Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a 9.5-mile section of Pangong Lake on the western end of the Tibetan Plateau. The image was captured by a crew member onboard the International Space Station. 



“In this winter scene, a sheet of cracked ice tops part of the lake,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “On the left side, open water appears blue. Shallow water offshore of a delta, formed by a small, winding river, appears green."



"Parallel lines along the coastlines of bays are visible in the high-resolution version of this image. These lines indicate raised beaches, which formed in the past when lake levels were higher.”



NASA pointed out that several roads cut across the landscape, including one with switchbacks that ascends a steep slope. "These roads facilitate tourist travel from both India and China.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-birds-at-pangong-lake-nbsp">Migratory birds at Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake and its surroundings are home to numerous bird species, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-burn-unexpected-amounts-of-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>. Visitors can spot various waterfowl and waders that are rarely seen elsewhere.



“During the summer, species such as bar-headed geese and Brahminy ducks attract bird watchers to the lake, which is a major breeding ground for migrating birds,” said NASA.



Pangong Lake is one of the few places in India where the endangered black-necked crane is found during its breeding season. 



Ruddy shelduck and brown-headed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gulls-are-shifting-their-habitats-to-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gulls</a> are also frequently spotted around the lake. The ruddy shelduck is known for its striking orange-brown body and creamy white head, while the brown-headed gulls are often seen flying or swimming in the lake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangong-lake-nbsp">Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake is a stunning high-altitude lake situated in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-are-rising-unexpectedly-fast-on-the-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, extending from India to the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. It is renowned for its mesmerizing beauty and dramatic setting, with the lake lying at an elevation of about 4,350 meters.



One of the most distinctive features of Pangong Lake is its changing colors, ranging from shades of blue to green and even red, influenced by the sky's reflection and the lake's mineral content.



This saline water lake is approximately 134 kilometers long and 5 kilometers wide at its broadest point. Despite its considerable size, Pangong Lake is relatively shallow.&nbsp;



The lake gained additional popularity after being featured in several Indian films - most notably the Bollywood hit "3 Idiots." Its remote location requires a permit for visitors, especially due to its proximity to the Line of Actual Control between India and China.



Despite the geopolitical sensitivities surrounding its location, Pangong Lake remains a favorite among tourists for its unparalleled natural beauty and serene environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-altitude-lakes">High-altitude lakes</h2>



High-altitude lakes are unique bodies of water found at elevations typically above 3,000 meters (about 10,000 feet) in mountain ranges like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-glaciers-retreating-threat-is-much-worse-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, Andes, and Rockies. 



These lakes are formed either by glacial activity, where glaciers erode the earth to create depressions that fill with melted snow and rainwater, or when natural dams created by landslides or moraines trap water in valleys.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-environments">Extreme environments</h3>



The conditions at high altitudes make these lakes distinct in several ways. The climate is typically colder and harsher, with significant temperature variations between day and night. 



This extreme environment affects both the physical characteristics of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> and the types of ecosystems they support. For example, due to lower atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is reduced, which can affect the type of life that can survive in these regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-habitats">Critical habitats</h3>



Biologically, high-altitude lakes often have limited biodiversity because only certain types of plants and animals can tolerate the cold temperatures and lower oxygen levels in the water. 



Despite this, these lakes are crucial habitats for some unique species of fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also serve as important indicators of climate change, as variations in their water levels and temperatures can reflect environmental shifts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-high-altitude-lakes">Significance of high-altitude lakes </h3>



Lakes at high altitudes are often clear and pristine, due to the low density of human populations in these areas and minimal industrial activity, making them significant for ecological studies and attractive for tourism. 



However, they are sensitive ecosystems, and increased tourist activity brings challenges like pollution and habitat disruption.



High-altitude lakes are not only beautiful and scientifically significant but also hold cultural importance for local communities, often considered sacred and associated with historical and spiritual significance.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Pangong Lake on the Tibetan Plateau

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means that NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko Glacier lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall.&nbsp;



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting. 



