They don’t stick around for long -- they might hang out for a few weeks or months before breaking free and continuing their journey around the sun. 



Scientists find mini-moons really interesting because they give us a chance to study near-Earth objects up close and learn more about how our solar system works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-2024-pt5">Journey of 2024 PT5</h2>



According to data from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory <a href="https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Horizons system</a>, this mini-moon's stay will be brief.



The temporary capture started at 3:54 p.m. EDT on September 29, 2024, and will end at 11:43 a.m. EDT on November 25, 2024. Which means, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-pt5-mini-moon-say-goodbye-to-earths-second-moon-we-barely-got-to-know-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">it won't be around much longer</a>, so enjoy it while you can.



So, where did this little visitor come from? 



2024 PT5 is part of the Arjuna asteroid belt -- a group of space rocks that follow orbits similar to Earth's, about 93 million miles from the sun.



Some Arjuna <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-chicxulub-caused-dinosaurs-extinction-event-traced-to-origin-kuiper-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid belt objects</a> can approach Earth at a close range of around 2.8 million miles and at a relatively low velocity of less than 2,200 miles per hour. 



"Asteroid 2024 PT5 will not describe a full orbit around Earth. You may say that if a true satellite is like a customer buying goods inside a store, objects like 2024 PT5 are window shoppers," Carlos de la Fuente Marcos, a professor and mini-moon expert from the Complutense University, explained to Space.com.



Carlos is the author of a scientific paper titled "<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/ad781f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A Two-month Mini-moon: 2024 PT5&nbsp;Captured by Earth from September to November</a>" recently published by the by the American Astronomical Society in the journal <a href="https://www.iop.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOPscience</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-common-are-captures-like-2024-pt5">How common are captures like 2024 PT5?</h2>



Though it might sound extraordinary for Earth to gain a second moon, these gravitational captures are more common than you might think. 



Scientists have officially documented two prior "short captures," which last about a week and are estimated to occur several times per decade. There have also been two rarer "long-capture" events.



After its brief visit, 2024 PT5 will continue its journey around the sun as part of the Arjuna family of asteroids. 



It won't stick around for billions of years like our primary moon, but its fleeting presence is a reminder of the dynamic nature of our cosmic neighborhood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-currently-visible">Not currently visible</h2>



Now, you might be wondering if you can spot this mini-moon in the night sky. Unfortunately, it's too small and dim for most of us.



The object is too small and dim for typical amateur telescopes and binoculars. However, the object is well within the brightness range of typical telescopes used by professional astronomers. 



A telescope with a diameter of at least 30 inches plus a CCD or CMOS detector is needed to observe this object; a 30-inch telescope and a human eye behind it will not be enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-2024-pt5-to-our-moon">Comparing 2024 PT5 to our moon</h2>



Scientists currently believe Earth's Moon, the big one, was formed around 4.5 billion years ago when a Mars-sized object, often called Theia, collided with our planet. 



This massive impact blasted a huge amount of debris into space, which then came together and cooled to create the Moon we see today. 



The giant-impact theory explains many of the Moon’s features, like its composition and orbit, making it the most widely accepted explanation among scientists.



To put its size into perspective, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our moon</a> is about 2,159 miles in diameter. In contrast, 2024 PT5 is believed to be just 37 feet wide. That makes our moon over 300,000 times wider than this tiny asteroid!



Even though we can't see it ourselves, knowing it's up there is pretty exciting. It's like having an invisible guest sharing our orbit for a little while.



These mini-moons might be small, but they offer big opportunities for scientists to learn more about near-Earth objects. They can provide insights into the composition of asteroids and the dynamics of our solar system.



“These temporary captures are natural cosmic laboratories,” Binzel mentioned. “They help us understand the small bodies that come close to Earth and could be important for future space missions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



As 2024 PT5 continues its journey, we'll keep our eyes -- and telescopes -- on the skies. After all, who knows when the next mini-moon might drop by?



Perhaps future technology will allow us to study these fleeting visitors more closely. Maybe one day, we'll even send missions to them to gather samples or test new spacecraft.



So, for a few weeks, Earth will have a tiny companion circling around it. While it's here, let's appreciate the wonders of our ever-changing universe and the surprises it brings our way.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/ad781f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal IOPscience</a>.



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It's official: Earth now has two moons

Over the past few weeks, you've probably heard somewhere that...

In a remarkable encounter off the coast of Alaska, human scientists had what they describe as a "conversation" with a humpback whale named Twain. Dr. Brenda McCowan from the University of California Davis was at the heart of this unexpected exchange.



