Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall. 



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting.&nbsp;



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features UGC 5460, a spiral galaxy that is located about 60 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



“This image combines four different wavelengths of light to reveal UGC 5460’s central bar of stars, winding spiral arms and bright blue star clusters. Also captured in the upper left-hand corner of this image is a far closer object: a star just 577 light-years away in our own galaxy,” said <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“UGC 5460 has hosted two recent supernovae named SN 2011ht and SN 2015as. It’s because of these two stellar explosions that Hubble targeted this galaxy, collecting data for three observing programmes that aim to study various kinds of supernovae.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-core-collapse-supernova-nbsp">A core-collapse supernova&nbsp;</h2>



SN 2015as is an example of a core-collapse supernova. This type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> occurs when the core of a massive star - typically with more than 8 times the mass of the sun - can no longer support its own gravity after exhausting its nuclear fuel. 



This causes the core to collapse under its own weight, leading to an extremely violent explosion. The collapse triggers the release of an enormous amount of energy, expelling the outer layers of the star into space.



In the aftermath of the explosion, a dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shockingly-bright-carbon-monoxide-detected-in-supernova-remnant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remnant</a> is created. This is often a neutron star or black hole, depending on the mass of the original star. Core-collapse supernovae are some of the most powerful events in the universe.



According to ESA, Hubble observations of SN 2015as will help researchers understand what happens when the expanding shockwave of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> collides with the gas that surrounds the exploded star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-stars-with-large-eruptions-nbsp">Rare stars with large eruptions&nbsp;</h2>



“SN 2011ht might have been a core-collapse supernova as well, but it could also be an impostor called a luminous blue variable. Luminous blue variables are rare stars that experience eruptions so large that they can mimic supernovae,” noted ESA.



“Crucially, luminous blue variables emerge from these eruptions unscathed, while stars that go supernova do not. Hubble will search for a stellar survivor at SN 2011ht’s location, and the explosion’s identity may be revealed at last.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-spiral-galaxy">What is a spiral galaxy?</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most recognizable and beautiful structures in the universe. They are known for their distinctive arms that spiral outward from a central bulge.&nbsp;



These galaxies are typically composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The arms are often sites of intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>, where clouds of gas collapse to form new stars. 



In the center of a spiral galaxy lies a dense concentration of older stars and, often, a supermassive black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-of-a-spiral-galaxy-nbsp">Structure of a spiral galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The structure of a spiral galaxy is generally divided into three main components: the disk, the bulge, and the halo.&nbsp;



The disk is where the spiral arms are located and contains most of the galaxy's visible stars and interstellar medium.&nbsp;



The bulge is a tightly packed region of older stars at the core, and the halo consists of a sparse collection of stars and globular clusters that surround the galaxy.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies can be classified into different types based on the tightness and number of their spiral arms, as well as the size of their central bulge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-galaxy">The Milky Way galaxy</h2>



Our solar system is located within a large spiral galaxy known as the Milky Way. The name refers to its appearance as a dim, milky band of light stretching across the night sky.&nbsp;



The term "Milky Way" comes from ancient Greek mythology, where it was associated the goddess Hera's milk spilling into the sky. In Greek, it was called "Galaxias Kyklos," meaning "milky circle."&nbsp;



Spanning about 100,000 light-years in diameter, the Milky Way is composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The galaxy has a distinct disk shape with spiral arms that wind outward from a central bulge, which houses a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>. 



Our sun is located in one of the spiral arms - known as the Orion Arm - positioned roughly halfway from the center to the outer edge.&nbsp;



The Milky Way is part of a small group of galaxies called the Local Group, which includes the Andromeda Galaxy and several smaller galaxies.



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Hubble views a spiral galaxy with stellar explosions

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features an extraordinary view of Uranus, the seventh planet from the sun in our solar system. 



The photo reveals the rings, moons, and extreme seasons of the ice giant Uranus in unprecedented detail.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-north-polar-cap-nbsp">Dynamic north polar cap&nbsp;</h2>



“The Webb image exquisitely captures Uranus’s seasonal north polar cap, including the bright, white, inner cap and the dark lane in the bottom of the polar cap,” noted NASA.



Unlike Earth, where polar ice caps are formed by the freezing of water, Uranus's polar caps are thought to be primarily composed of a dense concentration of haze in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



The polar cap's haze is likely composed of methane particles. Methane in Uranus's atmosphere condenses into ice particles, which then create a thick haze that scatters sunlight, giving the polar cap its distinct bright appearance in visible and infrared light.



The polar cap is dynamic and changes over time. It becomes more prominent during the summer season of each pole. 



As Uranus moves along its orbit, the cap's appearance transforms, with the haze becoming thicker and brighter when the pole is in continuous sunlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-zeta-ring-nbsp">The Zeta ring&nbsp;</h2>



The inner and outer rings of Uranus are visible in the image, including Zeta - the innermost ring which is the faintest and most difficult to observe.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-photo-of-uranus-and-its-rings-and-moons-captured-by-the-webb-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rings of Uranus</a> are primarily composed of narrow bands of particles, likely made of water ice mixed with a dark material. These rings are distinct from those of Saturn in that they are much darker and narrower.



The faintness and characteristics of the Zeta ring make it a subject of interest in studies related to the dynamics and composition of planetary ring systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moons-of-uranus-nbsp">Moons of Uranus&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/multimedia/images/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb</a> photo also features nine of the planet’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-four-uranus-moons-may-have-oceans-that-are-miles-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moons</a>, which appear as blue dots surrounding the rings.&nbsp;



“Clockwise starting at 2 o’clock, they are: Rosalind, Puck, Belinda, Desdemona, Cressida, Bianca, Portia, Juliet, and Perdita. The orbits of these moons share the 98-degree tilt of their parent planet relative to the plane of the solar system,” noted NASA.



Uranus has 27 known moons, and they are divided into three main groups based on their orbits: the inner moons, the major moons, and the irregular moons.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-moon-ariel-may-have-a-hidden-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moons</a> of Uranus are unique because they are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope, rather than being named after figures from classical mythology, as is common for the moons of other planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ice-giant-uranus-nbsp">The ice giant Uranus&nbsp;</h2>



Uranus is classified as an "ice giant" because, unlike the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, which are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, Uranus has a significant proportion of "ices" in its composition.&nbsp;



In astronomical terms, ices refer to volatile substances like water, ammonia, and methane, which exist in solid or liquid forms at the low temperatures found in the outer solar system.



Uranus has a thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium, but beneath that, it contains a large, dense mantle composed of these ices, along with rock and other heavier elements.&nbsp;



The term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diamond-rain-may-be-common-on-giant-icy-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice giant</a> differentiates Uranus (and Neptune, the other ice giant) from the larger gas giants, emphasizing the different chemical compositions and internal structures of these planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-of-uranus-nbsp">Climate of Uranus&nbsp;</h2>



Uranus has a unique and extreme climate, largely influenced by its unusual tilt, which causes the planet to rotate almost on its side. This tilt leads to extreme seasonal variations, with each pole experiencing 42 years of continuous sunlight followed by 42 years of darkness.&nbsp;



Even though it is closer to the sun than Neptune, Uranus is the coldest planet in the solar system, with temperatures plunging to as low as -224°C (-371°F). The reason for this is not fully understood, but it might be due to an internal heat distribution anomaly.



