Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Little Dumbbell Nebula, also known as Messier 76, located in the constellation Perseus 3,400 light-years away from Earth.



Astronomers captured this image of the Little Dumbbell Nebula to commemorate the 34th anniversary of the Hubble Space Telescope, a joint venture between NASA and the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>).



The snapshot provides not only a breathtaking view, but also deep insights into the life cycle of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-stars-scientists-discover-a-new-type-of-star-powered-by-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> and the dynamic processes within nebulae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-messier-76">Understanding Messier 76</h2>



Messier 76 is categorized as a planetary nebula - a term which refers to its round, planet-like appearance when viewed through early, low-power telescopes. 



However, the term is somewhat misleading as planetary nebulae have no connection to actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-17-exoplanets-that-have-oceans-and-possibly-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a>.&nbsp;



Instead, they represent an expansive shell of luminous gases expelled by a dying red giant star, which subsequently collapses into a dense, hot white dwarf. 



This transformation marks the late stages of stellar evolution for medium to low-mass stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-of-messier-76">Structure of Messier 76</h2>



The structure of Messier 76 is particularly notable. It includes a central ring, giving the appearance of a bar-like feature, with two distinct lobes emanating from either side. 



This formation is believed to be the result of materials ejected by the star during its red giant phase, possibly sculpted by interactions with a companion star.&nbsp;



Although this binary companion is not visible in current Hubble images, its presence is inferred from the thick disk of dust and gas aligned with its orbital plane. 



The phenomenon of the companion star potentially being absorbed by the primary star, a process akin to stellar cannibalism, is a captivating aspect of the nebula's history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dynamic-environment-of-the-nebula">The dynamic environment of the nebula</h2>



At the core of the nebula, the primary star, now collapsing into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a>, reaches extreme temperatures. This heat is estimated to be 120,000 degrees Celsius - about 24 times hotter than the surface of our Sun.&nbsp;



This intensely hot remnant is visible as a small, bright point at the center of the nebula. Directly below this, another star can be seen; however, it is merely aligned with the nebula by chance and is not a part of it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-glow-of-messier-76">Powerful glow of Messier 76</h2>



The dynamics within Messier 76 are driven by powerful forces. The central disk seems to constrict the material, creating two lobes of gas escaping along the rotational axis of the star, perpendicular to the disk.&nbsp;



The lobes are propelled outward by a potent stellar wind, moving at a staggering two million miles per hour. This rapid movement is sufficient to travel the distance from Earth to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeless-mystery-solved-scientists-uncover-what-is-inside-the-moons-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> in just over seven minutes.&nbsp;



The collision of the fast-moving gas with older, slower-moving material ejected during the star’s red giant phase results in the stunning glowing effect seen in the nebula. 



The glow, ignited by the ultraviolet radiation from the white dwarf, is a spectacle of colors with red emanating from nitrogen and blue from oxygen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-moment-in-time">A cosmic moment in time</h2>



Despite its current brilliance, the existence of the Little Dumbbell Nebula is fleeting on a cosmological scale. It is expected to last only about 15,000 years - a mere moment in the lifespan of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.&nbsp;



This brief period highlights the transient nature of such cosmic phenomena, which, while short-lived, provide crucial insights into the mechanics of stellar evolution and the complex interactions within these celestial sculptures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-messier-76">More about Messier 76</h2>



Messier 76 was discovered by Pierre Méchain in 1780. It was later cataloged by Charles Messier, who included it in his famous list of nebulous objects.



The nebula's faintness and small size require a good telescope to be observed effectively, with larger telescopes able to reveal more of its fine details and structure.



Studying Messier 76 helps astronomers understand the life cycle of stars and the processes that occur during the late stages of stellar evolution. 



The materials expelled by planetary nebulae like Messier 76 eventually contribute to the interstellar medium, from which new stars and planetary systems may form.



Image Credit: ESA Space Agency&nbsp;



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Secrets of the Little Dumbbell Nebula  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the remnants of Lake Razzaza, an artificial lake situated a few miles west of Karbala, Iraq.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> was created in the late 1970s as a flood control measure to regulate the floodwaters of the Euphrates River. 



Razzaza covers an area of approximately 1,562 square kilometers and is located in a depression where excess water from Lake Habbaniyah is diverted through a controlled escape channel or canal.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-colors-of-lake-razzaza">The colors of Lake Razzaza</h2>



“The lake, also known as Baḩr al-Milḩ (‘Sea of Salt’ in Arabic), is fed by overflow from Habbaniyah Lake, which lies just outside the top left corner of the image,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153756/iraqs-sea-of-salt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“The difference in water color results from the various communities of algae that thrive in the lake depending on the water temperature and salinity.”



“Green areas contain lower salt concentrations than red areas. At times when the lake receives no overflow from Habbaniyah Lake, as shown in this image, most of the lakebed is exposed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salinity-of-lake-razzaza">Salinity of Lake Razzaza</h2>



Over the years, the salinity of Lake Razzaza has been increasing due to inadequate water supply from the linked canal and high evaporation rates during Iraq's hot summers.&nbsp;



This rise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> has led to a decline in fish populations, adversely affecting local fishermen who once relied on the lake for their livelihoods. 



By 2008, only the fish species locally known as "al-Shanik" (Acanthopagrus arabicus), of marine origin and stocked by the government, was reported to survive in the lake.&nbsp;



The lake's fluctuating water levels and increasing salinity have also impacted its recreational appeal, with few recreational areas existing around the lake.&nbsp;



Additionally, the surrounding desert landscape and low cliff shores contribute to its limited accessibility for leisure activities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-of-lake-razzaza">Wildlife of Lake Razzaza</h2>



Despite these challenges, Lake Razzaza remains an important habitat for various bird species. It has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International, supporting significant numbers of wintering waterfowl and serving as a breeding ground for species such as the marbled duck.&nbsp;



The lake's mudflats attract large numbers of waders and shorebirds during migration periods.&nbsp;



The surrounding area features vegetation such as Phragmites australis, Juncus acutus, Aeluropus lagopoides, Salicornia herbacea, and Schoenoplectus litoralis, along with desert shrublands including Tamarix aucherana, Prosopis farcta, and Haloxylon salicornicum.&nbsp;



Mammals reported in this region include Rüppell's fox, golden jackal, Indian grey mongoose, jungle cat, and wildcat.&nbsp;



In recent years, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-warming-toward-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> has faced environmental challenges due to reduced water inflows and increased evaporation, leading to higher salinity levels and a decline in biodiversity. 



Efforts to address these issues are essential to preserve the ecological and economic significance of Lake Razzaza.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-euphrates-river-nbsp">The Euphrates River&nbsp;</h2>



The Euphrates River is one of the most significant rivers in the Middle East and holds immense historical, cultural, and ecological importance.&nbsp;



Stretching approximately 2,800 kilometers (1,740 miles), it originates in the mountains of eastern Turkey and flows through Syria and Iraq before merging with the Tigris River to form the Shatt al-Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-plastic-pollution-lurks-beneath-the-surface-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> has been a cradle of civilization for thousands of years, supporting ancient Mesopotamian societies, including Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria.



The Euphrates has provided water for irrigation, enabling the development of agriculture in an otherwise arid region. Its floodplains have been vital for sustaining life and fostering the growth of cities along its course.&nbsp;



However, the river also plays a key geopolitical role, as disputes over water usage and dam construction among Turkey, Syria, and Iraq have emerged over the years, impacting water availability downstream.



Ecologically, the Euphrates supports a range of habitats, from wetlands to desert ecosystems, making it home to diverse flora and fauna.&nbsp;



However, modern challenges such as damming, pollution, and climate change threaten its flow and ecological balance. Despite these challenges, the Euphrates remains a symbol of life and resilience in the heart of the Middle East.



The image was captured by an astronaut on the International Space Station (ISS) on September 23, 2024.



