Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 6744 - a large, barred spiral galaxy located approximately 30 million light-years away in the constellation Pavo.&nbsp;



The galaxy is often considered a close analog to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> due to its similar structure and size, spanning about 175,000 light-years across.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The image was captured by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid</a> space telescope. NGC 6744 stands out as a prime example of the galaxies currently forming the majority of stars in the nearby universe, making it an ideal subject for study with the Euclid mission.&nbsp;



Euclid’s extensive field-of-view allows it to capture the entire galaxy, showcasing not only its large-scale spiral structure but also revealing intricate details on smaller scales across various wavelengths. These details include feather-like dust lanes, known as “spurs,” emerging from the spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-6744">Star formation in NGC 6744</h2>



Euclid's observations enable scientists to count individual stars within NGC 6744, trace the distribution of stars and dust throughout the galaxy, and map the dust associated with the gas that fuels the development of new stars. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star formation</a> is a key process in the growth of galaxies, making these studies crucial for understanding galaxy evolution.



Researchers are utilizing Euclid’s data to explore the relationship between dust, gas, and star formation; to map the distribution of different stellar populations and identify regions of active star formation; and to investigate the underlying physics of spiral galaxy structures.&nbsp;



Spiral arms play a significant role in star formation by compressing gas, yet the precise mechanisms behind this process are still unclear. The presence of “spurs” along NGC 6744’s spiral arms offers valuable insights into the dynamics of star formation within these structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-new-dwarf-galaxies-nbsp">Discovering new dwarf galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, Euclid's dataset will help scientists identify clusters of old stars (globular clusters) and discover new dwarf galaxies around NGC 6744. Remarkably, Euclid has already identified a new dwarf satellite galaxy of NGC 6744 - a surprising discovery given that the galaxy has been studied extensively.



With Euclid’s detailed observations, scientists are gaining a deeper understanding of the processes shaping galaxies, providing essential clues to the evolution and appearance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universes-expansion-rate-hubble-tension-puzzles-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ngc-6744">More about NGC 6744</h2>



NGC 6744's disk is rich in star-forming regions and contains numerous young, bright blue stars. The galaxy's nucleus is slightly elongated and has a bar structure, which influences the motion of the stars and gas within it.&nbsp;



The spiral arms of NGC 6744 are well-defined and extend outward, wrapping around the central bar. Additionally, NGC 6744 has a smaller companion galaxy, NGC 6744A, which is interacting with it, adding to the complexity and interest of this distant system.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-galaxies">Spiral galaxies</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are one of the most common types of galaxies in the universe, characterized by their distinct, spiral-shaped structure.&nbsp;



The galaxies typically consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, along with a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. This bulge is often surrounded by a halo of older stars.&nbsp;



The spiral arms, which extend from the central bulge, are regions of active star formation and are rich in young, hot stars, giving them a bright, bluish appearance.&nbsp;



These arms are also sites where interstellar gas and dust are concentrated, leading to the formation of new stars.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on the tightness of their spirals and the size of their central bulge, with classifications ranging from tightly wound arms in Sa galaxies to more loosely wound arms in Sc galaxies. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our home galaxy, is a prime example of a spiral galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-pavo">The constellation Pavo</h2>



Pavo, which means "peacock" in Latin, is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in the late 16th century, based on observations made during the Dutch explorations of the southern hemisphere. 



Pavo is one of the 12 constellations created by Plancius from the records of explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. 



The constellation is known for its distinctive shape, resembling a peacock with a long, curved tail. Pavo is not visible from most of the northern hemisphere, but it can be seen from the southern hemisphere, particularly during the winter months.



The constellation contains several interesting celestial objects, including the star Peacock, also known as Alpha Pavonis, which is the brightest star in the constellation. This star is a blue-white subgiant located about 179 light-years from Earth.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA&nbsp;



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Spiral galaxy NGC 6744 in the constellation Pavo

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name "Antennae" comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions, offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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The violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a compilation of European cities that resemble stars. 



“Star-shaped cities are scattered across Europe, their geometric designs most appreciated when viewed from above,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2024/12/Earth_from_Space_Star_cities" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-star-shaped-cities">Development of star-shaped cities</h2>



The development of star-shaped fortresses, also known as bastion forts, emerged during the Renaissance in Italy as a response to the rapidly evolving art of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migrating-eagles-have-been-rerouted-by-the-war-in-ukraine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warfare</a>.&nbsp;



Traditional medieval fortifications, characterized by high, straight walls and square towers, became vulnerable with the advent of gunpowder weaponry. Cannons could easily reduce these structures to rubble, rendering them obsolete.



The star-shaped design addressed these vulnerabilities by incorporating wide moats and projecting bastions - angled structures that jutted outward from the main walls.&nbsp;



These bastions provided overlapping fields of fire, allowing defenders to cover blind spots and effectively repel attackers attempting to approach or scale the walls.&nbsp;



Additionally, the sloped walls of these fortresses, known as glacis, were designed to deflect cannonballs rather than absorb their impact, further enhancing their resilience.



This innovative design not only improved defensive capabilities but also transformed the battlefield, forcing attackers to develop new siege techniques. It marked a pivotal moment in military engineering, influencing fortress construction across Europe and beyond for centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-of-star-shaped-cities">Examples of star-shaped cities</h2>



“Four examples of such cities can be seen here, arranged clockwise from the top left: Bourtange in the Netherlands, Palmanova in Italy, Almeida in Portugal, and Neuf-Brisach in France,” said ESA.



“The green and red hues evoke a Christmas vibe, achieved through different band combinations during image processing to generate true-color (green) and false-color (red) visuals.”



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bourtange-netherlands">Bourtange, Netherlands </h3>



Fort Bourtange, nestled in the picturesque countryside of northeast Netherlands near the German border, is a remarkable example of Renaissance military architecture and urban planning.&nbsp;



Constructed in 1593 during the Eighty Years' War, it was strategically positioned to control the only road linking Germany to the Dutch city of Groningen - a vital route for military and trade purposes.&nbsp;



Its unique pentagonal, star-shaped design featured angled bastions, wide moats, and interconnected defensive structures, making it nearly impenetrable to enemy forces equipped with the era's artillery.



In 1851, after centuries of military service, Fort Bourtange was decommissioned and transformed into a peaceful village.&nbsp;



Despite the change in purpose, its original geometric layout, defined by precise angles and symmetrical patterns, remained intact. The pentagonal walls, surrounding waterways, and radial street design continue to showcase the ingenuity of its designers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-palmanova-italy">Palmanova, Italy </h3>



Palmanova, located in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of northeast Italy, is a masterpiece of Renaissance urban and military planning.&nbsp;



Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site, it exemplifies the idealized city envisioned during the late Renaissance, combining beauty, functionality, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-u-s-military-bases-for-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">military</a> innovation.&nbsp;



Constructed in 1593 by the Republic of Venice, Palmanova was strategically designed to protect the Republic’s northeastern borders from external threats - particularly the Ottoman Empire.



The city’s layout embodies the principles of symmetry and order characteristic of the Renaissance. Its unique radial design spreads out from the central hexagonal square, known as Piazza Grande or Piazza del Duomo, which serves as the civic and social heart of the city.&nbsp;



From this central hub, six straight avenues fan outward, connecting the square to the surrounding neighborhoods and gates. This design was not only aesthetically pleasing but also practical, allowing for efficient movement and communication within the city.