Despite these frigid conditions, Uranus experiences intense weather patterns, including powerful storms and winds that can reach speeds of up to 900 kilometers per hour. These winds blow in the same direction as the planet’s rotation and are some of the fastest in the solar system.



Storms on Uranus are driven by its internal heat and the interaction of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-is-more-gassy-less-icy-than-we-ever-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric gases</a>. Observations have shown that these storms can be quite large, sometimes comparable in size to the Earth, and can last for several years.&nbsp;



The planet’s extreme axial tilt also means that the storms and weather patterns are highly variable, depending on the season. During equinoxes, when the Sun is directly over the equator, Uranus exhibits more storm activity compared to when the poles are pointed towards the Sun or away from it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-uranus">Observations of Uranus</h2>



“One day on Uranus is about 17 hours, so the planet’s rotation is relatively quick. This makes it supremely difficult for observatories with a sharp eye like Webb to capture one simple image of the entire planet - storms and other atmospheric features, and the planet’s moons, move visibly within minutes,” explained NASA.



“This image combines several longer and shorter exposures of this dynamic system to correct for those slight changes throughout the observing time.”



The first recorded observations of Uranus were made by John Flamsteed on December 13, 1690. However, Flamsteed mistakenly identified the planet as a star, which he named “34 Tauri."&nbsp;



It wasn't until March 13, 1781, that Uranus was officially identified as a planet by William Herschel. He initially thought he had discovered a comet, but further observations and calculations by other astronomers confirmed that it was a new planet, making Uranus the first planet discovered in modern history with the aid of a telescope.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI



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The ice giant Uranus in stunning detail

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features an extraordinary...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba about 43 million light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.



“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. 



“Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;



“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;



“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”



Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-galaxies">The evolution of galaxies </h2>



Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



Early galaxies were small and irregular, and were composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space. 



These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



As galaxies evolve, their morphology - shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. 



The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;



In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;



Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.



Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee



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Starburst galaxy in the constellation Columba

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1333, a reflection nebula located in the Perseus molecular cloud about 960 light-years away from Earth. The photo is a mosaic of images captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



“Webb’s superb sensitivity allows astronomers to investigate young objects with extremely low masses. Some of the faintest ‘stars’ in the picture are in fact newly born free-floating brown dwarfs with masses comparable to those of giant planets,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



The same cluster was featured in the 33rd anniversary image of the Hubble Space Telescope in April 2023. 



According to ESA, Hubble’s image just scratched the surface of this region, because clouds of dust obscure much of the star formation process. 



"Observing with larger aperture and in the infrared part of the spectrum, Webb is capable of peering through the dusty veil to reveal newborn stars, brown dwarfs and planetary mass objects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-view-of-ngc-1333">Webb’s view of NGC 1333</h2>



ESA noted that the center of the image presents a deep peek into the heart of the NGC 1333 cloud.&nbsp;



“Across the image we see large patches of orange, which represent gas glowing in the infrared. These so-called Herbig-Haro objects form when ionized material ejected from young stars collides with the surrounding cloud. They are hallmarks of a very active site of star formation."



The disks of gas and dust that surround the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in this image may eventually produce planetary systems.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-in-the-sun-s-birth-cluster">Stars in the Sun's birth cluster</h2>



“Similar to the young stars in this mosaic, our own Sun and planets formed inside a dusty molecular cloud, 4.6 billion years ago. Our Sun did not form in isolation but as part of a cluster, which was perhaps even more massive than NGC 1333,” explained ESA.



Over time, the stars in the Sun's birth cluster would have drifted apart due to gravitational interactions and the dispersion of gas in the region.



Astronomers have been studying certain clues, such as isotopic signatures in meteorites, that hint the Sun may have formed near massive stars. These stars likely produced supernovae, which could have influenced the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-objects-spotted-in-the-outer-solar-system-beyond-pluto/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> by injecting heavy elements like iron-60.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1333">Star formation in NGC 1333</h2>



NGC 1333 is a vibrant example of a stellar nursery, where active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> is ongoing. It is known for its chaotic appearance, shaped by the interactions between newborn stars and the surrounding material.



Within NGC 1333, astronomers have observed a high level of turbulence, which makes the region dynamic and complex. 



These disturbances are caused by the outflows of young stars as they eject material into their surroundings, creating shock waves and influencing further star formation.&nbsp;



These outflows are often seen as jets, which are visible in multiple wavelengths of light, especially infrared, as the surrounding dust absorbs visible light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-stages-of-planet-formation">Early stages of planet formation </h2>



NGC 1333 is also an area of interest for studying the early stages of star and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>, as many of the stars within the cluster are in their infancy.



These stars are still in the process of gathering material and developing protoplanetary disks. 



In images, NGC 1333 is marked by bright patches of blue and red, representing reflection <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and the ionized gas created by energetic young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-perseus-molecular-cloud-nbsp">The Perseus molecular cloud&nbsp;</h2>



The Perseus molecular cloud is a vast region of cold gas and dust located about 600 light-years away from Earth in the constellation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1500-billion-orphan-stars-discovered-in-the-perseus-galaxy-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseus</a>.&nbsp;



It is one of the most studied star-forming regions in our galaxy due to its relative proximity and the diversity of its young stellar objects. This cloud spans several hundred light-years and contains dense pockets of gas where new stars are actively forming.&nbsp;



These areas are often enshrouded in thick dust, which obscures them in visible light but allows astronomers to study them using infrared and radio wavelengths.



The Perseus molecular cloud is particularly interesting because of the chemistry taking place within it, including the formation of complex organic molecules that could be precursors to life.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA



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Stellar nursery shines in the Perseus cloud

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a blanket of dust over the Tarim Basin - a vast, arid region in northwestern China. 



Mountain peaks are visible through a break in the dust. These peaks are part of Tekilik Shan, a subrange of the Kunlun Mountains.



Though not as widely known as some other mountain ranges in the area, Tekilik Shan plays a significant role in shaping local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> patterns and geography.



Its snow-covered peaks can rise above 13,000 feet, contributing to the dramatic elevation differences that define the basin’s borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-storms-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Dust storms in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Spring marks the height of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storm</a> activity in the Tarim Basin, particularly in its southern region.&nbsp;



“It’s a time of year when regional wind patterns shift in ways that cause winds and storm systems to sweep in from the northwest,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154126/a-curtain-of-dust-over-the-tarim-basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“In early spring, when landscapes in this region are especially dry and have minimal vegetation, land surfaces warm rapidly under the Sun’s heat every morning, fueling convection that can help loft dust upward by the afternoon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerlike-dust-formations-nbsp">Fingerlike dust formations&nbsp;</h2>



Satellite images revealed dust formations with fingerlike shapes that mirrored the landscape below. These projections aligned with valleys, which channeled and directed the airborne dust.&nbsp;



Ralph Kahn is an atmospheric scientist at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and scientist emeritus at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.



According to Kahn, the dust may have been “self-lofting.” In this process, sunlight heats recently stirred-up surface dust, creating pockets of convection that lift it even higher into the air.