Image Credit: NASA



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Lake Razzaza: A shrinking oasis shaped by salinity

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral galaxy NGC 2566, which is located 76 million light-years away in the constellation Puppis. The image was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



“A prominent bar of stars stretches across the center of this galaxy, and spiral arms emerge from each end of the bar. Because NGC 2566 appears tilted from our perspective, its disk takes on an almond shape, giving the galaxy the appearance of a cosmic eye,” said <a href="https://phys.org/news/2024-12-hubble-spies-spiral-galaxy-ngc.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“As NGC 2566 appears to gaze at us, astronomers gaze right back, using Hubble to survey the galaxy's star clusters and star-forming regions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-appearance-of-ngc-2566">Complex appearance of NGC 2566</h2>



NGC 2566 lies at a considerable distance from Earth, making it a challenging object for amateur astronomers to observe in detail without powerful telescopes.&nbsp;



It can be seen in the Southern Hemisphere sky and is better observed from locations with minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-light-pollution-influences-interest-in-astronomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light pollution</a>.&nbsp;



The galaxy's arms are populated with young, bright stars, regions of active star formation, and interstellar gas and dust - giving it a dynamic and complex appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-ages-of-stars">Measuring the ages of stars</h2>



According to NASA, data from Hubble is especially valuable for studying stars that are just a few million years old. “These stars are bright at the ultraviolet and visible wavelengths to which Hubble is sensitive.”



“Using these data, researchers can measure the ages of NGC 2566's stars, which helps piece together the timeline of the galaxy's star formation and the exchange of gas between star-forming clouds and the stars themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-galaxies">Star formation in galaxies</h2>



Star formation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> is a fascinating and complex process that unfolds over millions of years. It begins in vast clouds of gas and dust, known as molecular clouds, which are often found in the spiral arms of galaxies or in regions of irregular or starburst galaxies.&nbsp;



These clouds provide the raw material for star formation, consisting primarily of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of heavier elements.



As the molecular clouds collapse under their own gravity, regions within them begin to condense and fragment, forming dense clumps. Within these clumps, protostars emerge. Their formation is driven by the gravitational pull drawing in surrounding gas. 



During this process, the gas heats up due to increasing pressure, eventually igniting nuclear fusion in the core, signaling the birth of a new star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rate-of-star-formation-nbsp-across-galaxies">Rate of star formation&nbsp;across galaxies</h2>



The rate of star formation varies across galaxies is influenced by numerous factors. In spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, star formation is most active in the spiral arms, where density waves compress gas and dust, triggering the collapse of molecular clouds. 



In contrast, elliptical galaxies, which often have little cold gas and dust, typically exhibit low rates of star formation or none at all.



Starburst galaxies, on the other hand, experience episodes of exceptionally high star formation, often triggered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-captures-a-galaxy-collision-with-a-radiant-smile/">galactic collisions</a> or interactions. 



These events can funnel large amounts of gas into central regions, leading to intense star-forming activity. However, such bursts are usually short-lived on cosmic timescales, exhausting the available gas quickly.



The environment within a galaxy also plays a significant role. Stellar winds and supernova explosions from existing stars can both inhibit and promote star formation. They may disperse gas, preventing further collapse, or compress nearby clouds, triggering new star formation.&nbsp;



Over time, as galaxies evolve, the availability of gas diminishes, leading to a gradual decline in star formation activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-puppis-constellation-nbsp">The Puppis constellation&nbsp;</h2>



The Puppis constellation in the southern sky represents the stern of a ship. It was once part of a larger constellation known as Argo Navis, which depicted the mythical ship of Jason and the Argonauts. 



However, Argo Navis was later divided into three separate constellations: Puppis, Carina (the keel), and Vela (the sails). Puppis is the largest of these three and contains many notable celestial objects.



This constellation is home to several bright stars, including Naos (Zeta Puppis), a hot, massive star that emits intense ultraviolet radiation. Puppis also hosts a wide variety of deep-sky objects, such as open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-star-clusters-captured-in-the-extreme-outskirts-of-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star clusters</a> and nebulae. 



Among these, Messier 46 and Messier 47 stand out. Both are beautiful star clusters that are visible through binoculars or small telescopes. The region is dense with stars because it lies along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-collision-may-change-everything-we-know-about-our-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, making it a prime area for stargazing and astrophotography. 



Image Credit: NASA



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NGC 2566: A cosmic eye in the Puppis constellation

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Cat's Eye Nebula (NGC 6543), located about 3,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Draco.&nbsp;



The nebula's name comes from its eye-like appearance when viewed through a telescope. This particular image, which reveals the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horsehead-nebula-webb-telescope-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> in stunning detail, was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae-nbsp">Planetary nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, the Cat's Eye Nebula is one of the most complex planetary nebulae that has ever been discovered.



“A planetary nebula forms when Sun-like stars gently eject their outer gaseous layers to form bright nebulae with amazing twisted shapes," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Until recently, it was thought that shells around planetary nebulae were a rare phenomenon. However, astronomers have instead shown that these rings are likely to be the rule rather than the exception."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-of-the-cat-s-eye-nebula-nbsp">Appearance of the Cat's Eye Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The central focus of the Cat's Eye is a hot, dying star that has shed its outer layers to form the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragons-egg-nebula-is-a-truly-stunning-sight-to-behold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a>. It is surrounded by concentric gas shells, jets of high-speed gas, and unusual shock-induced knots of gas.



“Although the rings may be the key to explaining the final ‘gasp’ of the dying central star, the mystery behind the Cat’s Eye Nebula’s nested ‘Russian doll’ structure remains largely unsolved,” noted ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rings-around-the-cat-s-eye">Rings around the Cat’s Eye</h2>



“This image, taken with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), reveals the full pattern of eleven or more concentric rings, or shells, around the Cat’s Eye. Each ‘ring’ is actually the edge of a spherical bubble seen projected onto the sky - which is why it appears bright along its outer edge.”



According to ESA, observations suggest that the star ejected its mass in a series of pulses at 1,500-year intervals. “These convulsions created dust shells that each contains as much mass as all of the planets in our solar system combined.”



Several explanations have been proposed for this phenomenon, including cycles of magnetic activity similar to our Sun's sunspot cycle, the influence of companion stars orbiting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dying-stars-may-be-a-source-of-gravitational-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dying star</a>, or stellar pulsations.&nbsp;



Another theory suggests that the material is ejected smoothly from the star, with the rings forming later due to the creation of waves in the outflowing material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-draco-nbsp">The constellation Draco&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extrasolar-ocean-planet-discovered-in-the-draco-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Draco</a> is a constellation in the northern sky that represents a dragon. It's one of the largest constellations, winding between the Big and Little Dippers.&nbsp;



In Greek mythology, Draco is often identified as the dragon Ladon, who guarded the golden apples in the garden of the Hesperides.



Draco is a circumpolar constellation for most northern hemisphere observers, meaning it never sets below the horizon and can be seen all year round.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-famous-planetary-nebulae">Famous planetary nebulae </h2>



Planetary nebulae are some of the most beautiful and intriguing objects in the universe.&nbsp;



One of the most famous is the Ring Nebula, or M57, located in the constellation Lyra. This nebula is renowned for its nearly perfect ring shape, which is the result of a dying star shedding its outer layers.&nbsp;



Another well-known planetary nebula is the Helix Nebula, or NGC 7293, often referred to as the "Eye of God" due to its eye-like appearance. The Helix Nebula is one of the closest planetary nebulae to Earth, making it a popular target for amateur astronomers.&nbsp;



The Dumbbell Nebula, or M27, in the constellation Vulpecula, is another striking example. It is named for its resemblance to a dumbbell and is notable for being the first planetary nebula ever discovered, by Charles Messier in 1764.&nbsp;



The Butterfly Nebula, or NGC 6302, is located in the constellation Scorpius. Its name comes from its distinctive bipolar structure, resembling the wings of a butterfly. The nebula's central star is one of the hottest known, with a surface temperature of around 250,000 degrees Celsius.&nbsp;



The Eskimo Nebula, or NGC 2392, in the constellation Gemini, is known for its resemblance to a face surrounded by a fur parka, which gives it its name. Its intricate structure, including filaments and bubble-like shapes, makes it a fascinating object of study. 