Today, Palmanova is celebrated not only for its historical and architectural significance but also as a rare example of a perfectly preserved star fortress.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-almeida-portugal-nbsp">Almeida, Portugal&nbsp;</h3>



Perched on a high plain in northeast Portugal near the Spanish border, the fortress of Almeida is a striking example of military engineering and a symbol of Portugal’s resilience.&nbsp;



Built to secure the nation’s eastern frontier, Almeida has played a significant role in Portuguese history, particularly during its early years of independence and throughout various military conflicts, including the Peninsular War.



The fortress's defining star-shaped ramparts consist of twelve points, each projecting outward to eliminate blind spots and provide overlapping fields of fire against advancing enemies.&nbsp;



The thick walls, surrounding moats, and angular bastions made Almeida a formidable stronghold capable of withstanding prolonged sieges.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neuf-brisach-france">Neuf-Brisach, France</h3>



Neuf-Brisach, located in the Alsace region of northeastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">France</a> near the German border, is another fascinating example of military and urban design.&nbsp;



The town was constructed in 1697 after the loss of Breisach, which stood on the opposite bank of the Rhine River in Germany.&nbsp;



The name "Neuf" (meaning "new" in French) reflects its creation as a strategic replacement and fortification to strengthen France's defense along its eastern border.



Designed by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, the renowned military engineer under King Louis XIV, Neuf-Brisach is part of the extensive network of fortifications that Vauban designed to protect France from external threats.&nbsp;



Vauban's expertise in defensive architecture is evident in the town's star-shaped layout, which was intended to optimize defense while accommodating civilian life within the fortifications.&nbsp;



The fortifications were built to withstand sieges and were strategically positioned to control movement across the Rhine River and defend against potential invasions. The outer star-shaped ramparts extend in a way that creates a nearly impenetrable defensive perimeter.



Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Star-shaped cities scattered across Europe

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of Lake Maracaibo, located in the northwestern part of Venezuela. The lake is a significant geographical and ecological feature of South America. 



Lake Maracaibo is often considered more of a tidal bay due to its direct connection to the Caribbean Sea through the Tablazo Strait. It is one of the oldest lakes on Earth, formed approximately 36 million years ago.



"With an area of over 13,000 sq km, Lake Maracaibo is generally considered the largest lake in South America, although by some estimates it should be considered an inlet of the Caribbean Sea since much of its water is brought in by its direct connection to the ocean," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"As a result, the water in the northern part of the lake is rather brackish, while the southern waters are fresh, owing to the many rivers that flow into the lake. The biggest, the Catatumbo River, can be seen entering the lake from southwest, where a large amount of sediment carried by the river appears as a yellowish plume."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-catatumbo-lightning">The Catatumbo lightning</h2>



The lake is renowned for a unique weather phenomenon - the Catatumbo lightning. This natural spectacle occurs primarily where the Catatumbo River meets the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-has-affected-almost-every-lake-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.



Known as the most persistent lightning storm in the world, it produces frequent and dramatic flashes of lightning, illuminating the night sky for an average of 260 nights per year.



These storms generate thousands of lightning strikes in a single night, making the region one of the most electrified places on the planet. 



The phenomenon is so intense that it has been recognized by the Guinness World Records as the place with the highest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-on-earth-can-influence-the-weather-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lightning</a> activity.



Scientists believe the lightning is influenced by the area's geography and climate, including the warm air rising from the lake and its surrounding mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economical-significance-of-lake-maracaibo">Economical significance of Lake Maracaibo </h2>



Lake Maracaibo plays an important role in Venezuela’s economy, as it lies atop vast reserves of crude oil.



The discovery of petroleum in the early 20th century transformed the region into a major oil-producing area, leading to the establishment of numerous oil rigs and platforms. 



However, this economic activity has come at a cost. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-losing-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pollution</a> from oil spills, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff has significantly degraded the lake's ecosystem.



The appearance of a green, slimy algae known as Lemna has further exacerbated environmental concerns, threatening marine life and the livelihoods of local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-ties-to-lake-maracaibo">Cultural ties to Lake Maracaibo </h2>



The cultural significance of Lake Maracaibo is deeply rooted in the traditions and lifestyle of the Indigenous Añu people, who have inhabited its shores for centuries. The Añu, also known as Paraujano, are known for their distinctive stilt houses, called palafitos.



These wooden structures are built directly over the water, connected by walkways or small boats, allowing the Añu to live harmoniously with their aquatic environment. The architectural style of these stilt houses inspired the early Spanish explorers to nickname the region "The Venice of the Americas."



The Añu's way of life is closely tied to the lake. They rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> as a primary source of food and income, using traditional methods passed down through generations.



For the Añu, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-significantly-impacts-lake-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> is more than a resource; it is a spiritual and cultural cornerstone, shaping their identity and daily practices.



However, modernization and environmental challenges have disrupted their traditional lifestyle. The oil industry’s expansion around Lake Maracaibo has led to significant environmental degradation, which threaten the lake's biodiversity and the Añu’s primary sources of sustenance. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lake-maracaibo-and-venezuelan-history">Lake Maracaibo and Venezuelan history</h2>



Lake Maracaibo also played a pivotal role in Venezuelan history, particularly during the Battle of Lake Maracaibo in 1823. 



This naval battle was a decisive conflict in Venezuela’s war for independence from Spain and marked one of the final military engagements of the South American liberation movements led by figures like Simón Bolívar.



Today, the lake represents a remarkable blend of natural beauty, industrial significance, and cultural heritage. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-conservation-efforts">Ongoing conservation efforts </h2>



Ongoing efforts aim to harmonize ecological conservation with economic development, as both local and global stakeholders acknowledge the need to protect this extraordinary environment for generations to come.



Efforts to preserve the Añu culture and the lake's ecosystem have been initiated by local and international organizations. These initiatives focus on promoting sustainable development, preserving Indigenous languages and traditions, and mitigating the environmental damage caused by industrial activities. 



Despite these challenges, the Añu have shown remarkable resilience, maintaining their cultural identity and advocating for their rights and the health of their ancestral lands.



Image Credit: ESA



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Lake Maracaibo: One of the most electrified places on the planet

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.



“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;



The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.



NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.



Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.



“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;



Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;



However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;



Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.



The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change.&nbsp;Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Gobi Altai Mountains and neighboring plains covered in snow and illuminated by sunlight. 



The photograph was captured on January 25, 2024 as the International Space Station (ISS) passed over central Mongolia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-peaks-and-plains">Mountain peaks and plains</h2>



“Late-afternoon sunlight casts long shadows of mountain peaks onto the plains below. Numerous steep gullies cut into the massif, or mass of mountains, whose rugged appearance contrasts with the flat plains stretching along the top of the image,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “The plains are a semidesert grassland, or steppe, which provides pasture for livestock herders in the region.”