This interpretation is supported by hourly observations from Japan’s Himawari-9 geostationary satellite, which showed dust gradually rising into the Tekilik Shan throughout the day. By late afternoon, the storm had grown dense enough to obscure the mountains.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-atmospheric-dust">Decline in atmospheric dust</h2>



Long-term satellite data from MODIS suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric dust</a> levels in this region have declined by about 1.5 percent each year since the early 2000s.&nbsp;



NASA researcher Hongbin Yu attributes this trend mainly to springtime changes - such as altered wind speeds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil moisture</a>, or vegetation cover - rather than shifts in other seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Rainfall in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



“The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Takla-Makan-Desert" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Takla Makan Desert</a> is one of the driest, most barren expanses on Earth. Flanked by mountain ranges on three sides and parched by the resulting <a href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Rain_shadow" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rain shadow</a>, parts of the Tarim Basin receive no more than 10 millimeters (0.4 inches) of rain per year,” noted NASA.



“Dust storms can lead to public health problems in populated areas downwind by transporting small particles, bacteria, and viruses that infiltrate human respiratory systems.”&nbsp;



NASA added that dust storms can also affect Earth’s climate by scattering and absorbing incoming solar radiation and changing the properties of clouds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-of-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Landscape of the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



The Tarim Basin is one of the largest endorheic basins in the world, meaning that its rivers do not drain into the sea but instead flow into interior lakes or evaporate.&nbsp;



The basin is encircled by three mountain ranges: the Tien Shan to the north, the Kunlun Mountains to the south, and the Pamirs to the west. These ranges create a powerful rain shadow effect, making the region exceptionally dry.



At the heart of the Tarim Basin lies the Taklamakan Desert, one of the most extreme deserts on Earth. The desert is known for its high dunes, intense temperature swings, and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-will-wreak-havoc-on-mountain-ranges-as-warming-climate-turns-snow-to-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-and-geology">History and geology</h2>



Despite its harsh environment, the basin has been historically significant. It was a key section of the ancient Silk Road, with several oases such as Kashgar, Khotan, and Loulan serving as vital trading and cultural centers for centuries.



Geologically, the basin is rich in natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas, and has become a focal point for China's energy exploration and development.&nbsp;



The region’s challenging climate and remote location, however, make infrastructure development and human habitation difficult.&nbsp;



The image was captured on March 27, 2025 by the Operational Land Imager instrument on Landsat 8.



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Blanket of dust covers China’s Tarim Basin

Black Widow Spider -Female, male and egg sac Photo Credit: Mark_Kostich

Black Widow Spider

Around 41,000 years ago, Earth’s magnetic field underwent a chaotic shift that temporarily weakened the planet’s natural protection from harmful solar radiation.



A new study led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) suggests that early Homo sapiens may have survived - and even thrived - through this period thanks to innovations including tailored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-early-humans-first-start-wearing-clothes-and-why-parasites-lice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clothing</a>, increased use of sun-protective ochre, and strategic sheltering in caves. 



Meanwhile, their relatives the Neanderthals, who lacked these adaptations, vanished shortly thereafter.



The experts used advanced 3D modeling and archaeological evidence to offer a fresh perspective on how one of Earth’s past geomagnetic upheavals - known as the Laschamps excursion - may have influenced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution</a> and migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sky-lit-up-over-europe">The sky lit up over Europe</h2>



The Laschamps excursion was a geomagnetic event that occurred about 41,000 years ago, during which Earth’s magnetic field temporarily weakened to about 10% of its current strength. 



While the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic poles</a> didn’t fully flip, they did wander significantly - especially over Europe - bringing intense auroras and letting in greater amounts of harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.



“In the study, we combined all of the regions where the magnetic field would not have been connected, allowing cosmic radiation, or any kind of energetic particles from the sun, to seep all the way in to the ground,” said lead author Agnit Mukhopadhyay, a research affiliate in climate and space sciences and engineering at U-M.



“We found that many of those regions actually match pretty closely with early human activity from 41,000 years ago, specifically an increase in the use of caves and an increase in the use of prehistoric sunscreen.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-magnetic-field-and-wandering-poles">Earth's magnetic field and wandering poles</h2>



Earth’s magnetic field is generated by the rotation of its molten iron core, creating electrical currents that produce a magnetic shield around the planet. This field deflects most of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-storms-experts-identify-the-mysterious-source-of-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> and cosmic rays that would otherwise reach Earth’s surface and deplete its ozone layer. 



When the field weakens, as it did during the Laschamps event, it exposes much more of the planet to radiation. To explore this ancient episode, the researchers used the Space Weather Modeling Framework - a tool developed at U-M’s Center for Space Environment Modeling - to simulate how the Earth’s magnetic field and space plasma system interacted during the Laschamps event. 



The experts then reconstructed the global space environment in 3D by combining models of the geomagnetic field, the surrounding plasma, and auroral activity at the time. 



The resulting simulations revealed a planet dramatically different from what we know today: auroras visible across Europe and northern Africa, and large swaths of the Earth exposed to solar and cosmic radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-neanderthals-vanish">Why did Neanderthals vanish?</h2>



This intense solar exposure, researchers suggest, could have pushed early humans to adopt protective strategies. By around 41,000 years ago, Homo sapiens were becoming increasingly common in Europe, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isolation-played-a-key-role-in-neanderthal-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> were nearing extinction and soon vanished.



“What some of the differences are between these species, between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans, that might account for that disappearance has been a major anthropological question for decades,” said Raven Garvey, a U-M associate professor of anthropology.



One possibility? Tailored clothing. Archaeological sites associated with Homo sapiens from this period show evidence of sewing tools - scrapers, awls, and needles - that allowed for the creation of fitted garments. 



Such clothing would have helped protect against cold climates but also may have shielded skin from increased UV exposure. According to the scientists, tailored clothing has a two-fold benefit: it is significantly warmer and this added warmth meant that early humans could travel farther from their hearths and shelters in their search of food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-adaptation-and-innovation">Human adaptation and innovation</h2>



Clothing wasn’t the only adaptation. Homo sapiens also began using ochre more frequently during this period. 



Ochre, a naturally occurring red or yellow pigment composed of iron oxide, has long been used by human ancestors for decorative and symbolic purposes. But it also has practical benefits.



“There have been some experimental tests that show it has sunscreen-like properties. It’s a pretty effective sunscreen, and there are also ethnographic populations that have used it primarily for that purpose,” Garvey said.



“Its increased production and its association primarily with anatomically modern humans (during the Laschamps) is also suggestive of people’s having used it for this purpose as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-response-to-an-invisible-threat">Response to an invisible threat</h2>



Another clue lies in early humans’ use of caves. Archaeological data show a marked increase in cave habitation around the same time as the Laschamps event. 



These natural shelters would have provided physical protection from the radiation pouring in through the weakened magnetic field.