Dr. McCowan and her team, known as Whale-SETI, have been studying how humpback whales communicate. They're aiming to understand whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/language-like-patterns-decoded-in-sperm-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication systems</a> to help in the search for life beyond Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-responds-to-a-human-greeting">Whale responds to a human greeting</h2>



Using an underwater speaker, the team played a recorded humpback "contact" call into the ocean. To their astonishment, Twain approached their boat and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conversation-with-humpback-whale-gives-seti-team-ideas-on-how-to-talk-to-aliens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">began responding</a>. 



For about 20 minutes, the whale circled them, matching the intervals between each call they played.



"We believe this is the first such communicative exchange between humans and humpback whales in the humpback 'language,'" said Dr. McCowan. 



The researchers were thrilled to see such direct interaction using the whale's own signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-encounter">Science behind the encounter</h2>



The <a href="https://www.projectceti.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whale-SETI team</a> is working on developing filters to detect intelligent signals, which could be used in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. 



By studying how whales communicate, they hope to find patterns that could apply to signals from outer space.



Dr. Fred Sharpe from the Alaska Whale Foundation emphasized just how intelligent humpback whales are. He pointed out their complex social systems and unique behaviors. 



"They create tools such as nets made of bubbles to catch fish and extensively communicate through songs and social calls," Dr. Sharpe explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-whales-and-extraterrestrial-life">Humans, whales and extraterrestrial life</h2>



The behavior they observed in Twain supports an important idea in the search for life beyond Earth. 



"Because of current limitations on technology, an important assumption of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence is that extraterrestrials will be interested in making contact and so target human receivers," noted Dr. Laurance Doyle of the SETI Institute.



"This important assumption is certainly supported by the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a>."



By engaging with whales, the team believes they can learn how to detect and understand intelligent signals, whether they come from the depths of the ocean or the far reaches of space.



The details of this extraordinary encounter are published in the journal Peer J, in an article titled "Interactive Bioacoustic Playback as a Tool for Detecting and Exploring Nonhuman Intelligence: 'Conversing' with an Alaskan Humpback Whale."



The researchers plan to use mathematics and various forms of artificial intelligence (AI), specifically information theory and machine learning, to measure how complex the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acoustic-tagging-helps-decode-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale's communication</a> is. They want to understand the rules and structures in the messages they receive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-whales-talking-what-s-next">Humans and whales talking -- what's next?</h2>



The Whale-SETI team isn't stopping there. They're preparing another paper focusing on the non-audio ways humpback whales might communicate, like the bubble rings they make around humans. 



Co-authors Dr. Josie Hubbard, Lisa Walker, and Jodi Frediani bring expertise in animal intelligence, whale song analysis, and whale behavior to the project.



The team acknowledges the financial support from the <a href="https://www.templetonworldcharity.org/our-priorities/diverse-intelligences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Templeton Foundation Diverse Intelligences Program</a>, which helped make their research possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-whale-seti">What Is Whale-SETI?</h2>



Whale-SETI, short for Whale Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, is a unique project that combines marine biology with the quest to find life beyond Earth. 



The researchers are trying to decode whale communication, working under the idea that these sounds might contain complex messages similar to human languages -- or even those of extraterrestrial beings.



Using advanced technology like sophisticated underwater microphones and artificial intelligence, they record and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analyze whale sounds</a>. 



The AI looks for patterns that might indicate language-like structures. This not only helps us understand whales better but also could improve how we search for intelligent life elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-humans-should-care-about-humpback-whales">Why humans should care about humpback whales</h2>



Humpback whales are fascinating creatures. They can grow up to 60 feet long and weigh as much as 40 tons. 



Known scientifically as Megaptera novaeangliae, these whales are easily recognized by their long pectoral fins and knobbly heads.



They travel great distances, migrating up to 5,000 miles between feeding and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-whales-epic-voyage-exposes-perils-of-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding grounds</a>. 



Their songs are complex and melodious, playing a crucial role in how they interact socially, especially during breeding season.



Once hunted nearly to extinction, humpback whale populations have been recovering thanks to international protections. 



However, they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-benefits-of-whale-remains-and-their-proper-disposal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">still face threats</a> like getting caught in fishing gear, collisions with ships, and changes to their environment caused by climate change.



Understanding their communication and social structures can help in conservation efforts, ensuring these majestic creatures continue to thrive in our oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seti-institute-s-role">SETI Institute's role</h2>



The SETI Institute, founded in 1984, is dedicated to exploring life beyond Earth. Using cutting-edge technology, their team of scientists scans the skies for radio signals and other potential indicators of extraterrestrial civilizations. 



Their main job is to analyze data from space, hoping to uncover patterns or messages that could reveal we're not alone in the universe. 