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the spiral galaxy NGC 5643, which is located roughly 40 million light-years away in the constellation Lupus.&nbsp;



NGC 5643 belongs to the Hubble classification SBc, indicating that it is a barred spiral galaxy with loosely wound arms.&nbsp;



Its orientation, nearly face-on to Earth, provides astronomers with an exceptional view of its detailed spiral structure and central bar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-5643-a-grand-design-spiral-nbsp">NGC 5643: A grand design spiral&nbsp;</h2>



“NGC 5643 is what’s known as a grand design spiral, referring to how the galaxy’s two large, winding spiral arms are clear to see,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images">ESA</a>. “The spiral arms are defined by bright blue stars, lacy reddish-brown dust clouds and pink star-forming regions.”



“As fascinating as the galaxy appears at visible wavelengths, some of NGC 5643’s most interesting features are invisible to the human eye.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-activity-in-ngc-5643">Intense activity in NGC 5643</h2>



This galaxy is notable for its Seyfert 2 nucleus, a type of active galactic nucleus (AGN). The intense activity in its core is powered by a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/awakening-of-a-black-hole-witnessed-for-the-first-time/">black hole</a> that accretes surrounding material, emitting energy across a wide range of wavelengths.&nbsp;



“When a supermassive black hole ensnares gas from its surroundings, the gas collects in a disc that heats up to hundreds of thousands of degrees. The superheated gas shines brightly across the electromagnetic spectrum, but especially at X-ray wavelengths,” said ESA.



Observations have revealed jets and outflows of material emanating from the nucleus, likely driven by the black hole’s activity.&nbsp;



NGC 5643’s AGN has been studied extensively for its role in galactic evolution, particularly in how its energetic processes interact with the galaxy’s interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-ngc-5643-x-1">The mystery of NGC 5643 X-1</h2>



However, ESA pointed out that NGC 5643’s active galactic nucleus isn’t the brightest source of X-rays in the galaxy.&nbsp;



“Researchers using ESA’s XMM-Newton discovered an even brighter X-ray-emitting object, called NGC 5643 X-1, on the galaxy’s outskirts. What could be a more powerful source of X-rays than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/">supermassive black hole</a>?”&nbsp;



“Surprisingly, the answer appears to be a much smaller black hole! While the exact identity of NGC 5643 X-1 is not yet known, evidence points to a black hole that is about 30 times more massive than the Sun.”&nbsp;



“Locked in an orbital dance with a companion star, the black hole ensnares gas from its stellar companion, creating a superheated disc that outshines the galactic center,” said ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-5643">Star formation in NGC 5643</h2>



NGC 5643 also exhibits prominent regions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/">star formation</a> within its spiral arms. These areas are rich in gas and dust - the raw materials for birthing new stars - and glow brightly in ultraviolet and infrared light.&nbsp;



Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope and the Very Large Telescope (VLT) have helped uncover the complex interplay between star formation and the galaxy's central activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extended-ionized-gas-regions-nbsp">Extended ionized gas regions&nbsp;</h2>



A defining feature of NGC 5643 is the presence of its extended ionized gas regions, which are shaped by the galaxy's AGN activity and star-forming regions.&nbsp;



These structures have been mapped through optical spectroscopy, revealing intricate patterns that help astronomers understand the physical conditions of the gas, such as density, temperature, and composition.



The galaxy also has a dust lane that crosses its nucleus, partially obscuring direct observations of the central region in visible light.&nbsp;



Overall, NGC 5643 offers a fascinating glimpse into the dynamics of barred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/">spiral galaxies</a> with active nuclei, serving as a valuable resource for studying the interactions between supermassive black holes, star formation, and galactic evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-lupus">The constellation Lupus</h2>



Lupus is a constellation located in the southern sky, its name meaning "wolf" in Latin. It has been known since antiquity and was cataloged by the Greek astronomer Ptolemy.&nbsp;



Once part of the larger constellation Centaurus, Lupus was later recognized as a distinct constellation. It is relatively faint but holds historical significance in mythology, often associated with a sacrificial wolf in ancient stories.



Lupus is bordered by other constellations like Scorpius, Centaurus, and Libra. Its stars do not form a particularly striking pattern, but it contains a variety of interesting astronomical features. Among them are numerous double stars, globular clusters, and other deep-sky objects, visible through telescopes.&nbsp;



For observers in the Southern Hemisphere, Lupus is best seen in the winter and spring months, while it appears closer to the horizon for those in northern latitudes.