“The grassland surrounding the massif is classified by scientists as a cold semidesert. At an elevation of about 1,250 meters, annual temperatures are much lower there than in the mountains. The highest peak in the massif, Ikh Bogd (also known as Tergun Bogd), reaches nearly 4,000 meters.”&nbsp;



According to NASA, the climate on the peaks is classified as a polar tundra because the average annual temperature is below freezing. "Asia’s main tundra zone is located in Siberia, along the coast of the Arctic Ocean, 2,800 kilometers (1,750 miles) to the north.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harsh-winters-and-livestock-in-mongolia">Harsh winters and livestock in Mongolia</h2>



Harsh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-winters-are-getting-colder-while-world-is-getting-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">winters</a> in Mongolia, locally known as "dzud," pose significant challenges for livestock and the herders who depend on them for their livelihood. These winters can be particularly severe, characterized by extreme cold, heavy snowfall, and ice, which can block access to grazing grounds, leaving animals without enough food.&nbsp;



The cold temperatures and nutritional shortages result in high mortality rates among livestock, which are crucial to the Mongolian economy and the nomadic lifestyle of many of its people.



The impact of these harsh winters extends beyond immediate animal welfare. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-livestock-are-major-drivers-of-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">livestock</a> numbers dwindle, herders face financial hardships, and the ripple effects can be felt throughout the entire community.&nbsp;



To combat these challenges, various strategies have been employed, including the development of better forecasting and early warning systems, the stockpiling of fodder, and improved veterinary care. These measures aim to strengthen the resilience of herding communities and ensure the survival of their livestock during Mongolia's most challenging seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-wildlife-of-mongolia">Diverse wildlife of Mongolia</h2>



Mongolia is renowned for its diverse wildlife, adapted to its unique landscapes ranging from vast steppes to rugged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountains-both-carbon-sinks-and-carbon-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and arid deserts. Among the most iconic species is the Bactrian camel, native to the region and crucial to nomadic herders.&nbsp;



The resilient Mongolian horse, integral to local culture, is celebrated for its endurance across the vast, open landscapes. Predators such as the snow leopard roam the high altitudes, playing a key role in the ecosystem, while the elusive Gobi bear survives in the sparse vegetation of the Gobi Desert.



The steppes are home to the fast-moving Mongolian gazelle and the critically endangered saiga antelope, known for its distinctive nose. The mountains support populations of argali sheep, the world's largest wild sheep, and the ibex, which has mastered the art of navigating rocky terrains. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valley-of-lakes">Valley of Lakes</h2>



“Part of a small dry lake appears in the top left of the image. In wetter years, water from this lake feeds Orog Lake (also photographed by astronauts), out of frame to the upper right. This and other nearby lakes are part of the Valley of Lakes waterfowl conservation habitat, protected as a Ramsar site,” noted NASA.



The Valley of Lakes is known for its expansive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-potential-of-tidal-wetlands-as-blue-carbon-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wetlands</a> and diverse ecosystems that support a variety of bird species, especially migratory waterfowl. This area serves as a crucial stopover for birds during their migration periods, providing them with essential resources such as food and shelter.&nbsp;



The conservation efforts in the Valley of Lakes focus on maintaining and restoring these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-wetlands-are-inching-closer-to-extinction-as-the-world-heats-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wetlands</a> to ensure they continue to offer a safe haven for waterfowl. These efforts include controlling invasive plant species that threaten the natural vegetation and managing water levels to create optimal conditions for bird populations.&nbsp;



Education and community involvement are also key components of the conservation strategy, aiming to raise awareness about the importance of these habitats and encourage sustainable practices that help protect the local wildlife.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Mountain peaks and plains of central Mongolia 

The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookesia_micra">Brookesia micra</a>, also known as the Nosy Hara leaf chameleon, is a species of chameleon found on the islet of Nosy Hara in Antsiranana, Madagascar. At the time of its discovery, it was the smallest known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-chameleons-found-in-madagascar-fit-on-a-human-fingertip/">chameleon</a> and among the smallest reptile. Brookesia micra can grow as long as 16 mm (0.63 in) from snout to vent.

Nosy Hara leaf chameleon

Cities around the globe are taking steps to shield residents from the dangers of tailpipe pollution. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), traffic remains a leading source of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States. Residents of neighborhoods with high truck activity face increased exposure to pollutants that can worsen breathing troubles. 



Recent findings have tied heavy-duty vehicle pollution to serious health problems. A growing number of <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5309/ad9f95" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> are exploring the potential of using electricity over diesel or gasoline in big rigs and delivery trucks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traffic-pollution-and-health-expenses">Traffic pollution and health expenses </h2>



Over the years, city roads have seen a flood of medium- and heavy-duty vehicles crisscrossing tight corridors around shipping terminals and industrial areas. These trucks emit fine particulate matter and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gas-stoves-emit-unsafe-levels-of-nitrogen-dioxide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen dioxide</a>, which have been linked to lung irritations and rising health expenses. They also generate smog-forming pollutants that can lead to visibility concerns in urban environments.



Brian Naess is a GIS analyst and lecturer at the <a href="https://ie.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC Institute for the Environment</a>. His team evaluated the air quality and health benefits of electrifying medium- and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDEVs) in New York City, focusing on disparities across neighborhoods and population groups.



The <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5309/ad9f95" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> points to a potential $2.4 billion decrease in health-related expenses if New York achieves a broad transition to electric trucks by 2040.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-electrification-push">The electrification push</h2>



Electric trucks rely on rechargeable batteries rather than burning fuels that emit carbon dioxide and other pollutants. 



Some city fleets have already moved to battery-powered vans for deliveries.



Researchers see this move as a step toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions and trimming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-vehicles-could-save-billions-in-health-care-costs-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health costs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electric-trucks-and-no2-emissions">Electric trucks and NO2 emissions</h2>



Nitrogen dioxide, formed when fossil fuels burn at high temperatures, is a major contributor to respiratory stress. Multiple investigations have shown that targeted interventions to slash NO2 can reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-new-asthma-treatment-in-50-years-offers-hope-for-millions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asthma attacks</a>.



Scientists <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38499224/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conducted</a> a literature search of MEDLINE, Embase, Global Health, CINAHL, Scopus, and Environmental Science Collection databases. The analysis was focused on articles published between January 1990 and January 2024.&nbsp;



The experts found that almost every study reported evidence of positive health impacts from transitioning to electric or hybrid electric vehicles 



Some findings suggested that benefits linked to reducing NO2 emissions can form the bulk of health gains in an electrification scenario.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-justice-concerns">Environmental justice concerns </h2>



Many areas with mostly Black or Hispanic households sit near busy roads. This has led to air pollution concerns and higher rates of respiratory issues.



A 2023 report highlighted the significant benefits of transitioning to electric vehicles (EVs) under New York’s Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act (CLCPA). The team found overwhelming evidence that widespread EV adoption, especially in medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, could dramatically reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality. These changes would directly benefit disadvantaged communities that have historically faced higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-air-pollution-levels-have-dropped-but-not-for-everyone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution levels</a>, addressing long-standing environmental justice concerns.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-switching-to-electric-trucks">Cost of switching to electric trucks</h2>



Shifting city trucks to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-future-is-electric-epa-sets-strictest-ever-vehicle-emission-rules/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electric power</a> demands heavy investment in battery systems and charging equipment. 



Fleets must consider the startup costs of new trucks, but the drop in fuel and maintenance expenses appears to help offset the price. 