By studying signals from space and striving to understand how life may evolve beyond Earth, they aim to answer the profound question: Are we alone in the universe?



But SETI Institute isn’t all about the hunt for aliens -- they’re also committed to inspiring and educating the public. 



They host cool workshops, engaging lectures, and interactive programs designed to spark curiosity and nurture the next generation of scientists. 



In addition to space, their research contributes to breakthroughs in fields like astrobiology and planetary science, answering some of the biggest questions about life and our place in the universe. 



Their work with Whale-SETI is an exciting intersection of this quest and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study of intelligent life</a> on our own planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-it-all-mean">What does it all mean?</h2>



To sum it all up, this encounter with Twain isn't just a fascinating story about humans and a whale. It's a step toward understanding intelligence in all its forms. 



By learning how to communicate with humpback whales, scientists hope to develop tools that could one day help us recognize and understand messages from extraterrestrial beings.



What does this mean for us? It highlights the importance of looking closely at the intelligent life we share our planet with. 



Perhaps by understanding the minds of whales, we can better prepare ourselves for encounters with life beyond Earth.



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The group behind this research includes scientists from the <a href="https://www.seti.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a>, <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>, and the <a href="https://www.alaskawhalefoundation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alaska Whale Foundation</a>. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/16349/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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AI helps humans have a 20-minute "conversation" with a humpback whale named Twain

In a remarkable encounter off the coast of Alaska, human...

A recent study sheds light on how supermassive black holes - each with a mass billions of times that of our Sun - formed so quickly within the first billion years after the Big Bang.&nbsp;



Led by researchers from the <a href="http://www.inaf.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Astrophysics</a> (INAF) in Italy, the team analyzed 21 of the most distant quasars ever discovered. The quasars were observed in the X-ray spectrum by the XMM-Newton and Chandra space telescopes. 



The findings suggest that the colossal black holes at the center of these quasars grew to their extraordinary sizes through extremely rapid and intense accretion, offering a plausible explanation for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lonely-quasars-in-the-early-universe-cannot-be-explained/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early existence</a> in the Universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-quasars-and-their-significance">Understanding quasars and their significance</h2>



Quasars are incredibly luminous and distant active galaxies powered by central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a>, also known as active galactic nuclei.&nbsp;



As these black holes attract matter, they emit enormous amounts of energy. The quasars examined in this study are among the oldest known objects, dating back to a time when the Universe was less than a billion years old.



In analyzing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/x-ray-radiation-from-black-holes-explained-after-50-year-struggle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray emissions</a> from these quasars, the researchers discovered an unexpected behavior of the supermassive black holes at their centers.&nbsp;



The experts found a connection between the shape of the X-ray emissions and the speed of the winds of matter being ejected by the quasars.&nbsp;



This relationship links wind speeds - reaching thousands of kilometers per second - to the temperature of the gas in the corona, the region closest to the black hole that emits X-rays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-the-limits-of-physics-nbsp">Challenging the limits of physics&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that quasars with low-energy X-ray emissions, indicating a lower temperature in the corona, exhibited faster winds. This suggests a phase of highly rapid growth that exceeds a physical limit known as the Eddington limit for the accretion of matter.&nbsp;



This phase is referred to as “super-Eddington.” In contrast, quasars with higher-energy X-ray emissions tended to have slower winds.



“Our work suggests that the supermassive black holes at the center of the first quasars formed within the first billion years of the Universe's life may have actually increased their mass very rapidly, challenging the limits of physics,” said Alessia Tortosa, lead author of the study and researcher at INAF in Rome.&nbsp;



“The discovery of this connection between X-ray emission and winds is crucial for understanding how such large black holes could have formed in such a short time, thus providing a concrete clue to solve one of the greatest mysteries of modern astrophysics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observation-of-quasars-from-the-cosmic-dawn">Observation of quasars from the cosmic dawn </h2>



The results were primarily achieved by analyzing data collected with the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>'s XMM-Newton space telescope, which provided approximately 700 hours of quasar observations. Most of this data, gathered between 2021 and 2023 as part of the Multi-Year XMM-Newton Heritage Program, falls under the <a href="https://indico.ict.inaf.it/event/2019/contributions/11690/attachments/5713/11564/HSC_Zappacosta_May2022_audizioniINAF.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HYPERION project</a>.&nbsp;



Directed by Luca Zappacosta, a researcher at INAF in Rome, the HYPERION project aims to study hyper-luminous quasars during the cosmic dawn of the Universe.&nbsp;



Supported by INAF funding, the extensive observation campaign enabled cutting-edge research into the early evolutionary dynamics of the Universe's structures.