This constellation also lies along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/">Milky Way</a>, offering a rich field of stars and nebulae for stargazers. Despite its modest brightness, Lupus holds a special place in the science of astronomy.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope



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NGC 5643: Secrets of a spiraling galactic powerhouse

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an astronaut view of Mount Nemrut, a volcano located in eastern Turkey near Lake Van.



Mount Nemrut is notable for its immense caldera, which was formed through a series of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a>. The caldera, one of the largest in the world, now contains several lakes such as Lake Nemrut.&nbsp;



"The eastern half of the caldera is partially filled by solidified lava flows from past eruptions. Snow cover present at the time of this photo accentuates pressure ridges that formed as the lava was flowing and cooling," noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"These pressure ridges vary in size, thickness, and orientation due to the varying viscosity and flow direction of the lavas during eruptions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-lake-nemrut">Formation of Lake Nemrut</h2>



"Lake Nemrut (Nemrut Gölü) occupies the western half of the caldera, creating a rough crescent shape that partially submerges the old lava flows," said NASA.



"This freshwater lake, reaching up to 176 meters deep, is accompanied by a smaller lake at the upper-center of the caldera."



The lake was formed after the collapse of the Nemrut volcano's summit. This collapse created a massive crater, which gradually filled with water over time, forming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unesco-world-heritage-site">UNESCO World Heritage Site </h2>



Mount Nemrut and its surroundings are part of a protected UNESCO World Heritage Site due to their ecological and geological significance.



The site is home to diverse wildlife, including various bird species that use the lake as a stopover during migration. The caldera also contains smaller lakes and wetlands, adding to the area's biodiversity.



Lake Nemrut is a popular destination for tourists, hikers, and nature enthusiasts, offering stunning views of the volcanic landscape.



Despite its popularity, the lake remains relatively remote and unspoiled, contributing to its appeal as a natural wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mount-nemrut-has-shaped-the-landscape">Mount Nemrut has shaped the landscape</h2>



Geologically, Mount Nemrut is interesting because its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a> have played a key role in shaping the local landscape. 



Its last major eruption occurred around 1441 AD, which indicates that it's not currently active but is considered dormant.



The area around Nemrut is known for its geothermal activity, including hot springs and fumaroles, suggesting that there is still significant heat beneath the surface.



Over thousands of years, various civilizations have inhabited the region around Nemrut, leaving behind a wealth of archaeological sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tribute-to-a-king">Tribute to a king</h2>



The summit of Mount Nemrut is dominated by a vast funerary mound constructed by King Antiochus I Theos, who ruled the Kingdom of Commagene in the 1st century BCE. 



The site was intended to serve as his tomb sanctuary and a place to commemorate the king's vision of divine kingship and unity between Eastern and Western cultures.



The mound, made of loose crushed stones, measures about 50 meters (164 feet) in height and spans a diameter of 150 meters (492 feet), creating an imposing feature visible from afar.



Surrounding the mound are terraces on the eastern, western, and northern sides, each adorned with colossal statues and reliefs. The statues, ranging in height from 8 to 10 meters (26 to 33 feet), represent various deities, including Zeus, Apollo, Hercules, and the goddess Tyche, alongside King Antiochus himself. 



The heads of the statues, many of which have toppled over due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a> and erosion, lie scattered around the site, creating an iconic and enigmatic scene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiritual-and-religious-practices">Spiritual and religious practices</h2>



In addition to the statues, inscriptions at Mount Nemrut provide valuable historical information about the kingdom, the king's lineage, and the religious practices of the time.



The site is not only a marvel of ancient engineering but also a spiritual and astronomical center. Scholars believe the terraces were aligned with celestial events, serving as an observatory for solstices and equinoxes.



In addition to its natural and historical significance, the Nemrut volcano has been the subject of scientific study, as researchers aim to understand more about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> in the region, the history of its eruptions, and the potential risks it may pose in the future.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Mount Nemrut: Ancient mysteries and natural marvels 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory (ESO) features the Dark Wolf Nebula, located around 5,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Scorpius.