As Mukhopadhyay and Garvey note, these behaviors - hiding in caves, making more use of ochre, and sewing fitted clothes - are all found in archaeological records. The records date back to the Laschamps event, hinting at a collective response to an invisible but potentially deadly threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-field-stability-and-human-survival">Magnetic field stability and human survival</h2>



Garvey is careful to emphasize that the study’s findings. “I think it’s important to note that these findings are correlational and (ours is a) meta analysis, if you will,” she said. “But I think it is a fresh perspective on these data in light of the Laschamps excursion.”



While not proof of causation, the overlap between increased human technological behavior and periods of magnetic field instability offers new insight into how Homo sapiens may have gained a survival advantage over Neanderthals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-magnetic-field-reversal">Future magnetic field reversal </h2>



Beyond its relevance to human prehistory, the study also raises questions about how a future magnetic reversal might affect modern life. 



With Earth’s magnetic field currently weakening and the North Pole slowly drifting, Mukhopadhyay says it’s worth considering what would happen if a similar event occurred today.



“If such an event were to happen today, we would see a complete blackout in several different sectors,” he warned. 



“Our communication satellites would not work. Many of our telecommunication arrays, which are on the ground, would be severely affected by the smallest of space weather events, not to mention the human impacts which would also play a pretty massive role in our day-to-day lives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-humans-vanish-like-neanderthals">Could humans vanish like Neanderthals?</h2>



The research also carries implications for astrobiology. “Many people say that a planet cannot sustain life without a strong magnetic field,” Mukhopadhyay said. 



“Looking at prehistoric Earth, and especially at events like this, helps us study exoplanetary physics from a very different vantage point. Life did exist back then. But it was a little bit different than it is today.”



In the end, the Laschamps excursion offers more than just an explanation for why Neanderthals may have vanished. It’s a reminder that Earth’s magnetic shield, often taken for granted, plays a crucial role in protecting life on our planet. And when it falters, survival may depend on how quickly life can adapt.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq7275" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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New theory explains why Neanderthals vanished and Homo sapiens are alive today

Around 41,000 years ago, Earth’s magnetic field underwent a chaotic...

Terrestrial Exoplanet

Stellar corpses are supposed to cool, fade, and mind their own business. Yet a new climate‑modeling study hints that some of these faint objects - white dwarfs - could keep nearby planets toasty enough for liquid water to exist.



That possibility expands the hunting ground for habitable worlds by billions of targets and challenges the old idea that life can flourish only around stars that are very much alive.



Today’s tools make that hunt more than wishful thinking. The James&nbsp;Webb&nbsp;Space&nbsp;Telescope (<a href="https://webbtelescope.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) has already glimpsed gas‑giant candidates circling white dwarfs, proving that planets can survive their star’s violent endgame. 



With Webb’s infrared eyes, astronomers can now probe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocky worlds</a> the size of Earth. That capability sets the stage for fresh computer experiments comparing two very different star systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-dwarf-corpses-don-t-chill-out">White dwarf corpses don’t chill out</h2>



After a Sun‑like star sheds its outer layers, its core contracts into a white dwarf that is roughly as big as Earth but packs about half the Sun’s mass.



Current models suggest the Milky Way hosts around 10&nbsp;billion of these embers, and more than 97&nbsp;percent of all stars will finish their lives the same way.



Aomawa Shields of the <a href="https://www.uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California,</a> Irvine, and colleagues wondered whether such dim stars could light the way for life.



“While white dwarf stars may still give off some heat from residual nuclear activity in their outer layers, they no longer exhibit nuclear fusion at their cores. For this reason, not much consideration has been given to these stars’ ability to host habitable exoplanets,” Shields explained.



“Our computer simulations suggest that if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-small-planets-discovered-orbiting-the-nearest-single-star-to-earth-barnards-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocky planets</a> exist in their orbits, these planets could have more habitable real estate on their surfaces than previously thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-sun-water-world">Two‑sun water world</h2>



The team used a three‑dimensional climate model that is normally used for Earth’s environment to compare the climates of two a hypothetical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-17-exoplanets-that-have-oceans-and-possibly-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean‑covered planet</a>s with Earth‑like atmospheres. The two exoplanets were modeled to be in orbit around two different stars.



One exoplanet was placed in the so‑called habitable zone of a hypothetical 5,000 K white dwarf that has passed through most of its lifecycle and is on the slow path to stellar death. 



For comparison, they placed the other exoplanet in the habitable zone around the main-sequence star known as <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/kepler-62-f/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kepler‑62</a>. This is a K-dwarf star that has an equivalent temperature to the white dwarf, but is still actively fusing hydrogen in its core. Kepler-62 is in a similar life stage as our Sun. 



Both modeled planets were assumed to be tidally locked, with one hemisphere fixed in daylight and the other in eternal night. That configuration is common for worlds that hug close to small stars. 



Despite receiving the same amount of starlight overall, the climates of the two test exoplanets diverged in a surprising way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-keeps-white-dwarfs-warm">Speed keeps white dwarfs warm</h2>



The white‑dwarf planet zips around its star every 10 hours. That tight orbit forces a 10‑hour day - much faster than Earth’s orbit, and far quicker than the 155‑day slog of its Kepler‑62 counterpart.



Rapid rotation whips up powerful winds that whisk heat from the day side to the night side and back again. Those winds also shear away the thick, reflective clouds that tend to gather over a slow‑spinning planet’s hot hemisphere.



As a result, the white‑dwarf world ran about 25 °C warmer at its surface than the planet orbiting Kepler‑62.



“We expect synchronous rotation of an exoplanet in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable zone</a> of a normal star like Kepler‑62 to create more cloud cover on the planet’s dayside, reflecting incoming radiation away from the planet’s surface,” Shields noted.



That’s usually a good thing for planets orbiting close to the inner edge of their stars’ habitable zones, where they could stand to cool off a bit rather than lose their oceans to space in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-greenhouse-effect-could-turn-earth-into-an-uninhabitable-hell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">runaway greenhouse</a>. But for a planet orbiting squarely in the middle of the habitable zone, it’s not such a good idea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clouds-winds-extra-shoreline">Clouds, winds, extra shoreline</h2>



The model showed that fewer dayside liquid‑water clouds let more sunlight stream down, while stronger greenhouse gases on the nightside trapped outgoing heat. 



“The planet orbiting Kepler‑62 has so much cloud cover that it cools off too much, sacrificing precious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-kmt-2020-blg-0414-reveals-fate-of-earth-eight-billion-years-from-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable surface</a> area in the process," Shields continued.



"On the other hand, the planet orbiting the white dwarf is rotating so fast that it never has time to build up nearly as much cloud cover on its dayside, so it retains more heat, and that works in its favor.”



Taken together, the temperature bump and the efficient heat circulation spread balmy conditions over a larger fraction of the white‑dwarf planet’s globe. 



That result matters because real estate near the terminator - the ring of perpetual sunset between day and night - often offers the best prospects for life on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/morning-evening-atmosphere-detected-exoplanet-wasp-39b-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tidally locked worlds</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-playground-for-planet-hunters">Wider playground for planet hunters</h2>



Planets in orbit around dead stars are no longer hypothetical. In 2020, astronomers spotted <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/wd-1856534-b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WD 1856+534 b</a>, a Jupiter‑sized object that circles its white dwarf host every 34 hours without being torn apart.