These nebulae not only captivate us with their beauty but also provide valuable insights into the life cycles of stars and the processes that shape our galaxy.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope



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Cat's Eye Nebula in the constellation Draco

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of South Georgia, a remote and rugged island located in the southern Atlantic Ocean. 



"Linked with the South Sandwich Islands to form a British Overseas Territory, this southern Atlantic island is a haven for a vast array of wildlife," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Around five million seals call the islands home, as well as 65 million birds of 30 different species. Migrating whales and various fish species populate the surrounding waters and there is a large penguin population."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-and-wildlife-of-south-georgia">Climate and wildlife of South Georgia </h2>



The island is dominated by mountains, glaciers, and fjords. Its highest peak, Mount Paget, rises to 2,935 meters, making it one of the tallest in the region.



South Georgia’s location within the Antarctic Convergence gives it a cold, maritime climate. Although not part of the Antarctic Treaty System, its environment and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-are-not-enough-to-save-antarctic-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> are closely linked to Antarctica. 



The island is home to vast colonies of penguins, seals, and seabirds. The surrounding waters are rich with krill, providing an abundant food source for marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguins-adapted-to-harsh-environments">Penguins adapted to harsh environments </h2>



The most notable species found here are the king penguins, which are the second-largest penguin species in the world. South Georgia also hosts large populations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-the-gentoo-penguin-the-worlds-fastest-swimming-bird/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gentoo</a> and macaroni penguins. 



The island's harsh climate, characterized by strong winds, snow, and cold temperatures, makes it a tough environment, but the penguins have adapted well. 



Their colonies - some of which number in the hundreds of thousands - can be found along the island's rugged coasts and beaches. 



The island’s isolation, combined with its plentiful food supply, makes it a critical breeding ground for these penguins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-south-georgia">History of South Georgia </h2>



The island has a history of exploration and exploitation. Captain James Cook first claimed South Georgia for Britain in 1775. 



During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it became a hub for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/echoes-of-the-past-whalings-long-term-impact-on-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whaling</a> industry, with stations like Grytviken serving as operational centers. These stations have since been abandoned, and the island is now a haven for scientific research and ecotourism.



South Georgia is also notable for its role in Ernest Shackleton’s famed Endurance expedition. His crew reached the island in 1916 after an extraordinary open-boat journey from Elephant Island. Shackleton later died on South Georgia in 1922 and is buried in Grytviken.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pristine-nature-of-the-island">Pristine nature of the island</h2>



Today, South Georgia is a focus of conservation efforts. The eradication of invasive species, such as rats and reindeer, has been a significant success, allowing native wildlife to recover. 



Rats and mice were responsible for the decline of ground-nesting birds, including the South Georgia pipit, the island's only endemic bird. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reindeer-use-ultraviolet-vision-to-find-food-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reindeer</a>, which had been introduced for farming in the 19th century, caused extensive damage to the island’s vegetation, disrupting the habitat for native species.



South Georgia is uninhabited except for a small number of scientists and staff working at research stations and administrative facilities, emphasizing its role as a protected wilderness area and an essential site for understanding global environmental changes.



Its uninhabited status has helped preserve its pristine nature. Visitors to South Georgia must follow strict environmental guidelines to minimize human impact on this extraordinary island.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance-of-remote-islands">Scientific significance of remote islands </h2>



Remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-life-on-islands-loses-diversity-when-humans-arrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">islands</a> are scientifically significant for several reasons. They often serve as unique ecosystems that can provide insights into evolutionary processes, biodiversity, and adaptation. 



Due to their isolation, species on remote islands may evolve differently from their mainland counterparts, resulting in the development of endemic species that exist nowhere else in the world. 



These islands also act as natural laboratories for studying the effects of climate change, human activity, and ecological interactions, as they are more vulnerable to disturbances. 



Moreover, remote islands can offer valuable information on the health of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, as their ecosystems are often less impacted by human-induced factors. This makes them ideal for studying natural processes in relatively undisturbed environments. 



The isolation of these islands can also help scientists study the patterns of species migration, colonization, and extinction.



Image Credit: ESA 



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South Georgia: One of the most remote islands in the world

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Messak Settafet, a rocky plateau located in the central Sahara Desert. It is part of the greater Messak Plateau, which stretches between the Erg Uan Kasa and the Murzuq Sand Sea.&nbsp;



The plateau's surface is characterized by blackened sandstone, sculpted by thousands of years of wind erosion. This dark patina, often referred to as "desert varnish," adds to its distinctive appearance. The region is starkly beautiful but harsh, with extreme temperatures and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-climate-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-messak-settafet">Image of the Messak Settafet</h2>



“Towering over the desert in southwestern Libya, the Messak Settafet plateau resembles the wall of a giant fortress, with its dark, erosion-resistant sandstone separating the Ubari Sand Sea to the north and the Marzūq Sand Sea to the south,” noted NASA.



“The large outcrop of Cretaceous rock features a sharp escarpment on its north side. The cliff, some 300 meters (1,000 feet) high in places, is lined with a thin dark shadow.”&nbsp;



“Dark debris from rockfalls is visible to the north. Note that an optical illusion called relief inversion can make high-elevation areas appear low and vice versa when shadows appear on the northern side of a feature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaeological-significance-of-the-plateau-nbsp">Archaeological significance of the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



Messak Settafet is often referred to as the "land of stone tools" because it is one of the world's largest sites for prehistoric tools.&nbsp;



The area is littered with countless <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fstone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> and artifacts dating back to various prehistoric periods, including the Acheulean and Neolithic. These tools offer insights into early human technology and adaptation to desert environments.



“Signs of ancient tool making cover much of the plateau’s surface,” said <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “According to one archaeological survey, people discarded so many stone tools and rock fragments on the plateau over hundreds of thousands of years that roughly 75 artifacts per square meter now carpet the surface.”&nbsp;



“That makes this one of the earliest known examples of hominins modifying an entire landscape, according to the University of Cambridge archaeologists who conducted the survey.”



“Other signs of ancient activity include the bright spots that dot the image. These areas were likely quarrying pits where people dug up rocks and crafted them into tools, the archaeologists reported.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-art-on-the-plateau-nbsp">Rock art on the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



The plateau is home to numerous petroglyphs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negev-petroglyphs-ancient-art-rock-carvings-face-erosion-fungi-lichens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carvings</a>. These engravings depict animals, humans, and symbolic designs, providing valuable clues about the lives, beliefs, and environments of the region's ancient inhabitants.&nbsp;



“For instance, Wadi Mathendous, a prehistoric archaeological site located in the southern part of the plateau, contains engravings of rhinoceroses, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, fighting cats, giraffes, long-horned buffaloes, and elephants. The art is thought to be about 8,000 years old,” said NASA.



Some of the animals depicted, such as giraffes and elephants, indicate that the Sahara was once a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fa-lush-green-sahara-desert-helped-early-humans-migrate-out-of-africa%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">much wetter</a> and more hospitable environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-the-messak-settafet">Cultural significance of the Messak Settafet</h2>



Messak Settafet forms part of the Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985. This designation highlights the area's importance for understanding early human culture and environmental changes in the Sahara.



The plateau has been a critical area for studying the migration and adaptation of early humans. Its archaeological richness offers a glimpse into how humans thrived in this region during periods when the climate was wetter.



“Although the plateau now receives less than 0.4 inches of rain annually, clues in the landscape make clear it was once much wetter,” noted NASA.



“Deeply incised dried stream valleys, or wadis, crisscross the plateau, indicating significant past water flow. The small, bright features scattered across the plateau are sand and silt deposits left where water once pooled.”



The Messak Settafet, like many remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> regions, faces challenges such as erosion, vandalism of ancient rock art, and the potential impacts of development. 



Efforts to preserve its archaeological treasures are vital for protecting its cultural and scientific significance.