According to ESO, this image of the dark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-the-ring-nebula-as-it-has-never-been-seen-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> creates the illusion of a wolf-like silhouette against a colorful cosmic backdrop.&nbsp;



“This image takes up an area in the sky equivalent to four full Moons, but is actually part of an even larger nebula called Gum 55. If you look closely, the wolf could even be a werewolf, its hands ready to grab unsuspecting bystanders,” noted <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-dark-nebulae">Observing dark nebulae </h2>



Dark nebulae are dense regions in space filled with gas and dust that absorb visible light, making them appear as dark patches against brighter backgrounds.&nbsp;



Unlike emission or reflection nebulae, dark nebulae do not glow on their own. Instead, they obstruct and obscure the light from stars and other objects lying behind them.&nbsp;



This characteristic makes them challenging to observe using visible-light telescopes, as they absorb and scatter light rather than reflecting or emitting it.&nbsp;



However, when viewed in infrared, where their obscuring effect is reduced, dark nebulae reveal intricate details about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-the-perseus-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular clouds</a> they contain.



According to ESO, astronomers study these clouds of frozen dust because they often contain new stars in the making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-wolf-nebula-nbsp">Dark Wolf Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Dark Wolf Nebula is part of a larger complex known as the Lupus Molecular Cloud, one of several significant star-forming regions close to Earth.&nbsp;



Inside of dark nebulae, the conditions are prime for star formation. The dense gas and dust clump together under gravitational forces. As these clouds contract, they heat up, eventually igniting nuclear fusion and forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new stars</a>.



The Dark Wolf Nebula is known for revealing young, low-mass stars - or T Tauri stars - which are in the early stages of their evolution. These stars are still surrounded by disks of material that may eventually form new planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-scorpius-nbsp">The constellation Scorpius&nbsp;</h2>



Scorpius is one of the most recognizable constellations in the sky. It resembles a scorpion with a long, curved tail and stinger.&nbsp;



Located in the southern sky, Scorpius is especially visible during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere and during the winter months in the Southern Hemisphere. 



The constellation is often associated with the story of Orion in Greek mythology. According to legend, the scorpion was sent by the goddess Artemis to kill Orion, the great hunter, either as punishment for his arrogance or to protect her animals, depending on the version of the tale.&nbsp;



The gods later placed both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a> and Scorpius in the sky, but in opposite parts of the heavens so they would never be seen together - as Scorpius rises in the east and Orion sets in the west.



Scorpius contains several notable stars and deep-sky objects. Its brightest star, Antares, is a red supergiant often referred to as the "heart of the scorpion" due to its reddish hue and central position. 



Antares is one of the largest visible stars in the sky and has a luminosity that is tens of thousands of times greater than that of our Sun. 



Scorpius is located close to the core of the Milky Way, making it a rich region for star clusters and nebulae. Among these are the Butterfly Cluster and the Ptolemy Cluster - both of which are visible to the naked eye under dark skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-dark-wolf-nebula">Image of the Dark Wolf Nebula </h2>



“This image shows in spectacular detail how the dark wolf stands out against the glowing star-forming clouds behind it,” noted ESO.



“The colorful clouds are built up mostly of hydrogen gas and glow in reddish tones excited by the intense UV radiation from the newborn stars within them.”



The picture was created from images taken at different times. Each of the images has a filter that makes a different color of light visible.&nbsp;



Observations of the Dark Wolf Nebula provide astronomers with valuable information about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of stars</a> and the environments in which they form.



The image was captured by the VLT Survey Telescope (VST) at ESO’s Paranal Observatory in Chile.



Image Credit: ESO/VPHAS+ team



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Dark Wolf Nebula in the constellation Scorpius

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory...

You see, octopus eggs take two to ten months to hatch after being laid. In this case, however, the MBARI researchers discovered that this mother octopus had been waiting for her eggs to hatch... for over four years! That's the longest brooding period ever recorded for any animal! What’s more, the octopus in this scenario proved to have extreme survival skills.

A marathon, not a sprint

Io, the innermost of Jupiter’s four large moons, is the most volcanically active body in our solar system. Its surface is dotted with hundreds of volcanoes, some of which erupt with towering plumes of sulfur dioxide gas reaching up to 500 kilometers (310 miles) into space.



Scientists affiliated with NASA’s Juno mission have made an intriguing discovery about the moon's intense volcanic activity.



The researchers have determined that Io's fiery volcanoes are not fueled by a global magma ocean as previously believed. Instead, each volcano is powered by an individual chamber of molten magma.