“In the HYPERION program, we focused on two key factors: on one hand, the careful selection of quasars to observe, choosing the titans, meaning those that had accumulated as much mass as possible, and on the other hand, the in-depth study of their properties in X-rays, something never attempted before on such a large number of objects from the cosmic dawn,” Zappacosta said.&nbsp;



“We hit the jackpot! The results we're getting are genuinely unexpected, and they all point to a super-Eddington growth mechanism of the black holes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-space-missions">Implications for future space missions</h2>



This study offers valuable insights for upcoming X-ray missions like ATHENA (ESA), AXIS, and Lynx (NASA), scheduled for launch between 2030 and 2040. 



The results will aid in refining next-generation observational instruments and developing better strategies for investigating black holes and active galactic nuclei in X-rays at even more distant cosmic epochs.&nbsp;



Understanding these elements is crucial for unraveling the formation of the first galactic structures in the primordial Universe.



By providing a plausible explanation for the rapid growth of early supermassive black holes, this research addresses one of modern astrophysics' greatest mysteries.&nbsp;



It opens new avenues for exploring how such massive entities could form so swiftly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, enhancing our comprehension of the Universe's earliest stages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202449662" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics </a>.



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Early quasars defied the laws of physics with rapid growth 

A recent study sheds light on how supermassive black holes...

An asteroid impact on Mars about 11 million years ago, sending fragments of the Red Planet hurtling through space. One of these pieces eventually crashed into Earth and somehow made its way into a drawer of an old desk at Purdue University. 



This rare find, now known as the Lafayette Meteorite, has been instrumental in unlocking secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manganese-discovery-ancient-mars-earth-like-water-lake-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ watery past, with new research recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7185/geochemlet.2443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemical Perspective Letters</a> that provides insight into the timing and nature of Mars’ ancient water activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-mars-watery-past">Tracing Mars’ watery past</h2>



Scientists have long known that the Lafayette Meteorite interacted with liquid water on Mars, but the exact timing of this event was uncertain.&nbsp;



Dr. Marissa Tremblay, an assistant professor at Purdue University’s <a href="https://www.eaps.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences</a> (EAPS), led an international research team to determine the age of the water-altered minerals in the meteorite, pinpointing it to 742 million years ago.



“Dating these minerals can therefore tell us when there was liquid water at or near the surface of Mars in the planet's geologic past,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that while liquid water wasn’t abundant on the surface at this time, it likely came from melting subsurface ice, or permafrost, caused by intermittent volcanic activity -- a phenomenon still observed on Mars today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-a-moment-in-mars-geological-timeline">Preserving a moment in Mars’ geological timeline</h2>



The study not only identified when water interacted with the meteorite but also established that the dating was unaffected by events after the meteorite left Mars.&nbsp;



“The age could have been affected by the impact that ejected the Lafayette Meteorite from Mars, the heating it experienced during the 11 million years it was floating in space, or the heating when it fell to Earth,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



However, the team confirmed that none of these factors altered the age, validating the timeline of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-lost-most-of-its-water-but-where-did-it-go/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> interaction.



Study co-author and Purdue EAPS researcher Ryan Ickert applied heavy isotope analysis to further verify that previous data on the meteorite’s water-rock interaction had likely been skewed by other geological processes.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This meteorite uniquely has evidence that it has reacted with water. The exact date of this was controversial, and our publication dates when water was present,” said Ickert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-journey-of-the-meteorite">Mysterious journey of the meteorite </h2>



The Lafayette Meteorite’s journey to Purdue is something of a mystery. It was found in a university drawer in 1931, though how it got there remains unknown.&nbsp;



In previous research, Tremblay and her team used crop disease markers from organic contaminants found on the meteorite to narrow down when it might have fallen to Earth.



Once the meteorite was ejected from Mars, it endured constant cosmic ray bombardment in space, which produced certain isotopes, offering clues to its time of impact on Earth.&nbsp;



“Many meteoroids are produced by impacts on Mars and other planetary bodies, but only a handful will eventually fall to Earth,” Tremblay said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-time-capsules">Planetary time capsules</h2>



Meteorites like Lafayette serve as planetary time capsules, offering invaluable data on the geological and environmental history of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">home worlds</a>. With their dense structure, metallic content, and magnetic properties, meteorites are often distinguishable from Earth rocks.&nbsp;



“We can identify meteorites by studying what minerals are present in them, their mineral relationships, and by checking for a fusion crust formed during entry into Earth’s atmosphere,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



By analyzing these traits and their chemical signatures, scientists can often determine a meteorite’s planetary origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-history-of-meteorites">Complex history of meteorites</h2>



This research marks a significant milestone for the team, which included scientists from institutions across the globe, such as the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Center (SUERC), the University of St. Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Bristol, and London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>.&nbsp;