The image was captured November 17, 2024 by the Operational Land Imager-2 (OLI-2) on Landsat 9 on&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Messak Settafet plateau in the Sahara Desert

As we noted earlier, one of Jacobus’ grandsons lived in the farmhouse back in 1820. His name was James Frederick Smith. And once Isaac had passed away in 1868, James had a pretty big choice to make. According to Isaac’s last will and testament, James would have to take a dramatic step — or he wouldn’t receive any benefits. Photo Credit: Ken Mayer / Flickr

Big decision

In the captivating world of archaeology, where discoveries often turn the tide of understanding, sea level changes have emerged as a powerful force that may have shaped human history.



A recent revelation reveals an intriguing connection between fluctuations in the Atlantic Ocean's sea levels and the rise and fall of early societies in southern Brazil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-mystery-of-sambaquis">Unraveling the mystery of "sambaquis"</h2>



One could liken the work of an archaeologist to that of a detective, piecing together a puzzle from an array of diverse clues. 



This time, the evidence came from gigantic, prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indigenous-people-harvested-oysters-sustainably-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mounds of shells</a> known as sambaquis. 



Sambaquis were produced by pre-colonial people along a 3,000 km (1,800 mile) stretch of the Brazilian coastline, and contain the remains of shellfish and fish, along with plants, artefacts and charcoal.



When the scientists noticed a sudden decline in the size and frequency of these mounds around 2,500 years ago, they hypothesized that the coastal communities present in the region at the time had vanished or become reduced in number.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinguishing-the-pottery-paradox">Distinguishing the pottery paradox</h2>



Some experts believed the reduction in sambaquis resulted from the advent of ceramics and crop farming, which would have reduced the region's reliance on fishing and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusks-evolution-shishania-aculeata-spiny-armor-no-shells-500-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mollusk</a> consumption.



However, a study published in December 2021 demonstrated that the decline in sambaqui-building and use commenced before pottery became prevalent in the society.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-the-tides-of-change">Reading the tides of change</h2>



Observations made by examining human and animal remains from Babitonga Bay, the largest repository of sambaquis in Brazil, opened doors to a fresh perspective. 



A timeline, based on over 400 radiocarbon dates, established the arrival of ceramics at around 1,200 years ago. The decline in sambaqui activity began significantly earlier, about 2,500 years ago, and culminated in a "dramatic abandonment" around 2,200 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-retreat-and-early-societies">Sea level retreat and early societies</h2>



During the Late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/welcome-to-humanitys-new-era-the-anthropocene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Holocene era</a>, as icy cold fronts increased in southern Brazil, sea levels began to fall. 



The ocean receded by 1.6 meters (5 feet) between 7,000 and 1,000 years ago, resulting in the expansion of drylands and mangrove systems.



The scarcity of mollusks, fishing areas, and edible plants under these conditions would have pushed the shellfish-dependent societies to confront fierce competition for dwindling resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-past-insights-for-the-present">Lessons from the past, insights for the present</h2>



The authors suggested that the changing landscape forced communities to reorganize into more dispersed, independent social units. 



Warning bells should be sounding for us as well. With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-that-climate-change-is-caused-by-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anthropogenic climate change</a> predicted to increase sea levels by about 0.3 meters (12 inches) by the turn of this century, we stand to lose roughly half of the world's sandy beaches and rocky coasts.



The repercussions could be disastrous for global communities relying heavily on oceanic, coastal, and marine resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ever-changing-sea-levels-a-force-of-transformation">Ever-changing sea levels: A force of transformation</h2>



Sea levels have long acted as both creators and destroyers of human civilizations, shaping landscapes and the societies that inhabit them. 



In the case of Brazil's Sambaqui societies, fluctuating sea levels during the Late Holocene were a driving force behind dramatic societal changes.



As the ocean decreased in vertical height by 1.6 meters over millennia, shellfish-dependent communities faced dwindling resources, with mollusks and fish becoming scarce and food insecurity taking hold.



This transformation was not merely about the physical loss of coastline but also reflects a profound reshaping of the environment itself.



The retreating seas exposed new drylands and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-forest-reveals-ancient-climate-change-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangrove</a> systems, forcing communities to rethink their reliance on coastal ecosystems. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-societies-changing-with-sea-levels">Societies changing with sea levels</h2>



These changes triggered a reorganization of society, with dispersed settlements replacing the centralized shell mound communities that had thrived for thousands of years. Such historical events highlight the lasting impact of sea level changes on human history. 



Today, the world faces a parallel challenge: rising sea levels driven by anthropogenic climate change. 



Unlike the gradual retreat that impacted the sambaqui builders, the current rate of sea level rise is accelerating, posing an even greater threat to modern coastal populations. 



Entire cities could be inundated, and vital ecosystems may collapse, leading to mass displacement and economic turmoil.



The sambaqui story serves as a stark reminder of the delicate balance between humans and their environment. It highlights the urgency of understanding and mitigating sea level changes - not just to protect infrastructure - but to safeguard cultural and ecological heritage for future generations.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02888-7#Sec7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Sea levels linked to the rise and fall of early human societies

In the captivating world of archaeology, where discoveries often turn...

NSF NOIRLab has begun the New Year by unveiling a remarkable deep-space image of the Antlia Cluster. The image was captured with the Dark Energy Camera (DECam), which is mounted on the Víctor M. Blanco 4-meter Telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile.&nbsp;&nbsp;



This ultra-detailed view reveals hundreds of galaxies in the cluster, each belonging to a larger cosmic structure that continues to fascinate astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-and-cosmic-evolution">Galaxy clusters and cosmic evolution</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Galaxy clusters</a> rank among the biggest assemblies of matter in the universe. They come into being when dark matter gravitationally pulls galaxies together, typically forming groups of dozens.&nbsp;



Over time, these groups coalesce into clusters containing hundreds or even thousands of galaxies.&nbsp;



Researchers can learn a great deal about cosmic evolution by studying these superstructures, as their formation and organization shed light on how dark matter operates on vast scales.



Located around 130 million light-years away in the direction of the constellation Antlia (the Air Pump), the Antlia Cluster is one such assembly.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-features-of-the-antlia-cluster-nbsp">Exploring the features of the Antlia Cluster&nbsp;</h2>



Over the last two decades, scientists have turned to multiple <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOIRLab</a> programs to explore the cluster’s features.&nbsp;



Researchers in Chile employed the Blanco telescope using an earlier camera, known as MOSAIC II, as well as the Gemini South telescope, which is part of the International Gemini Observatory under NOIRLab’s purview.&nbsp;



More recently, data from both ground-based and space-based observatories have expanded knowledge of Antlia’s makeup, revealing a lively variety of galaxy types.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjWijtOA3g-4180568-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-the-antlia-cluster">Observations of the Antlia Cluster</h2>



Astronomers discovered that the Antlia Cluster is dominated by two large elliptical galaxies, NGC 3268 and NGC 3258. Around these giants, numerous faint <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happened-when-a-dwarf-galaxy-clashed-with-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dwarf galaxies</a> circle, adding to the cluster’s complexity.&nbsp;



There is also evidence that these two massive galaxies may be in the process of merging, based on X-ray studies that found a line of globular clusters in the region of peak luminosity between them.&nbsp;



Some experts propose that what is currently labeled as the Antlia Cluster might actually be two smaller clusters on the path to merging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-diverse-range-of-galaxies">A diverse range of galaxies</h2>



Looking more broadly, the cluster includes a range of additional galaxy types, such as lenticular galaxies with little gas or dust for star formation, irregular galaxies, and many lower-luminosity systems like ultra-compact dwarfs, compact ellipticals, and blue compact dwarfs.&nbsp;



Researchers think the cluster could also hold dwarf spheroidal galaxies and ultra-diffuse galaxies, though these remain to be confirmed with further observations.&nbsp;



The ability to detect these small and often dim objects has only emerged in the last few decades, thanks to continual improvements in telescope instrumentation and data analysis approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-the-antlia-cluster-nbsp">The evolution of the Antlia Cluster&nbsp;</h2>



The assorted galaxies in Antlia are more than just visually striking; they also provide a window into how galaxies take shape, evolve, and possibly fade.&nbsp;



Some galaxy varieties found in the cluster are associated with higher levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, giving researchers further clues about how dark matter influences galactic development.&nbsp;



As scientists trace the origins and transformations of these objects, they gain a richer understanding of the cluster’s evolutionary history, as well as the universe’s larger-scale dynamics.