This breakthrough ends a 44-year-old mystery surrounding the subsurface foundations of the moon’s most dramatic geological phenomena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-understanding-of-io-s-volcanoes">A new understanding of Io's volcanoes</h2>



Io, which is similar in size to our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a>, hosts approximately 400 volcanoes, which continuously belch out lava and plumes. This ongoing volcanic activity coats the surface in a fiery veneer.



The moon’s existence was first noted by Galileo Galilei in 1610, but it wasn’t until 1979 that its volcanic activity was identified, when imaging scientist Linda Morabito discerned a volcanic plume emanating from the moon's surface.



Scott Bolton, Juno's principal investigator from the <a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio</a>, elaborated on the significance of the research.



“Since Morabito’s discovery, planetary scientists have wondered how the volcanoes were fed from the lava underneath the surface," said Bolton.



"Was there a shallow ocean of white-hot magma fueling the volcanoes, or was their source more localized? We knew data from Juno’s two very close flybys could give us some insights on how this tortured moon actually worked."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-inner-workings-of-the-fiery-moon-io">The inner workings of the fiery moon Io</h2>



In the winters of 2023 and 2024, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/io-jupiter-moon-juno-mission-discovers-fire-mountains-polar-cyclones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juno spacecraft</a> conducted daringly close flybys of Io. It skimmed within approximately 930 miles of the moon's mottled surface.



During these crucial missions, Juno linked up with NASA’s Deep Space Network and acquired meticulous, dual-frequency Doppler data. This data was used to gauge Io’s gravity and offered new insights into the effects of a phenomenon known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-exoplanet-glows-with-red-hot-molten-lava/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tidal flexing</a>.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="cmBpwLmYCC-4135273-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-under-jupiter-s-sway-the-tidal-influence">Under Jupiter’s sway: The tidal influence</h2>



Due to its proximity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fresh-look-at-jupiter-through-an-ultraviolet-lens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> and rapid orbit, Io is subjected to an intense gravitational pull.



As Io swings closer and further away from Jupiter, the planet’s gravity exacts an unrelenting squeeze on the moon. This results in extreme tidal flexing, which generates immense internal heat energy.



“This constant flexing creates immense energy, which literally melts portions of Io’s interior," explained Bolton.



"If Io has a global magma ocean, we knew the signature of its tidal deformation would be much larger than a more rigid, mostly solid interior. Thus, depending on the results from Juno’s probing of Io’s gravity field, we would be able to tell if a global magma ocean was hiding beneath its surface."



The scientists compared the Doppler data with observations from previous missions to the Jovian system and ground-based telescopes. The team discovered evidence that did not support the presence of a shallow global magma ocean within Io.



“That’s what’s happening inside Io,” Bolton said. “That squeezing is generating heat, and it’s getting so hot that [Io’s] insides are literally melting and popping out. The eruptions are constant. It’s like a nonstop rainstorm. It’s just always erupting all over the place.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-formation-and-evolution">Planetary formation and evolution</h2>



Study lead author Ryan Park is a Juno co-investigator and supervisor at the Solar System Dynamics Group at JPL.



Park elaborated on how Juno’s discovery does more than reshape our understanding of Io's geology.



“It has implications for our understanding of other moons, such as Enceladus and Europa, and even exoplanets and super-Earths. Our new findings provide an opportunity to rethink what we know about planetary formation and evolution,” said Park. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-exploration-of-volcanic-moons">Future exploration of volcanic moons</h2>



The discovery that Io's volcanoes are fueled by individual magma chambers rather than a global magma ocean has significant implications for future planetary exploration. 



The finding suggests that volcanic activity on other celestial bodies, such as Europa or Enceladus, could similarly arise from localized geological processes.



The research encourages a re-examination of the geological dynamics on moons across the solar system and beyond.



Moreover, understanding the internal mechanisms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brilliant-new-images-of-jupiters-moon-io-captured-by-juno-spacecraft/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Io’s volcanic activity</a> provides a template for studying the geophysical behaviors of exoplanets. 



Researchers believe that many super-Earths and exomoons might exhibit similar tidal flexing and localized heat generation due to the gravitational forces from their parent stars or planets.



By studying Io, scientists can develop new models for detecting and analyzing geological activity in distant worlds.