Trucks that operate on electric power can also reduce greenhouse gases and smog contributors, which <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7567144/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">correlates</a> with fewer doctor visits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-tools-and-community-monitoring">Modeling tools and community monitoring</h2>



Officials in New York have used modeling tools to calculate how local traffic choices may affect air pollution levels. 



One advanced platform, known as the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35475336/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZIP Code-Level Air Pollution Policy Assessment</a> (ZAPPA), merges data from environmental agencies and community monitoring stations.



Another system, the<a href="https://www.epa.gov/cobra" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Co-Benefits Risk Assessment Health Impacts Screening and Mapping Tool </a>(COBRA), offers estimates of health outcomes in specific areas. 



These models identify places where trucks produce the worst air quality issues and predict how electrification might help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-potential-of-electric-vehicles">The potential of electric vehicles</h2>



Research from multiple sources points to the potential for electric cars to reduce pediatric asthma and lower hospital admissions. 



More city governments are pushing rules and incentives, ranging from rebates on electric truck purchases to installing more charging stations.



Planners see electric trucks as a chance to meet climate goals while bringing relief to families who struggle with healthcare costs. This movement could transform roads into cleaner routes for everyone.



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Public health and environmental justice: The push for electric trucks in cities

Cities around the globe are taking steps to shield residents...

Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap of 150 million years. Their new study has uncovered nearly 50 hidden relatives of Pterodactylus, the first pterosaur ever discovered.



This fossil find from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> allows scientists to piece together the life story of this ancient flying reptile, from its earliest days to adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-pterosaurs-the-basics">Understanding pterosaurs -- the basics</h2>



These fascinating flying reptiles weren't actually dinosaurs, but rather a separate group of flying reptiles that first appeared around 230 million years ago during the Triassic period. 



Unlike birds or bats, pterosaurs had a unique wing structure formed by a membrane of skin and muscle that stretched from an elongated fourth finger to their body. This created a lightweight and flexible flying apparatus that allowed them to soar and glide.



Different pterosaur species came in an astonishing range of sizes, from tiny creatures the size of sparrows to massive pterosaurs with wingspans around 33 feet wide. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_growth-stages_illustration_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny &quot;flaplings&quot; no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954862"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Growth stages of Pterodactylus. From tiny "flaplings" no larger than a sparrow, most known specimens represent 'teenagers' comparable in size to a pigeon. Fully grown individuals boasted impressive wingspans exceeding 1 meter. Unlike birds, which must grow before achieving flight, even the smallest Pterodactylus were capable of flight from an early age. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



Some had long, spear-like beaks perfect for fishing, while others sported elaborate head crests that might have been used for display, communication, or even temperature regulation. 



Their bones were incredibly lightweight and hollow, similar to modern bird bones, which helped them achieve flight with minimal energy expenditure.



Pterosaurs were incredibly successful and adaptable creatures that survived for an impressive 160 million years before finally going extinct along with the dinosaurs during the catastrophic asteroid impact at the end of the Cretaceous period. 



Their fossils have been discovered on every continent, revealing that they occupied diverse environments from coastal regions to inland areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-pterosaur-discovery">First pterosaur discovery</h2>



Almost 250 years ago, a fossil unearthed in a Bavarian quarry introduced the world to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-new-species-named-abfab-had-wings-wide-as-car/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pterosaurs</a>. 



This fossil, named&nbsp;Pterodactylus, offered the first glimpse into the Mesozoic skies, where these creatures soared above the dinosaurs.



Though the first specimen was modest in size - comparable to a turtle dove - it revolutionized our understanding of prehistoric life and showcased the extraordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of flying reptiles</a>.



Over time, however,&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;faded from public attention, overshadowed by its larger and flashier relatives, such as&nbsp;Pteranodon&nbsp;and&nbsp;Quetzalcoatlus. 



Yet, among scientists,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus genus remained a vital subject of study that played a central role in shaping our understanding of pterosaur anatomy, flight, diet, and growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-pterodactylus-family">Finding Pterodactylus family</h2>



Despite its significance, confusion has long surrounded&nbsp;Pterodactylus. 



Fossils attributed to this genus were often mixed with other species, making it challenging to determine which truly belonged to&nbsp;Pterodactylus. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ambiguity</a> persisted for centuries - until now.



Using UV fluorescence, paleontologists Robert Smyth and Dr. Dave Unwin from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> conducted a meticulous analysis of&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils housed in museums across Europe. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954860"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">UV photography of Pterodactylus. Ultraviolet light reveals remarkable details of the fossil invisible under normal lighting. This famous specimen showcases preserved soft tissues, including the delicate wing membranes, which fluoresce vividly under UV illumination. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



By shining powerful UV light on fossilized bones, they illuminated previously invisible features that distinguish the&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;family from other pterosaurs. Their work revealed dozens of misclassified fossils, including over 40 specimens that were reidentified as&nbsp;Pterodactylus.



“By examining lots of fossils in collections across Europe, we were able to reidentify more than forty specimens as&nbsp;Pterodactylus,” said lead author Robert Smyth. 



“UV stimulated fluorescence is astonishing in the amount of detail it can reveal. Features that were once hidden were glowing in plain sight.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-face-of-nbsp-pterodactylus">New face of&nbsp;Pterodactylus</h2>



This discovery has profoundly altered the scientific understanding of&nbsp;the genus Pterodactylus. Previously thought to be a rare find, nearly 50 specimens have now been confirmed.



This expanded collection allows researchers to construct a complete and detailed skeletal anatomy of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pivotal pterosaur</a>. 



Remarkably, soft tissues are preserved in over 20 of the specimens, which provides unprecedented insights into a range of features.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Pterodactylus_comparison-relative_fossil_UV-light_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1954857"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Family resemblance. This larger specimen is slightly jumbled, but it still reveals many important details, including the anatomy of the hands and feet, which have been found to be highly diagnostic features. This allows us to distinguish Pterodactylus from other closely related pterosaurs. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



“We can now construct a complete and highly detailed skeletal anatomy for this key pterosaur,” explained co-author Dr. Dave Unwin. “Soft tissues are fossilised in more than twenty examples so we can also reconstruct head crests, body shape, foot webs, and even the wings.”



The result is akin to a family portrait, showcasing Pterodactylus at every stage of its life. The smallest hatchlings, endearingly called “flaplings,” were robin-sized. 



These grew into “teenage” forms before reaching adulthood, where they boasted raven-sized bodies and wingspans of up to ten times their body length.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-revolutionary-technique">A revolutionary technique</h2>



The study highlights the transformative potential of UV fluorescence in paleontology. 



While the technique is well-known, the combination of advanced light sources and a systematic approach has yielded groundbreaking results in this case.



“UV stimulated fluorescence is a well-known technique,” Dr. Unwin noted. 



“But the difference in this case is that we have been able to combine new, high-quality light sources with a systematic "catch-all" approach, and it's going to have a revolutionary impact on our understanding of pterosaurs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterodactylus-family-and-future-study">Pterodactylus family and future study</h2>



This discovery not only redefines&nbsp;Pterodactylus&nbsp;but also highlights the value of revisiting and reexamining existing collections of fossils.



With nearly 50 examples now identified, researchers have an unprecedented opportunity to explore the life history of one of the most important pterosaurs. 