An additional benefit of more advanced instruments, such as DECam, is that astronomers can now detect faint intracluster light - the hazy glow of stars that have been gravitationally pulled out of their original galaxies during interactions and collisions.&nbsp;



This faint glow sometimes overlaps with residual light from regional features, such as the Antlia Supernova Remnant discovered in 2002, which adds yet another dimension to the overall cosmic picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-light-of-galaxy-clusters">Studying the light of galaxy clusters </h2>



As scientists delve more deeply into clusters like Antlia, they look to upcoming projects and observatories to unlock even greater insights. The NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory’s Legacy Survey of Space and Time, set to commence in the near future, will mark a major leap forward.&nbsp;



For the first time, astronomers will have the data to examine intracluster light in thousands of galaxy clusters, shedding more light on how dark matter is distributed and how these structures have evolved across cosmic epochs.



By comparing results from a wide range of clusters, astronomers can piece together the events and processes that shaped today’s vast galactic formations.&nbsp;



This level of detail supports or challenges existing theories and refines the overall model of how galaxies gather and transform over billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-large-scale-structures-in-astronomy">Importance of large-scale structures in astronomy</h2>



The Antlia Cluster, as portrayed in the new image, stands out for its remarkable diversity of galaxies and ongoing processes. From the central elliptical giants that may be merging, to the smaller dwarf galaxies circling on the fringes, the cluster captures the drama of cosmic evolution.&nbsp;



Advances in observing technology and data analysis have made it possible to study these objects in greater depth than ever before, setting the stage for even more detailed research in the years to come.



Ultimately, these efforts underscore the broader importance of large-scale structures in astronomy. By examining the architecture and composition of galaxy clusters, researchers glean essential clues about the mechanics of dark matter, the fate of stripped stars, and the origins of galaxy populations.&nbsp;



Images like the one provided by DECam not only captivate astronomers and the public alike, but they also fuel the quest to understand the forces and processes that shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



Image Credit: Dark Energy Survey/ DOE/ FNAL/ DECam/ CTIO/NOIRLab/ NSF/ AURA.Dark Energy



Video Credit: NSF NOIRLab



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Hundreds of glittering galaxies captured in the Antlia Cluster

NSF NOIRLab has begun the New Year by unveiling a...

A new study from Tel Aviv University has uncovered how bacterial defense mechanisms can be neutralized, facilitating more efficient genetic material transfer between bacteria.&nbsp;



Researchers believe this discovery could significantly aid in combating antibiotic resistance and advancing genetic engineering for medical, industrial, and environmental applications.



The study was conducted by PhD student Bruria Samuel, under the guidance of professor David Burstein at the Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>'s Wise Faculty of Life Sciences.&nbsp;



The study also involved contributions from Dr. Karin Mittelman, Shirly Croitoru, and Maya Ben-Haim - all members of Burstein's lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-dna-transfer-in-bacteria-survival">The role of DNA transfer in bacteria survival</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genetic diversity</a> is critical for organisms to adapt and survive in changing environments. While humans and many other species achieve this through sexual reproduction, bacteria rely on alternative mechanisms.&nbsp;



One key method is the direct transfer of DNA between cells, a process that enables rapid genetic exchange and adaptation. This mechanism is exemplified by the swift spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic resistance</a> among bacterial populations.



Despite its prevalence, the process of DNA transfer has remained somewhat mysterious. Bacteria possess sophisticated defense systems designed to destroy foreign DNA, raising the question: How do plasmids, the carriers of genetic material, evade these defenses?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-conjugation-and-plasmid-behavior">Investigating conjugation and plasmid behavior</h2>



The study focused on conjugation, a primary mechanism for DNA transfer in bacteria. During this process, a bacterium connects to another via a microscopic tube, through which genetic material called plasmids is passed.&nbsp;



“Plasmids are small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules classified as 'mobile genetic elements.' Like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a>, plasmids move from one cell to another, but unlike viruses, they do not need to kill the host bacterium to complete the transfer,” explained Burstein.



Since plasmids are technically foreign DNA, they must find ways to evade bacterial defenses to survive and replicate within cells.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-associated-with-anti-defense-systems">Genes associated with anti-defense systems</h2>



Samuel began her research by analyzing 33,000 plasmids, identifying genes associated with anti-defense systems that allow plasmids to bypass bacterial defenses. The location of these genes proved to be a crucial discovery.



“The genes for the anti-defense systems that I identified were found to be concentrated near that cutting point, and organized in such a manner that they would be the first genes to enter the new cell,” noted Samuel.&nbsp;



“This strategic positioning allows the genes to be activated immediately upon transfer, giving the plasmid the advantage needed to neutralize the recipient bacteria's defense systems.”



When Samuel first presented her findings, Burstein admitted that he found it “hard to believe that such a phenomenon had not been identified before.” After an extensive review of the scientific literature, they confirmed that no prior studies had observed this pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plasmids-evading-defense-systems">Plasmids evading defense systems</h2>



To test the computational findings, the team conducted laboratory experiments. They introduced antibiotic-resistant plasmids into bacteria equipped with CRISPR, a well-known bacterial defense system.&nbsp;



This setup allowed the researchers to observe whether the plasmids could evade CRISPR and confer antibiotic resistance to the recipient bacteria.



Samuel's experiments demonstrated that plasmids with anti-defense genes positioned near the DNA entry point successfully overcame the CRISPR system, enabling the bacteria to develop resistance.&nbsp;



Conversely, plasmids with anti-defense genes located elsewhere were destroyed, and the bacteria succumbed to antibiotics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-antibiotic-resistance-nbsp">Implications for antibiotic resistance&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding the strategic positioning of anti-defense genes could lead to the discovery of new anti-defense systems, a topic of active research. 



The findings may also enhance the design of plasmids for genetic manipulation in industrial and research settings.



“Our study can contribute to designing more efficient plasmids for genetic manipulation of bacteria in industrial processes," said Burstein.



"While plasmids are already widely used for these purposes, the efficiency of plasmid-based genetic transfer in lab conditions is significantly lower than that of natural plasmids."



Potential applications include designing plasmids to block antibiotic resistance genes in hospitals, enabling bacteria in soil and water to degrade pollutants, or improving human health by modifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut bacteria</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-breakthrough-in-biotechnology-nbsp">Major breakthrough in biotechnology&nbsp;</h2>



The study has been described as a major breakthrough in biotechnology. Dr. Ronen Kreizman, CEO of Ramot, Tel Aviv University's technology transfer company, highlighted its potential.&nbsp;



“The new research opens revolutionary possibilities in areas such as developing drugs against resistant bacteria, synthetic biology, agritech, and foodtech,” said Dr. Kreizman.



“The ability to control and fine-tune genetic material transfer between bacteria could become a powerful tool for addressing environmental, agricultural, and medical challenges.”



By unveiling the mechanisms that allow plasmids to overcome bacterial defenses, this research sets the stage for innovative solutions to pressing global challenges, including antibiotic resistance and environmental sustainability.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07994-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How bacteria share genes and defy defenses

A new study from Tel Aviv University has uncovered how...

Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are extraordinary, fleeting explosions of radio waves. These signals, often originating from neutron stars or black holes, last for just a millisecond but carry immense energy, briefly surpassing the brightness of entire galaxies. 



Since their first detection in 2007, astronomers have identified thousands of these bursts, originating from distances as vast as 8 billion light-years away. However, their exact sources have remained an enigma.