As Juno continues its mission, the spacecraft’s unique data will help refine exploration strategies for future missions targeting moons with suspected subsurface activity. 



The full scientific paper is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08442-5.epdf?sharing_token=CJBB89O68uMgxB_LsPNeadRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0NjXxFCBfLiSlorskpWVf8UxDq5XG8IddBV4PFQByvPiqsYUkOJnkktREIU81Fmun6FsiHaS0TErG20R3LhYOSWWTidJRfZrzprLoKNICvZrjvf-gTe4eINgk8qhTB0RWI%3D">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ SwRI/ Gerald Eichstädt



Video Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/Koji Kuramura/Gerald Eichstädt



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Juno reveals the hidden forces behind Jupiter's fiery moon Io

Io, the innermost of Jupiter’s four large moons, is the...

Are human spacecraft and landers on Mars just space trash, or are they artifacts of historical importance? 



University of Kansas anthropologist Justin Holcomb argues that the remnants of human exploration on Mars deserve preservation. 



These objects, Holcomb suggests, mark a pivotal moment in human history - our first steps into interplanetary exploration.



Holcomb's new paper, titled&nbsp;“Emerging Archaeological Record of Mars,” makes the case for viewing Mars exploration <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-moon-soil-lunar-regolith-space-debris-into-building-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">debris</a> as heritage rather than litter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-material-footprint-of-human-exploration">Material footprint of human exploration </h2>



“Our main argument is that Homo sapiens are currently undergoing a dispersal, which first started out of Africa, reached other continents and has now begun in off-world environments,” Holcomb explained.



“We've started peopling the solar system. And just like we use artifacts and features to track our movement, evolution and history on Earth, we can do that in outer space by following probes, satellites, landers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-moon-soil-lunar-regolith-space-debris-into-building-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">various materials left behind</a>.”



Holcomb sees a “material footprint” of human exploration on Mars. Much like ancient middens - garbage dumps studied by archaeologists on Earth - space debris tells a story. These objects, deemed “space trash” by some, hold immense archaeological value.



“These are the first material records of our presence, and that's important to us. I've seen a lot of scientists referring to this material as space trash, galactic litter," Holcomb noted.



"Our argument is that it's not trash; it's actually really important. It's critical to shift that narrative towards heritage because the solution to trash is removal, but the solution to heritage is preservation. There's a big difference.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planning-future-missions-to-preserve-artifacts">Planning future missions to preserve artifacts</h2>



To preserve these artifacts, the team from <a href="https://www.ku.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kansas</a> urges future missions to consider landing locations carefully.



“Missions to other planets must consider this in their planning,” noted Holcomb. “They won't land in areas that could disturb these sites. They'll think about them differently than just trash lying around.”



This perspective introduces new academic and practical challenges. Holcomb explained that tracking humanity’s presence on Mars requires studying its stratigraphy - the layers of soil and artifacts left over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-archaeological-record-on-mars">New archaeological record on Mars</h2>



Holcomb’s research expands on earlier work, where he advocated for recognizing a “lunar anthropocene” - a period marking human impact on the Moon.



While Mars may not yet have a defined “anthropocene,” Holcomb argues it already has an archaeological record. Preserving it could allow us to place artifacts within a structured timeline of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-space-exploration-could-be-shut-down-by-orbiting-debris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human exploration</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_archaeological-record_illustration_credit-Justin-Holcomb_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_archaeological-record_illustration_credit-Justin-Holcomb_1s.webp" alt="Map of Mars illustrating the fourteen missions to Mars, key sites, and examples of artifacts contributing to the development of the archaeological record: (B) Viking-1 lander; (C) trackways created by NASA's Perseverance rover; (D) Dacron netting used in thermal blankets, photographed by NASA's Perseverance rover using its onboard. Front Left. Hazard Avoidance Camera A; (E) China's Tianwen-1 lander and Zhurong rover in southern Utopia Planitia photographed by HiRISE; (F) the ExoMars Schiaparelli Lander crash site in Meridiani Planum; (G) Illustration of the Soviet Mars Program's Mars 3 space probe; (H) NASA's Phoenix lander with DVD in foreground. Credit: Justin Holcomb" class="wp-image-1953903"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Map of Mars illustrating the fourteen missions to Mars, key sites, and examples of artifacts contributing to the development of the archaeological record: (B) Viking-1 lander; (C) trackways created by NASA's Perseverance rover; (D) Dacron netting used in thermal blankets, photographed by NASA's Perseverance rover using its onboard. Front Left. Hazard Avoidance Camera A; (E) China's Tianwen-1 lander and Zhurong rover in southern Utopia Planitia photographed by HiRISE; (F) the ExoMars Schiaparelli Lander crash site in Meridiani Planum; (G) Illustration of the Soviet Mars Program's Mars 3 space probe; (H) NASA's Phoenix lander with DVD in foreground. Credit: Justin Holcomb</figcaption></figure>