In&nbsp;2024, the Webb telescope directly detected two more gas‑giant candidates orbiting separate white dwarfs, demonstrating Webb’s knack for sniffing out faint planets against dim stellar backgrounds.



“These results suggest that the white dwarf stellar environment, once thought of as inhospitable to life, may present new avenues for exoplanet and astrobiology researchers to pursue,” Shields said. 



As powerful observational capabilities to assess exoplanet atmospheres and astrobiology have come on line, such as those associated with the Webb telescope, we could be entering a new phase in which we’re studying an entirely new class of worlds around previously unconsidered stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Every white dwarf cools for billions of years, granting any close‑in planet a stable light source for far longer than the Sun’s remaining lifespan.



With ten billion of these stars scattered through our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-found-something-strange-at-core-of-milky-way-galaxy-webb-meerkat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>, even a tiny fraction hosting temperate rocky worlds would translate into a staggering number of potential abodes.



The next step is clear: point Webb and its successors at the brightest white dwarfs, catch a transit, and read the atmospheric fingerprints. If the models are right, the ghostly glow of a dying star could someday soon reveal a living planet.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad9827" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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At least 10 billion stars in our Milky Way galaxy can support habitable planets

Stellar corpses are supposed to cool, fade, and mind their...

Scientists have long puzzled over why Mars, once protected by a global magnetic field like Earth, now shows only a magnetic imprint mostly concentrated in the planet’s southern hemisphere. 



A new study from the <a href="https://ig.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas Institute for Geophysics</a> (UTIG) offers a compelling explanation: perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ ancient magnetic field was one-sided from the start.



The experts present a model showing that a hemispheric, or one-sided, magnetic field could have emerged if Mars’ core had been entirely liquid during the time its magnetic field was active.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-mystery-buried-in-martian-rock"><a></a>A mystery buried in Martian rock</h2>



Today, Mars does not have a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a>. However, scientists believe that billions of years ago, the planet did possess one. It was likely generated by a planetary dynamo - a self-sustaining process powered by the movement of molten metal within Mars’s core.



While Earth’s magnetic field wraps around the entire planet, Mars left behind a lopsided magnetic signature. Most of the crustal magnetism - what’s essentially a fossil record of the planet’s magnetic past - is preserved in the southern hemisphere. 



For decades, that imbalance has puzzled scientists. Chi Yan, a research associate at UTIG and lead author of the study, believes the explanation may be buried deep within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-internal-structure-of-mars-core-is-finally-revealed/">Mars’ core</a>.



“The logic here is that with no solid inner core, it’s much easier to produce hemispheric (one-sided) magnetic fields,” Yan explained. “That could have implications for Mars’ ancient dynamo and possibly how long it was able to sustain an atmosphere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-core-changes-the-game">Liquid core changes the game</h2>



Most prior models of Mars’ ancient magnetic field were based on assumptions drawn from Earth’s internal structure: a solid inner core surrounded by molten metal. But in recent years, that picture of Mars has started to shift.



In particular, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-insight-lander-is-still-teaching-us-about-mars-after-its-retirement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s InSight mission</a>, which studied Martian seismic activity, revealed that Mars’ core contains more light elements - such as sulfur and oxygen - than previously thought. These lighter elements lower the melting point of the core, making it more likely to be entirely molten.



“If Mars’ core is molten now, it almost certainly would have been molten 4 billion years ago when Mars’ magnetic field is known to have been active,” said study co-author Sabine Stanley, a professor at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a>.



With a liquid core possibility in mind, the team ran a new set of simulations. Instead of a solid inner core, they modeled a young Mars with a fully liquid core.



The team then added a slight temperature difference between the planet’s northern and southern hemispheres. In the model, the northern mantle was made just a bit hotter than the southern mantle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-flow-shaped-the-magnetic-field">Heat flow shaped the magnetic field</h2>



The results were striking. As the simulation ran, heat from the molten core escaped preferentially through the cooler southern hemisphere. 



That focused outflow of heat proved sufficient to power a magnetic dynamo - but only in the south. This simulated southern-hemisphere-only magnetic field matches what we observe today in Martian rock.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_molten-core_magnetic-field-quirks_illustration_credit-UTexas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mars_molten-core_magnetic-field-quirks_illustration_credit-UTexas_1s.webp" alt="Computer simulation of a one-sided magnetic field on early Mars based on data from a study led by the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics. The study could explain the unusual magnetic imprint found on Mars today. Credit: Ankit Barik/Johns Hopkins University" class="wp-image-1966274"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Computer simulation of a one-sided magnetic field on early Mars based on data from a study led by the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics. The study could explain the unusual magnetic imprint found on Mars today. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ankit Barik/Johns Hopkins University</figcaption></figure>



“We had no idea if it was going to explain the magnetic field, so it’s exciting to see that we can create a (single) hemispheric magnetic field with an interior structure that matches what InSight told us Mars’ interior is like today,” Stanley said.



These findings suggest that Mars didn’t necessarily have a planet-wide magnetic field that was later erased from its northern hemisphere - as some researchers have proposed. Instead, the field may have always been asymmetrical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-hemispheric-mystery"><a></a>Rethinking the hemispheric mystery</h2>



The difference between Mars’ northern and southern hemispheres has long intrigued scientists. The north features relatively low, smooth terrain, while the south is higher, more rugged, and more strongly magnetized. 



Some earlier theories suggested that massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-rocks-nasa-dart-asteroid-deflection-mission-may-impact-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> impacts may have obliterated magnetic traces from the northern hemisphere. But the new study offers a different idea: what if the northern rocks were never magnetized in the first place?



“Mars is naturally interesting to look at because it’s like Earth in some ways and it’s the closest planet that we can imagine actually setting up shop on,” said UTIG planetary researcher Doug Hemingway, who was not involved in the study.



“But then, it’s got this dramatic hemispheric dichotomy where the topography, the terrain and the magnetic field of the northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere are dramatically different. Anything that gives a clue at what could account for some of that asymmetry is valuable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mars-and-planetary-habitability">Ancient Mars and planetary habitability</h2>



Understanding how Mars lost its magnetic field is more than just a question of planetary history - it has implications for the planet’s climate and potential for life. A global magnetic field helps shield a planet’s atmosphere from solar wind, the stream of charged particles constantly blowing from the Sun. 



When Mars lost its magnetic protection, the atmosphere thinned, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> evaporated, and surface conditions became too harsh for life as we know it. The new research suggests that Mars’ magnetic dynamo may have been patchy from the beginning, raising the possibility that atmospheric loss began earlier than previously thought.



By revealing how a small thermal asymmetry in a planet’s mantle could produce a lopsided magnetic field, the study may also help scientists understand other planetary bodies with unusual magnetic features. This includes the planet Mercury and even some of the moons in our solar system.



As planetary scientists continue to digest InSight’s seismic data and refine their models of Mars’ interior, more findings may be on the way. 



For now, this study marks a significant step toward explaining one of the Red Planet’s most persistent mysteries - and suggests that Mars’ inner life may have been every bit as strange as its landscape.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL113926" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Mars once had a strong magnetic field, but now only traces remain

Scientists have long puzzled over why Mars, once protected by...