A breakthrough study by MIT researchers, published in the journal Nature, sheds new light on this cosmic puzzle. By examining FRB 20221022A, a signal detected 200 million light-years away, the team pinpointed its origin near a highly magnetized neutron star.



The findings provide the first concrete evidence that some FRBs emerge from the magnetosphere - the chaotic, magnetic region surrounding such stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-twinkle-of-fast-radio-bursts">Decoding the twinkle of fast radio bursts</h2>



To trace the origins of FRB 20221022A, the researchers employed a technique called scintillation. This phenomenon, which is akin to the twinkling of stars, occurs when light from a small, bright source passes through gas, causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-radio-signal-reaches-earth-after-8-billion-years-frb-20220610a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variations in brightness</a>.



The team analyzed the FRB’s brightness fluctuations and discovered that the burst originated from an extremely compact region, no more than 10,000 kilometers wide.



“This means that the FRB is probably within hundreds of thousands of kilometers from the source,” explained study lead author Kenzie Nimmo.



“That’s very close. For comparison, we would expect the signal to be tens of millions of kilometers away if it originated from a shockwave.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-released-from-magnetic-fields">Energy released from magnetic fields</h2>



The team’s analysis revealed that FRB 20221022A likely exploded from a region just 10,000 kilometers away from a neutron star - a distance comparable to the span between New York and Singapore. This proximity strongly suggests that the burst emerged from the neutron star’s magnetosphere.



“In these environments of neutron stars, the magnetic fields are really at the limits of what the universe can produce,” said Nimmo. “There’s been a lot of debate about whether this bright <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farthest-known-fast-radio-burst-traced-to-rare-cluster-of-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio emission</a> could even escape from that extreme plasma.”



“The exciting thing here is, we find that the energy stored in those magnetic fields, close to the source, is twisting and reconfiguring such that it can be released as radio waves that we can see halfway across the universe,” noted Kiyoshi Masui, an <a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> associate professor of physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elusive-origins-of-fast-radio-bursts">Elusive origins of fast radio bursts</h2>



The Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (<a href="https://chime-experiment.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHIME</a>) has significantly advanced our understanding of FRBs. Since 2020, this unique radio telescope array has detected thousands of bursts. 



However, the origins of these bursts have remained elusive due to competing theories. Some suggest FRBs arise from the turbulent magnetosphere near compact objects, while others propose they originate from far-out shockwaves.



The scintillation analysis by the MIT team rules out the latter possibility for FRB 20221022A. Instead, their findings confirm the burst’s origin within a magnetically chaotic environment, reinforcing the role of neutron stars as central players in producing FRBs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polarization-another-key-insight">Polarization: Another key insight</h2>



In a companion study, researchers from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> observed a highly polarized signal from FRB 20221022A.



This polarization traced a smooth S-shaped curve, reminiscent of signals from pulsars, which are magnetized, rotating neutron stars.



“To see a similar polarization in fast radio bursts was a first,” the McGill team reported. This evidence supported the MIT team’s scintillation-based conclusion that the burst’s origin was in the immediate vicinity of the neutron star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milestone-in-understanding-fast-radio-bursts">Milestone in understanding fast radio bursts</h2>



The precision of this study is staggering. The team successfully traced the FRB’s origin to a region just 10,000 kilometers wide - a feat akin to measuring the width of a DNA helix from the moon.



“There’s an amazing range of scales involved,” said Masui.



These findings mark a milestone in understanding FRBs. By combining scintillation techniques with CHIME’s vast dataset, scientists can now pinpoint the origins of other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-energy-flash-brighter-than-a-galaxy-traveled-8-billion-light-years-to-reach-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bursts</a> with unprecedented accuracy.



“These bursts are always happening, and CHIME detects several a day,” noted Masui. “There may be a lot of diversity in how and where they occur, and this scintillation technique will be really useful in helping to disentangle the various physics that drive these bursts.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-physics-and-magnetic-fields">Extreme physics and magnetic fields</h2>



The research was made possible by support from numerous institutions, including the <a href="https://www.innovation.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canada Foundation for Innovation</a>, the <a href="https://www.dunlap.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dunlap Institute</a> for Astronomy and Astrophysics, and the <a href="https://tsi.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trottier Space Institute</a>.



The study’s MIT co-authors, along with collaborators from multiple institutions, have paved the way for deeper insights into the enigmatic world of fast radio bursts.



As scientists continue to unravel these cosmic phenomena, the universe's most brilliant radio <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-radio-burst-traveled-through-space-for-8-billion-years-to-reach-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flares</a> may hold the key to understanding extreme physics and magnetic fields at the edge of what the cosmos can produce.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08297-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Fast radio bursts traced to chaotic magnetospheres of neutron stars

Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are extraordinary, fleeting explosions of radio...

From a distance, it might seem like just another part of your eye, but the pupil is a gateway to understanding how and when the brain forms long-lasting memories.



Experts at Cornell University have discovered a key to understanding memory formation and retention: pupil size.



By analyzing pupil dynamics during sleep, the researchers identified a sophisticated mechanism in the brain that prevents "catastrophic forgetting," a phenomenon where forming new memories disrupts older ones.



The study, led by assistant professors Azahara Oliva and Antonio Fernandez-Ruiz, reveals that memory consolidation occurs during specific moments of non-REM sleep. These findings offer insights into human memory enhancement and artificial intelligence training techniques.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-sleep-and-memory">Science of sleep and memory</h2>



Sleep plays a critical role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consolidating memories</a> and organizing information in the brain. Non-REM sleep is particularly essential for strengthening new memories and integrating them with existing knowledge.



During this stage, neural activity reactivates learned information, transferring it from temporary storage to long-term memory networks. REM sleep, on the other hand, contributes to emotional processing and creativity. 



This study highlights how the brain alternates between consolidating new memories and revisiting old ones, using brief micro-structures within non-REM sleep. 



By understanding these processes, scientists gain insights into how the brain preserves knowledge and prevents interference between different types of memories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-pupils-and-neural-activity">Tracking pupils and neural activity</h2>



The researchers conducted their study on a group of mice, teaching them various tasks over the course of a month. These tasks included navigating a maze to earn rewards like water or treats. 



During this period, the mice were fitted with special equipment: brain electrodes to monitor neural activity and tiny cameras positioned near their eyes to track changes in pupil size.



After the mice learned a new task, they were allowed to sleep. While they slept, the researchers recorded their brain activity and observed how their pupils changed during different sleep stages. This data on pupil dynamics provided insights into how the brain consolidates memories.



“Non-REM sleep is when the actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgetting-things-is-a-natural-part-of-the-memory-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> consolidation happens, and these moments are very, very short periods of time undetectable by humans, like 100 milliseconds,” explained Professor Oliva.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pupil-dynamics-and-memory-consolidation">Pupil dynamics and memory consolidation</h2>



The researchers discovered that during a specific substage of non-REM sleep, when a mouse's pupil contracts, the brain focuses on replaying and strengthening newly learned memories. 



This process consolidates recent experiences, making them more stable and long-lasting.



In contrast, when the pupil dilates during another substage of the same sleep phase, the brain revisits <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-our-brains-neurons-make-and-retrieve-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older memories</a>, integrating them into the broader knowledge base. 



This alternating pattern of pupil contraction and dilation represents a previously unknown micro-structure of sleep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-pupils-for-retaining-memory">Significance of pupils for retaining memory </h2>



This mechanism is crucial because it keeps new and old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-rhythms-help-strengthen-memories-during-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memories</a> separate, preventing them from interfering with one another. 



By alternating between consolidating new information and revisiting old knowledge, the brain avoids "catastrophic forgetting," ensuring both types of memories are preserved and well-organized.



“It’s like new learning, old knowledge, new learning, old knowledge, and that is fluctuating slowly throughout the sleep,” said Professor Oliva.



“We are proposing that the brain has this intermediate timescale that separates the new learning from the old knowledge.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-memory-and-ai">Implications for memory and AI</h2>



The study's findings have significant implications for improving memory in humans. 