From its early days as a tiny flapling to its commanding presence in the skies,&nbsp;the Pterodactylus&nbsp;fossils provide a vivid window into the Mesozoic era.



As families come together this festive season, paleontologists celebrate their own remarkable reunion - a long-lost family, brought back to light after 150 million years.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2024.2421845" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>. 



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Pterodactylus: New pterosaur family members discovered that lived 150 million years ago

Paleontologists have made a remarkable discovery that bridges a gap...

Vesta,Asteroid,(elements,Of,This,Image,Furnished,By,Nasa)

The asteroid belt is no stranger to cosmic collisions. Many of its objects bear scars and craters from countless strikes over billions of years, such as the asteroid named Vesta. 



But when NASA’s Dawn spacecraft visited the giant asteroid Vesta, it glimpsed more than pockmarks and gouges -- it discovered intriguing channels on the rocky surface.



The deep channels on Vesta looked suspiciously like gullies carved by liquid flows, which seemed rather unlikely on an airless body in the vacuum of space.



These gullies challenged the assumptions of how liquids might appear on such a rugged, atmosphere-free world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-channels-on-asteroid-vesta">Hidden channels on asteroid Vesta</h2>



Vesta’s unusual channels stirred interest in whether there might be hidden pockets of ice below the surface. <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ad696a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> wondered how any liquid could last long enough to carve gullies instead of evaporating in an instant from the asteroid's surface. This puzzle prompted a team to conduct experiments that mimic the conditions on Vesta, to see what might be at work beneath the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid’</a>s crater-pocked exterior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-made-vesta-s-channels">What made Vesta’s channels?</h2>



Asteroids the size of Vesta rank among the largest members of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/asteroid-belts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid belt</a> between Mars and Jupiter. 



Although the surface has been pummeled by impacts, scientists suspected that some small, deeply buried ice deposits might exist within Vesta. A NASA-funded project took a closer look at how meteoroid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-world-ceres-near-mars-is-full-of-organic-matter-that-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacts</a> could unearth these concealed layers and release liquid water. Many researchers had argued that any water would vanish quickly in space. But new lab findings showed that saline solutions might linger long enough to form the winding channels observed in high-resolution images.



“Not only do impacts trigger a flow of liquid on the surface, the liquids are active long enough to create specific surface features,” said <a href="https://scienceandtechnology.jpl.nasa.gov/jennifer-scully" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jennifer Scully</a> of NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California who explained the significance of these results. This work provides a clue to how short-lived fluids might appear on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-lost-its-mini-moon-2024-pt5-may-have-come-from-our-main-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worlds</a> once deemed too harsh for liquid water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-into-the-lab">Moving into the lab</h2>



Shortly after the discovery of channels on Vesta, the research team, led by <a href="https://www.swri.org/industry/space-science/planetary-science-research-staff" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michael J. Poston</a> of the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, set up a series of simulations to re-create post-impact conditions. They relied on a specialized facility at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory called the Dirty Under-vacuum Simulation Testbed for Icy Environments (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia26405-a-look-inside-jpls-dustie-planetary-simulation-chamber/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DUSTIE</a>). 



Inside this chamber, they subjected small liquid samples to low-pressure environments that match those on Vesta’s surface. Under these near-vacuum conditions, pure water froze almost instantly. But briny water, which is rich in sodium chloride, took at least an hour to freeze.



That extra time can explain how curvy gullies might form. The experiments proved that salt plays an important role in keeping water liquid, even under conditions that usually turn plain water to ice right away. Poston noted that if the channels carved by these brines on Vesta were a few yards deep, the liquid phase would persist even longer. 



Their study described how this freezing delay could cause fluid to travel and create <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X14007572?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gullies</a> before it finally solidified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salt-s-unexpected-impact-and-hidden-ice-below">Salt’s unexpected impact and hidden ice below</h2>



Ice and salt often coexist on other airless bodies in the solar system. 



Scientists studying <a href="https://eyes.nasa.gov/apps/orrery/#/1_ceres" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ceres</a>, another object visited by the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/dawn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dawn spacecraft</a>, found abundant salt deposits near the surface. 



Similar processes might occur on Vesta, with hidden ice deposits that melt upon impact and release salty fluids that are capable of flowing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-should-we-care-about-asteroid-vesta">Why should we care about asteroid Vesta?</h2>



While direct evidence of ice on Vesta is still unconfirmed, researchers continue to analyze crater walls and gullies, looking for hints of exposed water-bearing minerals. 



If more ice deposits are detected, it would further support the idea that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceres-largest-asteroid-in-our-solar-system-used-to-be-an-ancient-ocean-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid surfaces</a> hide unexpected moisture beneath the dusty exterior.



Many experts highlight how this discovery of Vesta's channels ties in with other research on planetary bodies beyond Earth. 



Salt-rich flows have also been proposed to explain active gullies on Mars, where channels can appear seasonally as temperatures shift. Although the Red Planet has a thin atmosphere, brine might remain stable for short intervals in ways that resemble the results of the Vesta experiments.



Similar processes have been hypothesized for other airless worlds, fueling further curiosity about how widespread water could be in these unexpected places.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-water-in-the-asteroid-belt">Finding water in the asteroid belt</h2>



The Dawn mission provided valuable insight into the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/mystery-solved-bright-areas-on-ceres-come-from-salty-water-below/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">composition of Vesta</a> and Ceres, and the history of these objects. Observations of brine activity on Ceres prompted a rethinking of the asteroid belt’s arid reputation. If subsurface ices can be heated by impacts, short bursts of fluid flows might be more common than once assumed. The new experiments open a door for further study of how these liquids behave and how long they can remain stable in harsh, vacuum conditions.



Some see these lab results as a foundation for understanding what future spacecraft might find on icy asteroids or even distant moons. 



Asteroid Vesta's channels provide a key example and suggest that if other objects harbor briny fluids, they too might form channels when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-test-simulation-shows-earth-not-prepared-prevent-large-asteroid-strike/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">struck by meteoroids</a>.



Although quickly frozen, the liquid can still carve paths before turning to ice. This finding adds another piece to the puzzle of solar system evolution and the hidden chemistry that shapes so many distant worlds.



The research findings were published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ad696a">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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Asteroid Vesta found to have channels that look like water-made gullies

The asteroid belt is no stranger to cosmic collisions. Many...

Throughout human evolution, the presence of body and facial hair has diminished. Yet, eyelashes have remained a distinctive feature. 



Traditionally, their role has been considered purely protective - catching dust, filtering air and water, and aiding in vision. However, the functional purpose of eyelashes has remained the subject of debate.



A recent study by Chinese researchers has unveiled fascinating insights into the role and structure of human eyelashes.



Conducted by Professor Jiang Lei and his team from the Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the research highlights the hydrodynamic advantages of eyelashes in maintaining visual clarity.



The team examined the sophisticated design and functionality of these small yet vital features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-eyelashes-unique">What makes eyelashes unique?</h2>



The study revealed that eyelashes consist of a hydrophobic, curved, and flexible fiber array. The fibers feature surface micro-ratchets and a macro-curvature resembling the Brachistochrone curve. 



This unique structure enables eyelashes to expel liquid rapidly and directionally, ensuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-could-protect-millions-of-people-from-vision-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clear vision</a> even in challenging conditions.