In the dense rainforests of the Republic of Congo, western lowland gorillas are often seen foraging through the soil. They were long assumed to be foraging for insects, but recent research has turned this assumption on its head. 



The real prize hidden in the dirt is not insects at all, but deer truffles - specifically, a species known as Elaphomyces labyrinthinus.



This revelation not only reshapes our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorilla</a> behavior, but also highlights the deep value of traditional ecological knowledge. The research, from the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, reveals how primates are deeply connected to their forest environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-truffle-eating-gorillas">Discovery of truffle-eating gorillas</h2>



The study was led by Gaston Abea, a member of the semi-nomadic Bangombe people and the first Indigenous person in Ndoki to become the lead author of a peer-reviewed scientific paper. 



Born in the village of Bomassa, Abea brought together deep cultural understanding, sharp observational skills, and modern scientific methods to uncover the truth behind soil-scratching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-gorillas-self-aware-new-research-challenges-old-assumptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorillas</a>.



Abea spent over a decade working at the Mondika and Goualougo field stations, tracking gorilla behavior. His local tracker background gave him a unique perspective, helping him spot patterns others might miss.



"My people's traditional knowledge of these forests is endangered by modern lifestyles but is proving invaluable in continuing to study and preserve these ecosystems," said Abea.



His work strengthens the growing recognition of Indigenous perspectives in conservation, though academic research still often overlooks them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-truffle-digging-is-a-regular-behavior">Truffle digging is a regular behavior </h2>



To understand this behavior, the researchers conducted daily observations of four different gorilla <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> across two sites: the Goualougo Triangle and the Djéké Triangle. They observed these groups nearly every day for almost ten years, documenting each instance of soil scratching.



The team also used molecular classification tools to identify the truffles being foraged. They conducted group scans to determine how much time gorillas spent searching for truffles. 



Then, the researchers used video observations to measure how efficient the animals were during these foraging bouts. Over time, the pattern became clear: soil scratching was a consistent strategy to find deer truffles, not an aimless search or an insect hunt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-gorillas-dig-more-than-others">Some gorillas dig more than others</h2>



Interestingly, not all gorilla groups embraced this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> equally. Soil scratching was most frequent in Buka’s group, followed by Kingo’s and Mététélé’s groups. 



In contrast, the Loya-Makassa group rarely engaged in truffle foraging. The behavior’s distribution seems tied partly to the availability of truffles, but not entirely.



Social factors appear to influence the practice as well. In one striking example, an adult female gorilla moved from a group that rarely scratched soil to one that did so almost daily. She soon began to mirror the habits of her new group, suggesting that cultural transmission may shape how gorillas forage.



"This is an exciting finding for our understanding of gorilla foraging behavior," said David Morgan of the <a href="https://www.lpzoo.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lincoln Park Zoo</a>, who worked on the study and has spent years researching in Ndoki.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-carefully-select-truffles">Gorillas carefully select truffles</h2>



One of the most vivid pieces of evidence came from a gorilla named Jeanne. Photographed in the Goualougo Triangle, Jeanne was seen scraping away forest leaf litter with her hands. 



Once the gorilla exposed the soil, she pinched her fingers together and brought a small round object - presumably a truffle - to her mouth. This precise motion defined a successful foraging attempt and offered a glimpse into just how deliberate the behavior is.



The study's inclusion in a special issue of the journal Primates marked a milestone. The issue celebrated 25 years of research in the Ndoki forest and brought attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-early-primates-lived-in-pairs-and-were-not-solitary-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> that may have otherwise gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-truffle-foraging-traditions">Protecting truffle-foraging traditions</h2>



Abea’s findings were incorporated into an ecological impact assessment for the Djéké Triangle.



As a result, conservation managers decided to adjust planned locations for tourism-related infrastructure. The aim was to protect areas where truffle foraging occurs regularly, ensuring this unique behavior could continue undisturbed.



"This is Gaston's first article as lead author - a milestone for his career and for our capacity-building efforts," said Morgan. "He is the first research assistant of Indigenous People's origin to become first author, in the Ndoki landscape." 



The decision to shift construction plans also highlights a growing understanding of cultural behavior in wildlife. These are not just instinctive acts but socially-influenced practices that may vary by group and change with experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-gorilla-hunters-to-guardians">From gorilla hunters to guardians</h2>



Abea’s story represents more than scientific achievement. It also reflects a cultural shift within his own community. He is one of over 100 Congolese research assistants trained since 2005 at Ndoki, many of whom come from nearby villages and Indigenous Ba’Aka communities.



"Our ancestors used to hunt gorillas, now we protect them, and I hope to inspire other Ba'Akas to do the same," said Abea.



His journey, from a boy in Bomassa to lead author of a major scientific article, mirrors the broader transformation in conservation thinking - one that values the voices and wisdom of local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-insights-shape-global-research">Local insights shape global research</h2>



While the knowledge about gorillas and foraging for truffles is slowly gaining recognition in the sciences, it still appears too rarely in published research. This study shows how blending local knowledge with science can reveal key insights into animal behavior and ecosystem health.



"This paper shows how much traditional ecological knowledge, scientific research, and conservation can benefit from each other," said Dr. Sydney Ndolo, second author of the paper and now professor of Botany at Université Marien Ngouabi in Brazzaville.



"Local cultures will only survive if they are properly valued, and research is an important means of achieving this."



Through Abea’s work and this study, a hidden part of gorilla life now comes into view - one shaped by truffles, food, forest, and social bonds. And alongside it, the role of Indigenous knowledge in science gains new ground.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10329-024-01151-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Primates</a>.



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Gorillas are digging for a surprising food in the jungle soil

In the dense rainforests of the Republic of Congo, western...

Nature-based activities are showing real promise in improving mental health, with visible benefits reported in as little as 12 weeks. 



In a recent evaluation of a community program for people with mild to moderate mental health conditions, participants experienced better mood and lower anxiety levels after joining weekly outdoor sessions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reshaping-mental-health-through-nature">Reshaping mental health through nature</h2>



This study is part of the UK government’s larger effort to rethink how mental health care is delivered.



One initiative included setting up seven “test and learn” green social prescribing sites across England. The first site to release its findings comes from Humber and North Yorkshire, where researchers from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> led the evaluation.



Green social prescribing works by linking people with community-based nature activities instead of, or alongside, traditional medical treatments. 



Healthcare professionals can refer patients to activities that bring them outdoors and into contact with the natural world. Though still in the testing phase, the evidence is growing stronger that this approach can be a useful tool in mental health support.



More than 220 participants took part in the Humber and North Yorkshire program. The researchers measured their mental health using the Office for National Statistics’ personal well-being metrics and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). The participants ranged in age from 18 to 85 and included people of all genders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-activities-deeper-impact">Longer activities, deeper impact</h2>



The results showed consistent improvement across the board, but participants in longer sessions - typically nine to 12 weeks - saw the most progress.



Activities that involved direct interaction with nature, such as horticulture and care farming, had a bigger effect than sports, crafts, or mindfulness sessions alone.



Professor Peter Coventry from the University of York’s Department of Health Sciences elaborated on the findings.



“We have known for some time that nature has a positive impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health and wellbeing</a>, but in more recent years, a stronger evidence base has grown that proves this to be true for mental health in particular," he said.