By understanding how the brain consolidates memories during specific moments of non-REM sleep, researchers could develop techniques to target and enhance these critical processes.



For example, therapies or interventions might help strengthen memory consolidation by focusing on these brief but vital phases of sleep.



Additionally, the discoveries could influence the development of artificial intelligence. Neural networks, which mimic how the brain processes information, often struggle with "forgetting" older data when learning new information. 



By applying the brain's method of alternating between processing new and old memories, AI systems could become more efficient at retaining prior knowledge while integrating new data, making them more reliable and robust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-critical-function-of-sleep">A critical function of sleep</h2>



The research was supported by multiple organizations, including the National Institutes of Health (<a href="https://www.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a>), the <a href="https://sloan.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Foundation</a>, and the <a href="https://www.whitehall.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whitehall Foundation</a>.



The discovery of this intricate sleep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-pinpoint-the-exact-timing-of-memory-formation-during-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mechanism</a> and pupil dynamics redefines our understanding of memory consolidation. 



By identifying the brain's ability to alternate between processing new and old memories, researchers have illuminated a critical function of sleep.



The study not only bridges gaps in neuroscience but also opens doors to innovations in technology and human cognitive enhancement.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08340-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Pupil size during sleep decides if new or old memories are replayed

From a distance, it might seem like just another part...

Axial Seamount sits under the Pacific Ocean about 300 miles from the U.S. coast. Since 1997, scientists have kept a careful eye on it using instruments that measure pressure on the ocean floor. 



Data shows that the volcano has been swelling, with changing rates that hint at an upcoming eruption.



Its activity caught the attention of experts because it shows a pattern of erupting after reaching a particular level of inflation. 



Observers have noted that the volcano’s swelling slowed from 2015 to 2023, then sped up again in late 2023. By mid-2024, that rate hit 10 inches per year, while daily earthquakes soared into the hundreds.



Mark Zumberge, a geophysicist at <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>, has described it this way: “It’s the most well-instrumented submarine volcano on the planet.” 



He and others use pressure sensors and AI-driven analysis to gauge shifts in earthquake patterns. William Chadwick of <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> once referred to a 2015 eruption forecast as their “best forecasting success.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-continental-plates-pull-apart">Where continental plates pull apart</h2>



Axial Seamount rises from the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/subduction-juan-de-fuca-plate-beneath-north-american-pla" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juan de Fuca Ridge</a>, an underwater mountain range in the northeastern Pacific. 



At this ridge, the Earth’s crust pulls apart due to the motion of tectonic plates, allowing molten rock to rise up and shape new crust. 



Plates moving apart have built a chain of peaks called a mid-ocean ridge. These ridges rarely capture the public’s imagination, yet they form one of Earth’s largest continuous geological features.



The ridge separates the Pacific Plate and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/claim-earth-has-six-continents-not-seven-north-america-europe-connected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North American Plate</a>. When those plates drift away from each other, magma surfaces and hardens. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Volcanic and seismic events</a> dot this region, including those at Axial. Repeated eruptions at this particular volcano have given researchers a real-time window into volcanic processes that most can only study from old rocks on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-axial-seamount-eruptions">Axial Seamount eruptions</h2>



Because Axial Seamount experiences frequent eruptions, it provides chances to fine-tune eruption predictions. 



Its swelling has reached levels that match those seen before past eruptions, prompting discussions about the next event possibly coming by the end of 2025.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/axial-seamount_underground-magma-system_credit-OregonStateU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/axial-seamount_underground-magma-system_credit-OregonStateU_1s.webp" alt="A schematic model of the magmatic system below Axial Seamount. Green, blue, and cyan polygons on the seafloor indicate 1998, 2011, and 2015 lava flows, respectively. The red star indicates the location of a revised prolate-spheroid inflation source for the 2015 eruption52, and the magenta cycles denote the hydrothermal vents. Black lines denote eruptive fissures identified during 2011 and 2015 eruptions. A thermally controlled permeability boundary layer separates the MMR from hydrothermal fluid circulation (cyan dashed lines with arrows) in the dike and lava section above13. White dashed lines denote the isotherms. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1955438"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A schematic model of the magmatic system below Axial Seamount. Green, blue, and cyan polygons on the seafloor indicate 1998, 2011, and 2015 lava flows, respectively. The red star indicates the location of a revised prolate-spheroid inflation source for the 2015 eruption52, and the magenta cycles denote the hydrothermal vents. Black lines denote eruptive fissures identified during 2011 and 2015 eruptions. A thermally controlled permeability boundary layer separates the MMR from hydrothermal fluid circulation (cyan dashed lines with arrows) in the dike and lava section above13. White dashed lines denote the isotherms. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



Since these eruptions have been fairly similar each time, scientists are learning which signs point to magma movement and what those signals might mean for future activity.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydrothermal-vents-earths-blueprint-for-finding-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hydrothermal vents</a> play a role in shaping local marine ecosystems. Lava flows and bursts of heated fluid feed specialized life, such as tube worms and clams, that flourish in dark, high-pressure environments. 



This small spot of deep-sea life is a reminder of how volcanic activity can spur biological communities in unexpected places.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-new-prediction-methods">AI and new prediction methods</h2>



A recent effort involves analyzing quake patterns prior to 2015. That study leverages machine learning to recognize signals that precede an eruption. 



Experts see these methods as a way to identify shifts in ground motion more quickly than manual approaches. 



As inflation picks up again, this automated tracking could help identify the precise moment when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-molten-rock-layer-discovered-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molten rock</a> nears the surface.



Zumberge and others draw on a network of sensors that map every tremor and change in ground tilt. “At Axial, we don’t have to worry about false alarms,” said Chadwick. 



Thanks to these tools, false starts - common in volcano monitoring - have not posed much confusion here.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-axial-seamount-s-slopes">Beyond Axial Seamount's slopes</h2>



Underwater eruptions may seem distant to folks on land, but they have global significance. The 2022 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tonga-eruption-had-the-energy-of-five-nuclear-explosions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hunga Tonga event</a>, for example, triggered a tsunami that caused an estimated $90 billion in losses. 



Though Axial Seamount itself poses little direct threat - shield volcanoes are less violent, and tremors here lack the force to create large waves - insights gained may aid efforts to forecast other, more hazardous sites.



“There’s no crystal ball,” noted volcanologist Valerio Acocella, from <a href="https://www.uniroma3.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University Roma Tre</a> in Italy, who studies both submarine and terrestrial volcanoes. 



That simple fact drives efforts to refine predictive science, using a wide range of data: ground deformation, quake frequency, and the chemistry of volcanic gases. 



Any improvement in these forecasts could limit harm in regions where eruptions might strike without warning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-models-with-real-time-data">Refining models with real-time data</h2>



When Axial erupts, molten rock pours out across the seafloor, and new vents appear. These events offer a direct look at how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crystals-can-help-predict-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magma moves underground</a>. 



Instruments feed constant streams of measurements to shore-based labs, revealing changes that happen within hours or even minutes. 



That trove of information helps experts see common threads that tie Axial’s predictable nature to more erratic volcanoes around the world.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/axial-seamount_seafloor-uplift_graph_credit-OregonStateU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/axial-seamount_seafloor-uplift_graph_credit-OregonStateU_1s.webp" alt="Cumulative seafloor uplift and detected earthquakes at Axial Seamount underwater volcano. The vertical axis shows the uplift since May 2015, and the horizontal axis shows the cumulative amount of earthquakes detected since May 2015. Credit: Oregon State University" class="wp-image-1955436"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cumulative seafloor uplift and detected earthquakes at Axial Seamount underwater volcano. The vertical axis shows the uplift since May 2015, and the horizontal axis shows the cumulative amount of earthquakes detected since May 2015. Credit: Oregon State University</figcaption></figure>



Each new episode produces extra details, clarifying where magma is stored and how it shifts in the days or weeks before an eruption. 



According to Acocella, “We need these ideal cases to understand how volcanoes work.” 