“Before moving to Purdue, Ryan and I were both based at SUERC, where the argon-argon isotopic analyses of the alteration minerals in Lafayette took place,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



Their partners at SUERC and the Natural History Museum have long contributed to studying Lafayette’s complex history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dating-minerals-in-meteorites">Dating minerals in meteorites</h2>



Dating the water-altered minerals in Lafayette, and others in its class of Martian meteorites called nakhlites, has been a central focus in planetary science, as they uniquely capture moments when liquid water was present on Mars.&nbsp;



Due to complex alterations over time, previous attempts to date these minerals were plagued with uncertainties.&nbsp;



However, the team has now developed a robust dating method that could be applied to other meteorites, enhancing our understanding of when water might have been present on Mars and other planetary bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-planetary-science">The future of planetary science</h2>



Thanks to the Stahura Undergraduate Meteorite Fund, Tremblay and Ickert’s research on the Lafayette Meteorite will continue, with the involvement of undergraduate students in Purdue EAPS.&nbsp;



This opportunity allows students to engage in real-world planetary science, helping to reveal the intricate histories of meteoritic samples.



Tremblay and her team’s work on the Lafayette Meteorite highlights its scientific significance, revealing a complex history that ties it to Mars’ geological past.&nbsp;



Their findings not only deepen our understanding of Mars but also set a precedent for future studies that might unveil even more about the red planet’s climate history, water activity, and potential for supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-mars-rocks-contain-signs-of-life-scientists-call-to-bring-them-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



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Meteorite found in an old desk shows Mars had water about 700 million years ago

An asteroid impact on Mars about 11 million years ago,...

Have you ever wondered how your internet and browsing habits impact your mental health? The relationship between internet use and happiness, it turns out, isn't as simple as you might think. 



For those crossing the 50-year mark, the internet could be a portal to a more contented life. However, for the younger crowd, losing themselves in the world of online activities might not be so rosy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-and-internet-use">Mental health and internet use</h2>



An intriguing new study reveals that people over 50 who regularly navigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital landscape</a> of emails, online shopping, or information seeking tend to feel happier and less blue. Eugenia Cheng of the <a href="https://www.hku.hk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hong Kong</a> led the team behind this research.



The experts classified 87,000 people aged 50 and older from 23 countries into four groups based on their internet usage: non-users, sporadic users (those using the internet less than once a week), weekly users, and daily users.



Over six years, these "silver surfers" painted a picture showing that more internet use correlated with more life satisfaction and improved health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-side-of-the-internet">Dark side of the internet</h2>



Before anyone decides to glue themselves to their screens, it's important to remember that the internet can be a source of poor mental health and distress for our younger counterparts.



Earlier research suggested that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-shocking-reality-of-website-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">internet</a> use among those under 50 could exacerbate anxiety, self-esteem issues, eating disorders, and exposure to online harassment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geography-and-age">Geography and age</h2>



Turning to England, the researchers discovered that only daily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-the-internet-is-not-bad-for-your-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">internet</a> users reported fewer depressive symptoms compared to the other groups.



The difference in happiness seems more pronounced for those aged 65 and above - especially for those who were unmarried, physically inactive, and not as financially comfortable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sociability-and-support">Sociability and support</h2>



Cheng's team believes that for those aged 50 and above, the internet could promote social interaction and help combat loneliness.



Beyond the social aspect, it lends a helping hand in accessing valuable information and services that offer emotional support and medical advice. But while the internet may be a tool for boosting mental health, it's not without its perils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internet-and-mental-health-connection">Internet and mental health connection</h2>



Remember that old saying about having too much of a good thing? It perfectly applies to the internet, especially for older populations. 



Excessive internet use could cut into time for sleep, physical activity, and face-to-face socializing - the very factors important for good mental health. Moreover, there's the tricky business of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online</a> fraud and misinformation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internet-boosts-mental-health">Internet boosts mental health</h2>



According to the researchers, their study highlights the potential of internet use as an effective strategy to bolster overall mental health in middle-aged and older populations.



After all, the internet serves as a lifeline for people in their twilight years, allowing them to access health-related information, build social connections, and find entertainment - all contributing positively to their mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-little-internet-goes-a-long-way">Little internet goes a long way</h2>



Let's not forget another noteworthy finding. "Silver surfers" who keep using the internet cut their risk of developing dementia in half compared to their less digital savvy peers.



"Online engagement may help to develop and maintain cognitive reserve, which can in turn compensate for brain aging and reduce the risk of dementia," explained Dr. Virginia Chang, a professor at NYU School of Global Public Health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-informed-decisions-about-our-digital-habits">Informed decisions about our digital habits</h2>



The internet, like many things in life, can be a boon or a bane for mental health, depending on how we use it and, interestingly, how old we are. 