“The fact that activities such as gardening, tending allotments, and care farming had the most impact on the participants in our study, demonstrated that it is not just about being passive in nature, but connecting with it in a meaningful way." 



Professor Coventry added that spending time in nature with others from your community can ease <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-do-fear-and-anxiety-reside-in-the-brain-new-cells-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> and depression by reducing loneliness and fostering connection. Participating in local activities that support the environment can boost mood and promote a sense of belonging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accessible-and-enjoyable-nature-activities">Accessible and enjoyable nature activities</h2>



The benefits of the program were seen across different age groups and income levels. Of the participants, 65% came from low socioeconomic backgrounds. 



Horticulture-based sessions had particularly high attendance, suggesting these activities were both accessible and enjoyable for a wide range of people.



“This intervention might not work for everyone, but through an initial exploratory conversation a social prescriber will discuss with a patient or user of the service if nature-based activities would be suited to them," said Trish Darcy, a research associate from the University’s Mental Health and Addiction Research Group. 



"For that choice to happen, we need more investment to support these community-based activities."



“In our study, 65% of participants were from low socioeconomic groups and we now know that not only can it help improve their mental health, but participation was high for horticultural based activities in particular, meaning that not only is it good for the individual, but for the local community environment too."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-green-partner-in-healthcare">A new green partner in healthcare</h2>



The experts conducted the study in partnership with The HEY Smile Foundation and the NHS Humber and North Yorkshire Integrated Care Board. 



The research is part of a national cross-government initiative, with backing from DEFRA and several departments and agencies including the Department of Health and Social Care and Sport England.



Dr Hannah Armitt, clinical lead for the regional program, emphasized the potential to bridge medical care with community programs.



“The research conducted in our region has the potential to enhance service delivery by connecting statutory services with local providers of nature-based and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-classes-improve-childrens-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outdoor activities</a>," said Dr. Armitt.



“It is important to evidence the potential of green space and nature to ensure clinicians and patients alike can harness the benefits of this wonderful free natural resource we have in abundance in Yorkshire and Humber.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-nature-prescriptions">Future of nature prescriptions </h2>



As more of healthcare shifts into the community, the role of local organizations is becoming increasingly important. 



Anthony Hurd is the program manager of the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/healthsciences/research/mental-health/projects/humber-north-yorkshire-green-social-prescribing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humber and North Yorkshire Green Social Prescribing</a>.



“This work has not only shown the positive outcomes that nature-based activities have on mental health, it has also highlighted the role that community-based organizations play in supporting the health and wellbeing of communities," said Hurd.



“As healthcare begins to move more into the community, and with a focus on prevention, the community-based organizations delivering activities such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-is-beneficial-for-physical-and-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gardening</a>, care farming, and walking groups need to be recognized as key players in our national health service and be resourced appropriately.”



With continued investment, green social prescribing could become a trusted and lasting part of mental health care across the country - offering hope, healing, and a healthy dose of fresh air.



The research is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1155/hsc/2016261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Health &amp; Social Care in the Community</a>.



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How nature heals: Outdoor activities greatly improve mental health

Nature-based activities are showing real promise in improving mental health,...

A team of researchers has recently identified the right frontal lobe as a vital part of logical thinking and the ability to tackle new problems.



The study reveals that when the right brain is damaged, people’s capacity for reasoning suffers, implying that this area is central to our day-to-day cognitive functions.



The research was led by experts at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL) and <a href="https://www.uclh.nhs.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London Hospitals</a> (UCLH).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-damage-to-the-right-frontal-lobe">Damage to the right frontal lobe </h2>



Scientists have long used functional imaging (fMRI) to study cognition in healthy individuals. These studies, however, only show correlations rather than proving which parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-specialized-regions-develop-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> are essential. 



To pinpoint causation, experts rely on lesion-deficit mapping, a technique that examines how specific types of brain damage affect behavior.



Finding sufficient patients with carefully localized right frontal lobe damage can be challenging. The research team overcame that hurdle by enrolling 247 patients with unilateral focal brain lesions (either in the left or right, frontal or posterior regions).



Another 81 healthy adults served as a baseline for comparison. By systematically observing what happens when parts of the brain are damaged, the team could identify the areas indispensable for particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifestyle-choices-in-young-adulthood-impact-cognitive-ability-in-midlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive skills</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-brain-s-reasoning-ability">Measuring the brain's reasoning ability</h2>



To measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-showcase-smart-logical-reasoning-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logical reasoning</a>, the researchers created two original tests. One verbal analogical reasoning task asked participants to determine relationships between words. 



A question might read: “If Sarah is smarter than Diana, and Sarah is smarter than Heather, is Diana smarter than Heather?” Such questions test one’s ability to deduce logical conclusions from given statements.



The second was a nonverbal deductive reasoning task that required spotting patterns or similarities among shapes, pictures, or numbers. 



One sample query stated: “Which set of numbers is 1, 2, 3 most similar to 5, 6, 7 or 6, 5, 7?” The goal was to see how patients reason about relationships without relying on language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-right-brain-is-essential-for-reasoning">Right brain is essential for reasoning </h2>



When the researchers compared test results, one detail stood out: patients with injuries in the right frontal lobe scored significantly worse on both tests than those with lesions in other areas. These patients were about 15% more prone to errors than their counterparts and the healthy controls. 



This outcome supports the idea that the right brain is essential for reasoning. It's especially important when interpreting novel information and drawing logical conclusions.



Lead author Joseph Mole of the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ion/ucl-queen-square-institute-neurology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology and Department of Neuropsychology</a> emphasized the importance of these findings in spotting reasoning issues early.



“Our study explores how the front right part of the brain helps people think and solve new problems,” said Mole. “It also shows that our two new tests can help detect reasoning problems in individuals with brain damage, improving diagnosis and treatment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ties-to-fluid-intelligence"><a></a>Ties to fluid intelligence</h2>



Another important takeaway involves what neuroscientists call fluid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-part-of-the-brain-works-together-to-support-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a> - our capacity to solve problems in new or unfamiliar situations.



Senior author Lisa Cipolotti, a professor in the same institute at UCLH, noted that the study shows a substantial overlap between the brain networks responsible for fluid intelligence and reasoning. Both networks appear to rely heavily on the right frontal lobe.



The experts used advanced lesion mapping techniques developed by Professor Parashkev Nachev and colleagues at the UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology. These tools made it possible to explore precisely which portions of the frontal lobe, when damaged, most affect reasoning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-neurological-care"><a></a>Implications for neurological care</h2>



The practical impact is significant. Brain injuries from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stroke-risk-is-elevated-by-air-pollution-and-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strokes</a> or tumors can affect daily life in subtle ways. These injuries require the early identification of cognitive deficits. 



Many neurological assessments miss right frontal lobe dysfunction because standard tests often focus on memory, language, or motor skills. By contrast, the tasks introduced here specifically examine higher-order reasoning.



The researchers hope that once validated further, these tests can be integrated into clinical settings. For patients, that means more thorough evaluations and, potentially, more focused rehabilitation programs.