Because Axial has such robust instrumentation, these “ideal cases” are more complete than anything available from many land-based sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Even though the undersea location of Axial Seamount means there is minimal risk to nearby shorelines, scientists still keep track of everything that happens beneath the waves. 



If a future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">submarine volcano</a> shows similar signals but lies closer to inhabited regions, the same methods could help governments plan. 



Real-time data streams might allow them to evacuate at-risk areas or safeguard critical infrastructure.



At Axial, repeated eruptions give a sense of certainty about what might unfold next. 



Unlike volcanoes that lie dormant for decades, this one reactivates on a cycle, creating a chance to track repeated patterns. That cyclical aspect has turned Axial into a natural classroom for geophysicists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-impact-of-axial-seamount">Global impact of Axial Seamount</h2>



To sum it all up, technological advances have made it easier to keep watch on both shallow and deep sections of Earth’s crust. Long cables connect sensors, offering near-instant awareness of quake swarms and ground shifts. 



By combining those tools with AI algorithms, research teams spot subtle shifts that might have gone unnoticed in older data sets.



The anticipation of Axial’s next eruption has galvanized experts who study volcanic forecasting. 



Axial’s shield structure, real-time monitoring, and location on a mid-ocean ridge present a unique scenario where everything lines up for practical research. 



Overall, many specialists see this site as a key test bed for learning about submarine eruptions. 



Eruptions at Axial allow researchers to gather immediate, detailed data that refine future warnings and guide planning for potentially dangerous underwater volcanoes elsewhere.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-49188-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>



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Underwater volcano off the US coast could erupt at any moment

Axial Seamount sits under the Pacific Ocean about 300 miles...

Artificial intelligence (AI) continues to revolutionize the world of art, uncovering details that are invisible to the human eye. 



In a fascinating revelation, an AI neural network has unearthed a long-debated truth about Raphael’s&nbsp;Madonna della Rosa, a painting historically attributed to this Italian Renaissance master.



According to the study, not every brushstroke in the masterpiece is Raphael's.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-is-raphael">Who is Raphael?</h2>



Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino was one of the most famous artists of the Renaissance. Born on April 6, 1483, in Urbino, Italy, he became known for his beautiful paintings and frescoes. Sadly, he passed away on his 37th birthday, April 6, 1520.



He’s best remembered for works like "The School of Athens," a stunning fresco in the Vatican, "Madonna della Rosa," as discussed here, and "The Transfiguration," which is often seen as his final masterpiece. 



Raphael was known for creating art that felt balanced, clear, and full of beauty, blending emotion with graceful figures. 



He was able to mix the emotional depth of artists like Leonardo da Vinci with the elegant compositions of artists like Michelangelo.



Besides painting, Raphael was also a talented architect. He worked on the design of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican and later became the chief architect there. 



His influence shaped both art and architecture during the Renaissance, and he’s still considered one of the greats, alongside Leonardo and Michelangelo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-masterpiece-madonna-della-rosa">The masterpiece: Madonna della Rosa</h2>



Madonna della Rosa&nbsp;is a Renaissance painting that was created during the late period of Raphael's career. The artwork portrays the Madonna and Child alongside St. Joseph and St. John, reflecting themes of familial unity and sacred devotion. 



The painting is notable for its vibrant color palette, soft rendering of figures, and the delicate interplay of light and shadow - all of which are hallmarks of Raphael's mature style.



Currently housed in the Museo Nacional del Prado in Madrid, the painting has undergone various restoration efforts over centuries to preserve its details and hues. 



Its title,&nbsp;Madonna della Rosa&nbsp;("Madonna of the Rose"), comes from the symbolic rose depicted in the scene, which has often been interpreted as a reference to the Virgin Mary's purity and suffering.



The painting represents a transitional moment in art history, blending elements of High Renaissance ideals with emerging Mannerist influences. 



Its history is intertwined with debates over authorship and the collaborative nature of Renaissance workshops, which were common at the time.



This has made&nbsp;Madonna della Rosa&nbsp;a subject of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-cave-painting-discovered-in-indonesia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascination for art historians</a> and enthusiasts alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-st-joseph-s-face-in-madonna-della-rosa">St. Joseph’s face in Madonna della Rosa</h2>



The face of St. Joseph, featured in the top-left corner of the famous painting, has sparked centuries of speculation.



While the painting’s authenticity as a Raphael original has been questioned since the mid-1800s, recent AI-powered analysis points to a significant conclusion: St. Joseph’s face was likely painted by another artist.



"Using deep feature analysis, we used pictures of authenticated Raphael paintings to train the computer to recognize his style to a very detailed degree, from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acoustic-echoes-may-have-inspired-prehistoric-rock-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brushstrokes</a>, the color palette, the shading, and every aspect of the work," explained Hassan Ugail, mathematician and computer scientist from the <a href="https://www.bradford.ac.uk/external/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bradford</a>.



"The computer sees far more deeply than the human eye, to microscopic level."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-ai-to-analyze-the-painting">Using AI to analyze the painting</h2>



The researchers designed a specialized algorithm to compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rock-art-reveals-early-human-ties-with-amazon-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elements of the painting</a> to those found in verified Raphael works. 



This AI analysis, grounded in Microsoft’s ResNet50 framework and enhanced with a Support Vector Machine technique, could discern nuances at a microscopic level. The technology had previously demonstrated 98% accuracy in identifying Raphael’s works.



For this study, the team took the innovative step of analyzing individual faces within the painting. While the Madonna, the Child, and St. John showed clear signs of Raphael’s style, St. Joseph’s face stood out as inconsistent.



"When we tested the&nbsp;della Rosa&nbsp;as a whole, the results were not conclusive," said Ugail. "So, then we tested the individual parts and while the rest of the picture was confirmed as Raphael, Joseph's face came up as most likely not Raphael."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-is-the-mystery-artist">Who is the mystery artist?</h2>



Historical evidence suggests Giulio Romano, one of Raphael’s most talented pupils, may have contributed to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-neanderthals-mastered-adhesive-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">painting</a>. 



Art critics have long noted St. Joseph’s face appears less refined compared to the other figures. While the AI analysis strengthens this theory, it does not definitively confirm the identity of the artist responsible for painting St. Joseph.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-ai-in-art-authentication">Role of AI in art authentication</h2>



This revelation demonstrates the potential of AI to complement, not replace, human expertise in art authentication. 



AI’s ability to analyze brushstrokes, shading, and color palette at an unparalleled level provides a new dimension to evaluating artwork.



"This is not a case of AI taking people's jobs," said Ugail. "The process of authenticating a work of art involves looking at many aspects, from its provenance, pigments, condition of the work, and so on."



"However, this sort of software can be used as one tool to assist in the process."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-masterpiece-with-a-modern-twist">A masterpiece with a modern twist</h2>



Madonna della Rosa, painted between 1518 and 1520, remains a captivating masterpiece. Yet, its history grows richer with this discovery, adding another layer to the narrative of Renaissance art. 



As AI continues to advance, it holds promise for uncovering hidden secrets in centuries-old works, and for enhancing our understanding of artistic legacies while preserving their mystique.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40494-023-01094-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heritage Science</a>.



Image Credit: Museo Nacional del Prado



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AI identifies surprising details about one of the most famous paintings in the world

Artificial intelligence (AI) continues to revolutionize the world of art,...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

When Jacobus passed away in 1832, sons Michael and Isaac took control of the main building, following in their dad’s footsteps. They stayed there for the next two decades or so, before packing their bags for one of the other places on the massive estate. And then things took an intriguing turn. Photo Credit: Village Preservation (Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation) / Flickr

Jacobus' sons take over

And just like the fruit and veg, the Dyckmans’ ownership of the land continued to grow, too. By the late 1860s it spanned well over 300 acres in Manhattan. It goes without saying that that’s a pretty significant chunk. As that was happening, though, the dynamics inside the farmhouse shifted in a major way. Photo Credit: NYPL Digital Collections