Eyelashes are not merely for aesthetic appeal or shielding the eyes from debris. The study highlighted that eyelashes actively repel water, a feature that has been largely overlooked in scientific literature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyelashes-repel-water">Eyelashes repel water</h2>



The team investigated the interaction between water and the flexible fiber array of eyelashes. The study carefully examined the unique design of human eyelashes, focusing on three main aspects:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Structure: the physical arrangement of the eyelash fibers, including their curvature and alignment.</li>



<li>Wettability: how easily water interacts with or slides off the surface of eyelashes.</li>



<li>Water Drainage: the process through which water is moved away from the eyes by the eyelashes.</li>
</ol>



The researchers also investigated how the flexibility, shape (curvature), and elasticity (ability to stretch and return to shape) of eyelashes contribute to their effectiveness in repelling water. These features help eyelashes function as a natural barrier against liquid.



The results of the study led to some key conclusions:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrophobic-and-curved-design">Hydrophobic and curved design</h3>



Eyelashes repel water because of their water-resistant surface and curved structure. This design directs water away from the eyes, keeping them dry.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asymmetric-structures-and-elasticity">Asymmetric structures and elasticity</h3>



The varying shapes and elastic properties of the eyelashes control how liquid moves around. These properties determine the direction in which water flows and how long it stays in contact with the eyelashes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computational-modeling">Computational modeling </h3>



The team developed a mathematical model to measure the forces acting on the eyelashes. This helped explain why they quickly push water away.



These mechanisms ensure that during daily activities like washing your face or sweating, eyelashes prevent water from entering the eyes. This allows for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-pistachios-daily-proven-to-boost-eyes-vision-and-overall-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clear vision</a>, even in wet conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-applications-of-eyelash-research">Broader applications of eyelash research</h2>



The implications of this research extend beyond understanding human anatomy. The findings have inspired the design of certain innovative technologies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-repellent-false-eyelashes">Water repellent false eyelashes</h3>



Water repellent false eyelashes are designed to replicate the natural properties of human eyelashes. Not only are they visually appealing, but they also provide a functional benefit by repelling water, similar to natural eyelashes. 



This makes them practical for use in wet environments, enhancing both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laughter-may-help-dry-eyes-as-much-as-eye-drops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aesthetics and protection</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waterproof-imaging-devices">Waterproof imaging devices</h3>



The study’s findings inspired the creation of imaging devices that mimic the structure of eyelashes. The devices use similar water-repelling designs that improve their functionality and performance in wet or humid conditions. 



This innovation can benefit fields like underwater photography or outdoor surveillance.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ventilated-structures">Ventilated structures</h3>



By applying the design principles of eyelashes, researchers have developed structures that manage air and liquid flow effectively. 



These can be used in various applications, such as building ventilation systems or equipment that requires controlled airflow and moisture resistance, and ensures better efficiency and durability.



Professor Jiang’s team emphasized that their work bridges biological understanding with practical applications, showcasing how nature’s designs can inspire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-technology-lets-us-see-colors-of-the-world-through-the-eyes-of-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advanced technologies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-eye-hygiene-tips">Additional eye hygiene tips</h2>



While eyelashes play a crucial role in protecting eyes from liquid and debris, maintaining proper eye hygiene is equally important. The NHS recommends:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>washing hands before and after touching the eyes,</li>



<li>cleaning glasses regularly, and</li>



<li>avoiding sleeping in contact lenses.</li>
</ul>



These practices can prevent dirt and bacteria from entering the eyes, thus reducing the risk of infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-repelling-potential-of-eyelashes">Water-repelling potential of eyelashes</h2>



In conclusion, eyelashes are more than just a facial feature; they are a sophisticated natural mechanism designed to protect and maintain visual clarity. 



The study from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> sheds light on their unique structure and functionality, revealing a deeper appreciation for these seemingly simple fibers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr2135" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Eyelashes keep vision clear by actively repelling water

Throughout human evolution, the presence of body and facial hair...

The universe is packed with intricate, carbon-based compounds, including organic molecules, that hold clues about life’s raw materials. Some of these compounds are found in space.



Over the past few years, robotic missions have taken samples from comets and asteroids to learn how these compounds formed and whether our planet might owe its biological chemistry to faraway dust clouds.



The findings hint that organic molecules appear in every corner of space, which suggests that our own evolution may fit into a larger cosmic narrative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-molecules-in-space">Organic molecules in space</h2>



Scientists studying bits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-iceberg-a23a-undergoing-major-erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interstellar</a> dust, comets, and asteroids keep finding the same theme: these objects contain a variety of organic molecules. The story began in 1986 when the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Giotto_overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Giotto spacecraft </a>conducted the first in-situ analysis of a comet, <a href="https://www.space.unibe.ch/about_us/personen/dr_haenni_nora/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1P/</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eta-aquarids-see-up-to-50-shooting-stars-per-hour-this-weekend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Halley</a>, during its apparition (when it was visible from Earth). It revealed an unexpected abundance of organic species in the coma, but their exact origins -- whether from polymeric matter or smaller molecules -- remained unclear. The small spacecraft followed the comet for two years, capturing the dust and gas it shed. Instruments recorded dozens of molecules that contained carbon, leading scientists to look deeper for connections to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-in-submarines-can-help-astronauts-prepare-for-future-space-missions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early solar system</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-records-of-organic-molecules-in-space">Past records of organic molecules in space</h2>



The <a href="https://www.swri.org/press-release/rosetta-data-reveals-more-surprises-about-comet-67p">Rosetta</a> spacecraft was the first to orbit and land on a comet, namely 67P. In 2015, it detected simple organic compounds, including <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600285">glycine</a>, which is a building block of proteins. This discovery marked the first direct detection of this molecule on a comet. By 2022, researchers analyzing high-resolution mass spectrometry data <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-31346-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identified</a> 44 organic compounds in just one day’s worth of Rosetta data, with some molecules weighing up to 140 Daltons (Da). “Rosetta really changed the view,” said <a href="https://www.space.unibe.ch/about_us/personen/dr_haenni_nora/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Nora Hänni</a>, a chemist at the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a>. Soon after this, her team identified dimethyl sulfide, a gas that, on Earth, is generally produced by living organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asteroids-as-cosmic-sample-returns">Asteroids as cosmic sample returns</h2>



Japan’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hayabusa-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hayabusa2</a> and NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/osiris-rex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSIRIS-REx</a> missions offered a similar look at ancient space rocks. They scooped material from asteroids Ryugu and Bennu and brought the samples back to Earth. Early analyses suggested that both asteroids have a wide range of organics present. <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn7850" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-ryugu-has-unexpected-family-ties-near-jupiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryugu</a> found at least 20,000 varieties of carbon-based compounds, including 15 different amino acids. “It’s just everything possible from which life could emerge,” said <a href="https://www.helmholtz-munich.de/en/bgc/pi/philippe-schmitt-kopplin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philippe Schmitt-Kopplin</a>, an organic geoscientist at the Technical University of Munich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-about-planetary-origins">Questions about planetary origins</h2>



Those organic-rich rocks may date back to a time before planets fully formed. Scientists wonder if these compounds started in cold, dark clouds between stars, or if they originated in energetic zones near young suns.&nbsp;



“Those of us interested in searching for life have to understand how planets could acquire organics in the absence of life,” said <a href="https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/nai/directory/glein-christopher/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Christopher Glein</a>, a planetary scientist at the Southwest Research Institute. Many experts ask whether the early Earth became <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable</a> partly because of organic molecules that arrived from space. “I would like to know where we come from as a planetary species,” said <a href="https://astronomy.fas.harvard.edu/people/karin-oberg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karin Öberg</a>, an astrochemist at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-chemistry-across-the-cosmos">Early chemistry across the cosmos</h2>



Astronomers have traced certain hefty carbon structures called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05998-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PAHs</a>) back to about 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.