While older adults surf their way towards a healthier and happier life, our younger generations might need to tread the online waters more carefully. Either way, it seems clear that the world wide web continues to weave its complex threads into the fabric of our lives.



Within this digital maze we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigate</a> daily, let's continue to explore and learn the best ways to use it for our advantage.



As our lives become increasingly entwined with technology, studies like these offer valuable insights. They help us to question, reflect, and make informed decisions about our digital habits. In what ways can we all strike a balance in our internet use to improve our quality of life?



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Mental health and the internet: Who benefits and who suffers?

Have you ever wondered how your internet and browsing habits...

The Northern Lights have been visible much farther south than usual this year, filing social media with stunning images of colorful skies. Now, imagine an aurora so intense that it would instantly render smartphones useless as particles from the sun overwhelm electronic devices.&nbsp;



Such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-tree-rings-help-predict-extreme-solar-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme solar storms</a> are incredibly rare - only six have left their traces on Earth in the past 14,500 years, and none have been observed since the height of the Assyrian Empire nearly 2,700 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-event-from-664-b-c">A cosmic event from 664 B.C.</h2>



A research team led by Irina Panyushkina of the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>'s Laboratory for Tree-Ring Research and Timothy Jull from the Department of Geosciences has identified the last time Earth experienced such a powerful burst of cosmic radiation.&nbsp;



Their findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01618-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>, reveal a spike in carbon-14 dating to the year 664 B.C., pinpointing the timing of this elusive extreme solar storm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-solar-storms">What are solar storms?</h2>



Solar storms occur when the Sun releases massive amounts of energy in the form of solar flares or coronal mass ejections (CMEs). These events send high-energy particles and magnetic fields hurtling toward Earth at incredible speeds.



When these charged particles interact with Earth's magnetic field, they can create dramatic and far-reaching effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-solar-storms-through-carbon-14">Tracing solar storms through carbon-14</h2>



“After a few months, carbon-14 will have traveled from the stratosphere to the lower atmosphere, where it is taken up by trees and becomes part of the wood as they grow,” Panyushkina said.&nbsp;



By analyzing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> for carbon-14, a naturally occurring radioactive variant of carbon, the team detected this ancient solar storm.&nbsp;



Determining the precise timing of such massive solar eruptions provides important data for scientists who study and develop models of the sun's activity over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signature-of-extreme-solar-storms">Signature of extreme solar storms</h2>



It wasn't until 2012 that scientists recognized extreme solar storms known as Miyake events. 



That year, Fusa Miyake, a Japanese physicist and collaborator with Panyushkina's team, published a paper reporting the storms' telltale signature: spikes in radioactive carbon isotopes in the growth rings of trees. 



Miyake events occur when the sun's electromagnetic field weakens, allowing plasma from the sun's surface to escape into space.&nbsp;



Increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunspot-sketches-from-1607-unlock-secrets-of-solar-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar activity</a> leads to protons bombarding Earth's atmosphere, triggering chemical reactions that result in spikes of radioactive isotopes.



“Thanks to radiocarbon in tree-rings, we now know that six Miyake events happened over the last 14,500 years,” Panyushkina said. “If they happened today, they would have cataclysmic effects on communication technology.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methodology-tree-rings-and-ice-cores">Methodology: Tree rings and ice cores</h2>



The research team used surgical knives to dissect individual tree rings from ancient wood samples, including those from dead trees buried in riverbanks and timbers excavated during archaeological digs.&nbsp;



Next, the researchers burned the cellulose - the main component of wood - to determine the radiocarbon content.&nbsp;



To confirm whether solar storms caused the radiocarbon spikes, the researchers compared their tree ring data to spikes found in a different isotope, beryllium-10, locked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-cores-from-highest-tropical-peak-reveal-new-climate-clues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice cores</a> from glaciers and ice sheets.&nbsp;



Like carbon-14, beryllium-10 forms in the atmosphere due to solar particles and becomes trapped in ice through rain and snow.



“If ice cores from both the North Pole and South Pole show a spike in the isotope beryllium-10 for a particular year corresponding to increased radiocarbon in tree rings, we know there was a solar storm,” Panyushkina said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-we-predict-extreme-solar-storms">Can we predict extreme solar storms?</h2>



Although tree rings act as “archivists” recording Miyake events, researchers have not yet found evidence of a pattern in these occurrences.&nbsp;



According to Panyushkina, tree rings give us an idea of the magnitude of these massive storms, but we can't detect any type of pattern, so it is unlikely we will ever be able to predict when such an event is going to happen.