If doctors know that a person’s right frontal region has sustained damage, they can anticipate potential problems in logical thinking and develop strategies. This type of cognitive training or specialized therapy will help patients manage symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-right-brain-studies-are-needed">More right-brain studies are needed</h2>



Future studies may refine the new tasks to confirm their effectiveness. Additional testing will also detect right-brain deficits across a wider range of patient populations. 



Researchers also aim to examine whether training that targets reasoning skills can bolster recovery, potentially improving quality of life for people with frontal lobe injuries.



As this line of research advances, the main lesson is clear: while multiple parts of the brain support different aspects of cognition, the right frontal lobe’s role in reasoning appears especially vital. 



For anyone dealing with brain damage - or anyone working to help those who are - this knowledge reshapes how we assess, treat, and ultimately understand the very nature of human thought.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/brain/advance-article/doi/10.1093/brain/awaf062/8104772?searchresult=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain</a>.



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Where logic lives: Brain region responsible for reasoning revealed

A team of researchers has recently identified the right frontal...

A honeybee colony seems like a perfect model of unity. Inside the hive, thousands of individuals work in rhythm. Foragers seek nectar. Water collectors hydrate the group. Ventilators fan their wings to cool the brood. Guard bees monitor the entrance. 



In this coordinated dance, defense is critical - but personality plays a role, and not all bees choose to sting.



What triggers a bee to sting? Why do some launch themselves into action while others hold back? A new study from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> has explored these questions.



Researchers discovered that not only do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-bees-choose-the-same-flowers-again-and-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> differ in their readiness to sting, but their personalities remain consistent across time and context. The hive may move as one, but decisions start within the individual.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-choose-to-sting-or-abstain">Bees choose to sting or abstain</h2>



Doctoral student Kavitha Kannan and neurobiologist Morgane Nouvian led the research at the University of Konstanz. To examine stinging behavior, they needed a reliable group. They selected guard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-wildflowers-may-be-harming-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> - those that are naturally closer to the frontlines.



"Basically, you can expect that, simply by the distribution of tasks, a collector will have a different stinging behaviour than a guard. As we wanted to exclude as many influencing factors as possible, this selection was the first logical step. We were then able to gradually test other influencing factors," explained Kannan.



The bees were exposed to a rotating dummy that simulated a predator. The setup allowed repeated trials without harming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>. When a bee stings in natural conditions, its stinger is lost and it dies. Here, the bees could engage or abstain multiple times without being harmed. Each action or lack of action was logged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarm-scents-don-t-trigger-all-bees">Alarm scents don’t trigger all bees</h2>



In honeybees, a sting is more than a weapon. It is a call to arms. When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee</a> stings, it releases a complex scent signal known as the sting alarm pheromone (SAP), which is primarily composed of iso-amyl acetate (IAA).



This alerts others and encourages them to join in the group defense. As more bees respond, the concentration of IAA increases. Eventually, the response declines - a strategy that may ensure not too many casualties occur. 



The study found that SAP does influence bees, but not equally. When exposed to synthetic IAA, bees showed varied reactions. The presence of this signal raised the odds of stinging - but some bees still held back.



"Ultimately, it turned out that although these factors had an influence, they did not impact the predictability of individual stinging behavior," said Nouvian. The bees that chose to sting in one trial often did so again. Others remained passive, regardless of the alarm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-personality-and-stinging-behavior">Bee personality and stinging behavior </h2>



To probe deeper, the researchers tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee</a> responses over four repeated trials. The results were striking. Stinging behavior stayed consistent in most individuals. Some stung every time, others never stung, and very few wavered between the two choices.



Even more interestingly, the bees showed greater consistency in behavior when the time between trials was less. This suggests that internal states - perhaps neurological or hormonal - affect decisions. A bee wasn’t flipping a coin each time. It was acting from a semi-stable inner condition.



This state dependence was especially clear when patterns like 1−0−1−0 (stinging, not stinging, stinging, not stinging) were rare. Instead, most bees either kept attacking or kept abstaining. These temporal patterns implied that bees make evaluations based on more than stimulus alone - they carry a mood-like persistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peers-aren-t-always-influential">Peers aren't always influential</h2>



Bees are famously social. Still, the presence of another bee had a surprising effect. Rather than encouraging aggression, it reduced it. Pairs of bees were less likely to sting than solo bees, even when faced with the same threat.



This finding challenges currently-held assumptions. Larger groups don’t necessarily mean higher per-bee aggression. In fact, the data aligns with older studies suggesting that larger colonies can show less per-capita defense.



When tested in pairs, real bees stung less than would be predicted by combining data from singles. The effect appeared again, even when both bees could detect IAA. "Pairs as entities did [respond to IAA] (z = −4.327, p &lt; 0.001) … individual bees within pairs (z = −3.68, p &lt; 0.001)," the research paper noted.



Yet, the experts also found that SAP, when released naturally by one bee, could recruit another. The first bee’s sting raised the odds that its partner would follow. But over multiple exposures, this recruitment faded. Responsiveness to IAA dropped, trial by trial. Even social signals have an expiry date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-with-gentle-personalities-sting-less">Bees with gentle personalities sting less</h2>



Another part of the study tested whether bees adjust based on their companions' personalities. After identifying aggressive and gentle bees, the team mixed them in various combinations. Would gentle bees become bolder when placed among aggressive peers?



The answer was no. Bees classified as gentle stayed that way, even in groups full of stingers. Aggressive bees also stayed true to type. The only thing that influenced changes was the SAP level in the arena. More SAP raised the chance of stinging, less reduced it.



These results reveal that honeybees don’t mirror the behavior of those around them. They react to chemical signals, not peer pressure. 



“We propose that [Lecomte’s] results were rather the consequence of the reduced group size,” noted the researchers, questioning earlier claims about social inhibition among bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-resist-group-influence">Bees resist group influence</h2>



What does this mean for our understanding of bee society? This study breaks the idea of a hive acting as one. Each bee carries an internal threshold. That threshold can be nudged by alarm pheromones or dulled by time. It can be lowered by a sense of threat or raised by the presence of others.



Still, the final decision lies with the bee. Stinging isn’t a hive decision. It’s an individual one, shaped by subtle internal states and stable personality.



"That bees stop responding to the SAP but not to the threat itself might be another example of social information being less valued than personal information," the researchers suggested.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-honeybee-behavior">Future research on honeybee behavior </h2>



This study paves the way for deeper research into honeybee behavior. By proving the stability of individual responses, it opens doors for exploring the biological roots of personality. Future work could look into the neurobiology of aggression or the hormonal triggers behind it.



The hive may appear unified, but it is made of diverse minds. Some are ready to die for the colony. Others prefer to wait, even when the alarm is raised. Both types are part of nature’s plan - and together, they balance risk and survival.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241295" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Bees have unique personalities that determine whether they sting

A honeybee colony seems like a perfect model of unity....

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Close-up of dangerous horned viper in the sahara Photo Credit: acceptphoto

Horned Viper

A Tarantula Spider a wild native of the Sonoran Desert. This large brown spider was seen on the Pima Canyon trail in the Catalina Mountains north of Tucson, Arizona. Photo Credit: Charles T Peden

Horned Viper

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