Carbon atoms often form large, sturdy rings and chains in the outflows of dying stars. “It’s actually not too different from combustion as we understand it here on Earth,” said Öberg, referring to the ways these molecules can build up in stellar winds. 



Observations confirm that interstellar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parker-solar-probe-will-fly-through-suns-atmosphere-tomorrow-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> has more than 200 carbon-containing compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-icy-labs-in-the-dark">Icy labs in the dark</h2>



In molecular clouds, simple ingredients gather on cold dust grains. Once stuck together, atoms can combine to form key molecules like methane. Over time, ultraviolet radiation and cosmic rays split molecules into radical fragments, which recombine to form something new. Experiments hint that this can produce anything from methanol to glycine “You can build complexity without much going on in just a cold, dark cloud,” said <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/people/alice-s-booth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alice Booth</a>, an astronomer at Harvard University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-disks-and-newborn-worlds">Planetary disks and newborn worlds</h2>



Observations of protoplanetary disks -- thick, spinning layers of dust and gas around baby stars -- show that methanol and other organics survive the intense heat of stellar births. Recent modeling suggests these compounds may grow into even more sophisticated structures when disk materials cycle between hot surface zones and cooler midplane regions. This process could be one reason comets and asteroids wind up so chemically rich by the time they form. “Comets are, I think, the best that we can do to go back in time,” said Hänni.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-organic-molecules-in-space">Origins of organic molecules in space</h2>



When organic chemicals land on a planet, they might set the stage for the emergence of living systems. A few theories propose that meteorites or comets delivered certain amino acids or <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2014-03/documents/pahs_factsheet_cdc_2013.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PAHs</a> to early Earth.



Astrobiologists debate about which molecules represent a solid proof of life, and which might be possible false positives. 



The presence of dimethyl sulfide from comet 67P, supports the idea that lifeless processes can make molecules that we tend to associate with living organisms.



In 2016, <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Rosetta" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosetta</a> concluded its mission with a controlled impact on comet 67P’s surface, which resulted in a rich legacy of data for further analysis.



Since then, scientists have connected these findings to other Solar System reservoirs of organics, such as Saturn’s ring rain and meteoritic material, revealing their shared prestellar origins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-organic-molecules-in-space">Future research on organic molecules in space</h2>



Scientists will continue exploring these mysteries with missions like NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/europa-clipper/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa Clipper</a>, the European Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Juice" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juice</a>, and a future rotorcraft bound for Saturn’s moon Titan.



Researchers hope to spot organic compounds that might give hints about oceans hiding beneath icy crusts. 



Such discoveries could bring us closer to answering one of humanity's oldest questions: are we alone in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-mission-set-to-search-for-life-on-jupiters-ocean-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>?



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Organic molecules found throughout the universe hint that life began in deep space

The universe is packed with intricate, carbon-based compounds, including organic...

In the relentless battle between parasites and their hosts, nature often finds innovative solutions. Sometimes, however, borrowing proven strategies can trump the invention of new ones. 



This principle is exemplified by fruit flies, which have adopted a defense mechanism from bacteria to help them counter predatory wasps. The fascinating discovery highlights the dynamic strategies of evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasitic-wasps-vs-fruit-flies">Parasitic wasps vs. fruit flies</h2>



Parasitic wasps present a gruesome threat to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit flies</a>, as they transform fly larvae into hosts for wasp offspring. In some species, parasitism affects nearly half of all fly larvae, in a process that is eerily reminiscent of the 1979 movie&nbsp;Alien. 



To survive this biological invasion, fruit flies have co-opted a bacterial defense mechanism, showcasing a remarkable example of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) in animals.



Horizontal gene transfer, where genes jump between unrelated species, is common among bacteria and viruses. It plays a crucial role in spreading antibiotic resistance among microbes. 



However, HGT is considered rare in multicellular organisms, such as insects and humans. This study challenges that notion, and demonstrates how animals might also leverage HGT for rapid adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-borrowed-toxin-for-defense">Borrowed toxin for defense</h2>



Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, led by Noah Whiteman, have identified a bacterial gene that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit flies</a> use to fend off parasitic wasps.



This gene encodes a toxin that damages the DNA of wasp eggs, preventing them from developing. 



According to Whiteman, the discovery provides a model for understanding how immune systems evolve, including our immune system, which also contains horizontally transferred genes. Whiteman.



The team previously showed that knocking out this gene in&nbsp;Drosophila ananassae&nbsp;resulted in nearly all fly larvae succumbing to wasp predation.



In their latest study, published in the journal Current Biology, they successfully inserted the toxin-encoding gene into&nbsp;Drosophila melanogaster, a different species of fruit fly. This made the genetically modified lab flies resistant to predation by parasitic wasps. 



The findings highlight the critical role of HGT in animal survival and adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-of-fruit-flies-against-wasps">Strategies of fruit flies against wasps</h2>



"This shows that horizontal gene transfer is an under-appreciated way that rapid evolution happens in animals," said Rebecca Tarnopol, a <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a> doctoral student and first author of the study. 



While HGT is well-recognized in microbes, Tarnopol noted that it might occur more frequently in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> than previously thought.



The toxin gene, dubbed fusionB, originates from a bacteriophage - a virus that infects bacteria. This phage initially passed the gene to bacteria that lived inside aphids.



In turn, the bacteria used the gene to defend aphids against parasitic wasps. Flies, borrowing the same genetic tool, now use it to protect themselves from wasps, creating a fascinating chain of genetic borrowing across different species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precision-in-gene-expression">Precision in gene expression</h2>



Expressing the toxin gene safely was a key challenge. When Tarnopol initially expressed the gene throughout the fly's body, all of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> died.



However, targeting specific immune cells enabled the flies to utilize the toxin effectively without harming themselves. This delicate balance illustrates the complexities of HGT. 



"If the gene is expressed in the wrong tissue, the fly is going to die. But if it lands in a favorable location, it can confer an amazing advantage," noted Whiteman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-transfer-and-immune-defenses">Gene transfer and immune defenses</h2>



The study reveals that horizontal gene transfer might drive immune defense evolution in animals. 



"It gives us a picture of a new kind of dynamism," said Whiteman, highlighting how even animals with innate immune systems can adapt rapidly by borrowing genes from rapidly-evolving microbes.



This discovery also has implications for human health. Understanding how genes are co-opted and shared could inform therapies to combat parasitic infections, cancer, or other diseases. 



By investigating how fruit flies utilize bacterial genes to defend against parasitic wasps, the researchers uncovered valuable insights into the evolutionary processes shaping immune systems in various species.