“Still, we believe our paper will transform how we search and understand the carbon-14 spike signal of extreme solar proton events in tree rings,” said Panyushkina.



“The energy from this type of event not only changes the atmosphere's radiocarbon content but also the atmosphere's chemistry. We are trying to figure out how those short-lived and powerful events affect the Earth system as a whole.”



Image Credit: NASA/SDO and the AIA, EVE, and HMI science teams



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Trees hold evidence of one of Earth's most extreme solar storms

The Northern Lights have been visible much farther south than...

Rivers and streams act as vital lifelines, weaving through diverse landscapes, from secluded headwaters to vast oceans.&nbsp;



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-amount-of-water-do-earths-rivers-hold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waterways</a> play an essential role in human and environmental health, agriculture, and energy production, providing two-thirds of the United States’ drinking water.&nbsp;



Yet, compared to larger water bodies like oceans and lakes, the microbiology of rivers has remained largely underexplored.



A team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> (CSU) has changed that. For the first time, they have cataloged the microorganisms present in rivers spanning 90% of the watersheds in the continental U.S., detailing their roles and functions.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08240-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, highlight how river microbes influence nutrient flow, water quality, and even environmental health, opening a new frontier in microbiome research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-essential-role-of-river-microbes">The essential role of river microbes</h2>



The study underscores the critical role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> in maintaining river health. According to the research, these microorganisms act as “master orchestrators of nutrient and energy flows,” playing a significant role in determining water quality under current and future conditions.&nbsp;



The study also revealed how river microbes interact with contaminants like antibiotics, fertilizers, microplastics, and disinfection byproducts.



Notably, river microbes can degrade <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-plastic-pollution-lurks-beneath-the-surface-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> into smaller carbon compounds. However, near wastewater treatment plants, they exhibit high levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-plastics-may-harbor-antimicrobial-resistance-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic resistance genes</a>, pointing to human impacts on these ecosystems.&nbsp;



“People used to think of rivers almost just as pipes, a way to move water from one place to another,” said CSU research professor Mikayla Borton, the study’s lead author.&nbsp;



“But rivers are much more than that - they’re performing all kinds of activities. And there’s a pattern to it; those activities can be predicted. Now, we know what microbes are performing some of those activities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rivers-as-integrated-systems-nbsp">Rivers as integrated systems&nbsp;</h2>



The research also lends new support to the River Continuum Concept, a decades-old theory that views rivers as integrated systems where changes upstream directly affect downstream ecosystems.&nbsp;



For instance, the health of a fish population at one point in a river depends on what happens upstream. The researchers found this interconnectedness also applies to microorganisms.



“One of the key ideas from the paper was that this tied back to river theory - how rivers change from small creeks to really large rivers. This work aligns quite well with these old theories," said co-author Matt Ross, an associate professor at CSU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-river-microbiomes-across-the-u-s">Mapping river microbiomes across the U.S.</h2>



To catalog river microorganisms, the researchers analyzed over 2,000 microbial genomes from about 100 rivers across North America.&nbsp;



The project relied heavily on community participation, with local volunteers collecting water samples through a program run by the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a> (PNNL). These samples were then analyzed for microbial content.



Kelly Wrighton is a professor in CSU’s College of Agricultural Sciences and a co-author of the study. 



“When we look at how the land around a river is managed, we can see the processing of certain kinds of anthropogenic contaminants or chemicals through the microbes in their DNA,” said Professor Wrighton.



“There’s a very strong relationship - it suggests there’s a signal in the microbiome of how we’re living on and managing the land that is perpetuated into the river system and then downstream.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-as-indicators-of-river-health">Microbes as indicators of river health</h2>



Microbiome science is an emerging field with promising implications for environmental health. River microbes could serve as early-warning indicators of ecosystem changes, much like a canary in a coal mine.&nbsp;



“Our hope is that this information can eventually be used to develop new diagnostics that are indicators of a healthy river versus an unhealthy river,” Wrighton explained.&nbsp;



These insights could help scientists and policymakers better manage river systems and the landscapes surrounding them.



The research also uncovered six core microorganisms present in all rivers studied. These microbes, which use light as an energy source, were found to be active and predictable across the continental U.S.&nbsp;



“Microbes are active in these systems in such a way that is predictable across the continental U.S.,” said Borton. “That’s very cool, and I think it says a lot about the robustness of the science that was done prior to our work.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-the-world-s-biggest-problems">Tackling the world's biggest problems</h2>



The study not only revealed new insights into river microbes but also showcased the potential of large-scale participatory science.&nbsp;



The project began in 2018 when Wrighton met James Stegen, a PNNL earth scientist, who was already leading a global river sampling initiative.&nbsp;



Wrighton realized that the samples collected for chemical analysis could also be studied for microbial data, launching a groundbreaking collaboration.