This research sheds light on the genetic mechanisms that animals may use to adapt and survive against evolving threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ingenious-strategy">An ingenious strategy </h2>



The fruit flies' ingenious borrowing of bacterial defenses exemplifies nature's resourcefulness against relentless wasps and other threats.



This remarkable work sheds light on the hidden role of horizontal gene transfer in animal evolution and offers a glimpse into potential applications for human health. 



"When you're a poor little fruit fly, borrowing genes from rapidly evolving bacteria and viruses is an ingenious strategy," Whiteman concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01638-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Fruit flies have a new weapon to defend against parasitic wasps

In the relentless battle between parasites and their hosts, nature...

The rugged landscape of Alaska often leaves people spellbound with its soaring peaks and dramatic valleys. 



Many geologists believe that these mountains and valleys are more than scenic wonders. Interestingly, the Denali Fault plays a critical role in shaping this awe-inspiring Alaskan terrain. Recent work has given a fresh perspective on how entire land masses may have drifted, collided, and fused, over long stretches of time, to form what we recognize today as the North American landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-denali-fault-in-alaska">The Denali Fault in Alaska</h2>



Scientists have debated how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parker-solar-probe-will-fly-through-suns-atmosphere-tomorrow-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient fragments</a> of the western margin of North America joined together. The Denali Fault, a <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/denali" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">massive feature</a> that slices through Alaska, has been at the center of many investigations.



New <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/52/12/933/649182/Orogen-scale-inverted-metamorphism-during?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> suggest that three, seemingly separate geologic sites, spread along roughly 620 miles (1,000 kilometers), were once a smaller unit that signaled the final bonding of far-flung pieces of Earth's crust.



Geologists propose that these linked sites were torn apart again over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-tectonic-mysteries">Unraveling tectonic mysteries</h2>



Experts have long focused on the northern <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329259890_The_Dynamic_History_of_220_Million_Years_of_Subduction_Below_Mexico_A_Correlation_Between_Slab_Geometry_and_Overriding_Plate_Deformation_Based_on_Geology_Paleomagnetism_and_Seismic_Tomography" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North American Cordilleran margin</a>, which has been tectonically active for <a href="https://www.uvic.ca/science/seos/assets/docs/afgreadings13.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">over 200 million years</a>. Large fragments, known as exotic terranes, are present along the margin. They were once separate pieces of crust that occurred in locations far from the site where they now rest. 



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240674082_Wrangellia-A_displaced_terrane_in_northwestern_North_America" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wrangellia</a> is among the biggest of these terranes; it was an oceanic plate that formed far away before docking with North America, tens of millions of years ago. Over time, complex strike-slip faults like the Denali Fault have shifted and displaced these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bits of crust</a>, masking the full story of how they first fused to the continent.



“We’re starting to recognize those primary features involved in the stitching, or the suturing, of once-distant land masses to the North American plate,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Lrz_LL8AAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Regan</a>, an associate professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks' <a href="https://www.gi.alaska.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Institute</a> and the UAF College of Natural Science and Mathematics (<a href="https://www.uaf.edu/cnsm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNSM</a>). 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-tectonic-history-of-alaska-and-yukon">Shared tectonic history of Alaska and Yukon</h2>



A major clue in these findings is something called inverted metamorphism. 



Typically, deeper rocks show higher temperatures and pressures, while shallower rocks show lower ones. Sometimes the order reverses, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocks</a> formed in hotter conditions appear above the cooler layers.



According to researchers, this phenomenon appears in the Clearwater Mountains of Southcentral Alaska, the Kluane Lake area of Canada’s southwestern Yukon, and the Coast Mountains near Juneau. 



It became clear that all three of these independent, inverted metamorphic belts formed at the same time under similar conditions. Inverted metamorphic belts often point to <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70012246" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intense thrusting events</a>, where layers of rock get shoved over one another in ways that defy the usual temperature and pressure patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-denali-fault-shook-things-up">How the Denali Fault shook things up</h2>



Before this <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/52/12/933/649182/Orogen-scale-inverted-metamorphism-during?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>, some geologists suspected that each region had its own separate story. 



Regan’s analysis indicates that the three sites were once part of a single zone where the final merging of an ancient oceanic plate and the North American continent took place <a href="https://dggs.alaska.gov/pubs/id/29785" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">between 72 million and 56 million years ago</a>.



The Denali Fault came into play when post-collision shifting rearranged these pieces, scattering what had been one geologic feature across hundreds of miles. 



Researchers suggest that analyzing the movement along the fault reveals how these fractured pieces still fit together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monazite-holds-the-key">Monazite holds the key</h2>



Monazite is at the core of identifying the shared history of these three sites. This mineral contains lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, and sometimes yttrium. “It is just the most special little mineral; it can participate in a lot of reactions, so we can use it as a way to track the mineralogical evolution of a rock,” explained Sean Regan. 



Specialists measure slight changes in <a href="https://pure.port.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/4085484/In_situ_LA_ICP_MS_dating_of_monazite_from_aluminous_gneisses_insights.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monazite’s composition</a> to determine the timing and conditions of its formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-denali-fault-and-earth-s-tectonic-activity">Denali Fault and Earth’s tectonic activity</h2>



Beyond their technical significance, these discoveries remind us that Earth’s surface is far from static. 



North America’s western margin has lived through episodes of oceanic plates, volcanic arcs, and shifted terrains that continue to shape the mountains and valleys seen today. Researchers see the Denali Fault as a record of long-distance transport of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/claim-earth-has-six-continents-not-seven-north-america-europe-connected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crustal fragments</a>, revealing the final act in the complicated docking of the Wrangellia Composite Terrane.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Many wonder how these findings will inform geological models of Alaska and Western Canada in future.



Geologists stress that further fieldwork, improved dating methods, and more collaborations are necessary to verify the timing and extent of major tectonic shifts.



Some plan to re-examine old mapping data or look at newly exposed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-swot-satellite-mission-maps-earths-ocean-floors-from-space-in-stunning-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocks</a> for additional clues. Even small details, like determining a rock’s age down to the nearest million years, may one day yield a clearer history of ancient movements.



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Denali fault: Scientists finally learn how America's tallest mountain formed

The rugged landscape of Alaska often leaves people spellbound with...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

Denise&#8217;s pygmy seahorse or yellow pygmy seahorse, also called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denise%27s_pygmy_seahorse">Hippophippocampus denise</a>, is a seahorse native to the western Pacific. The Denise&#8217;s pygmy seahorse is a small fish that grows to a maximum length of 2.4 cm, making it one of the smallest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seahorses-disappearing-boating/">seahorses</a>. These seahorses will use camouflage and changing color to match that of the surrounding gorgonians. It grubs on small crustaceans and other zooplankton.

Denise’s pygmy seahorse

Paedocypris progenetica fish There is a species of fish called Paedocypris progenetica fish that's among the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-fish-coral-reefs-thrive/">smallest fish</a> on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-will-lose-their-cooling-effects-on-a-warmer-planet/">planet</a>. Mature females measure 7.9 mm (0.31 in) and the largest known individual measures 10.3 mm (0.41 in). Paedocypris progenetica is a tiny species of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprinidae">cyprinid fish</a> endemic to the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Bintan where it is found in peat swamps and blackwater streams.