“There’s a lot of interest in mapping microbiomes, and there was this huge absence of microbial river data,” Wrighton said.&nbsp;



“But I was also thinking, ‘Can we do this science at scale?’ Because if we can do science like this, if we can demonstrate that it works, we can tackle the world’s big problems like climate change. We could take this and apply it everywhere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-user-friendly-database-of-river-microbiomes">User-friendly database of river microbiomes</h2>



One of the project’s key achievements was creating a searchable, user-friendly database of river microbiome data.&nbsp;



Ross, an ecosystem scientist specializing in data analytics, helped build this platform and contextualize the findings for the study’s final analysis. “I’m really proud of the data accessibility part of this project,” Borton noted.



Borton hopes that the data infrastructure will inspire non-microbiome scientists to incorporate microbial processes into broader ecosystem models. “We need to be better at studying across landscapes, and better understanding rivers can help us do that,” Borton said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-frontier-for-environmental-science">New frontier for environmental science</h2>



This study opens the door to new research and practical applications. From tackling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-at-risk-climate-change-is-diminishing-global-water-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> to improving ecosystem modeling, the insights gained from river microbiomes could inform solutions to some of the world’s most pressing challenges.&nbsp;



“This is new frontier kind of stuff; we’re really opening the doors to a deeply under-characterized part of the Earth,” Stegen said. “It is extremely gratifying to have built something that will benefit a lot of folks beyond our team.”



By revealing the hidden dynamics of river microbes, this research redefines how we understand rivers - not as mere conduits for water but as vibrant, interconnected ecosystems shaped by the smallest forms of life.



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Microbes play a big role in shaping the health of rivers

Rivers and streams act as vital lifelines, weaving through diverse...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

Laura will strengthen into major hurricane as it reaches Gulf Coast. Today&#8217;s Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> shows Tropical Storm Marco and Tropical Storm Laura racing toward the Gulf Coast on August 23, 2020.
Tropical.Storm Laura is set to become the first major hurricane of the year by the time it makes landfall somewhere in Texas or Louisiana. The impacts of the hurricane will be felt far inland &#8211; potentially several hundred miles &#8211; over many states. 
Life-threatening storm surge is a serious concern across much of the Gulf Coast, with warnings in place from San Luis Pass, Texas to Ocean Springs, Mississippi. 
Louisiana Governor John Bel Edward said that today will be the last full day to prepare for this &#8220;very large, very powerful storm,&#8221; which is expected to gain strength up until it makes landfall early Thursday.
After being downgraded to a tropical depression, Marco made landfall on Monday near the mouth of the Mississippi River. Laura will strengthen into major hurricane as it reaches Gulf Coast. Today&#8217;s Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory shows Tropical Storm Marco and Tropical Storm Laura racing toward the Gulf Coast on August 23, 2020.
The image was captured by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on NOAA-20.
Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 
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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
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Laura will strengthen into major hurricane as it reaches Gulf Coast

Typhoon Bavi makes landfall in North Korea. Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> shows the eighth tropical storm of the 2020 Pacific typhoon season, Typhoon Bavi, heading north toward the Korean Peninsula.

The photo was captured by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the NOAA-NASA Suomi NPP satellite on August 25, 2020. By August 26, the storm had maximum sustained winds of 110 miles per hour. Typhoon Bavi makes landfall in North Korea

Warm water temperatures fueled Typhoon Bavi as it moved across the Yellow Sea, and the storm grazed the South Korean island of Jeju with powerful winds and waves and torrential rainfall. 

Bavi made landfall in a western coastal region of North Korea early Thursday morning with maximum wind speeds of 83 miles per hour. In 1910, <a title="Korean Empire" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Empire">Korea</a> was <a title="Korea under Japanese rule" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule">annexed</a> by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japan" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japan">Imperial Japan</a>. At the <a title="Surrender of Japan" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan">Japanese surrender</a> at the <a title="End of World War II in Asia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia">end of World War II</a> in 1945, Korea was <a title="Division of Korea" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_of_Korea">divided into two zones</a>, with the <a title="Soviet Civil Administration" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Civil_Administration">north occupied by the Soviet Union</a> and the <a title="United States Army Military Government in Korea" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Military_Government_in_Korea">south occupied by the United States</a>. Negotiations on <a title="Korean reunification" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_reunification">reunification</a> failed, and in 1948, separate governments were formed: the socialist Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north, and the capitalist <a title="First Republic of Korea" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Republic_of_Korea">Republic of Korea</a> in the south

Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

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