The first major event in this record dates back to 1971, when the Soviet Union’s Mars 2 rover crash-landed on the planet.



“The Mars 2 crash represents one of the first times our species touched another planet - not a celestial body, because that was the Moon,” said Holcomb. "But the Mars 2 crash is the first time our species left a preserved imprint on the surface of another planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-preserving-artifacts-on-mars">Challenge of preserving artifacts on Mars</h2>



Unlike Earth, Mars presents unique challenges for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/undetectable-space-junk-is-now-easier-to-detect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preserving</a> and studying artifacts. Holcomb emphasized the need for a new field: planetary geoarchaeology. This discipline would explore how Martian conditions affect artifacts over time.



“That field is called geoarchaeology - specifically, the field that studies geological effects on archaeological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clusters-final-mission-a-fiery-return-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials</a>,” Holcomb said.



“Planetary geoarchaeology is a future field for sure, and we need to consider the materials not only on Mars in general but also in various places on Mars, which have different processes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-martian-factors-threaten-artifact-preservation">Martian factors threaten artifact preservation</h2>



Mars’s cryosphere, iron-rich sands, and massive dust storms are major factors that threaten the preservation of artifacts.



“For example, Mars has a cryosphere in the northern and southern latitudes, so ice action there will increase the alteration of materials much more rapidly,” Holcomb explained. 



“With Mars’s iron-rich sands - what happens when materials get buried? The most obvious issue is burial by large dune sands. Mars has global dust storms, which are unique. A single storm can literally travel across the entire globe." 



"On top of that, there are local dust storms. The Spirit Rover, for example, is right next to an encroaching dune field that will eventually bury it.”



Once buried, locating artifacts becomes extremely difficult. This highlights the urgency of creating a systematic approach to track and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/treaty-needed-to-protect-earth-from-space-debris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preserve these materials</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-preservation-database">Creating a preservation database</h2>



Holcomb proposes establishing a methodology for tracking and cataloguing human material on Mars. This could be achieved using existing systems, such as the U.N. Register of Objects Launched into Outer Space (<a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/spaceobjectregister/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNOOSA</a>). He emphasizes that each artifact, no matter how small, is historically significant.



“If this material is heritage, we can create databases that track where it’s preserved, all the way down to a broken wheel on a rover or a helicopter blade, which represents the first helicopter on another planet,” Holcomb said. 



“These artifacts are very much like hand axes in East Africa or Clovis points in America. They represent the first presence and, from an archaeological perspective, they are key points in our historical timeline of migration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trash-or-treasure">Trash or treasure?</h2>



Holcomb’s work challenges us to rethink what we call “space trash.” These artifacts document humanity’s expansion onto Mars and in space overall. They are more than debris - they are the first chapters in our species’ journey beyond Earth.



Future missions must carefully plan to avoid disturbing these important sites. By cataloguing and preserving these artifacts, we ensure that future generations can study and appreciate humanity’s interplanetary history.



“There’s a material footprint to this dispersal,” noted Holcomb. Recognizing its value now could shape how we view our exploration of the solar system for centuries to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02439-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Image Credit: Justin Holcomb



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Debris left on Mars by humans should be treated as historical artifacts

Are human spacecraft and landers on Mars just space trash,...

Frontal,Portrait,Of,A,Male,Mandrill

The order&nbsp;'"Primates"&nbsp;includes over 450 species of monkeys, lemurs, lorises, and galagos, in addition to our closest relatives, the seven species of great apes. 



From 400-pound gorillas to minute mouse lemurs (Microcebus) that can weigh a single ounce, primates showcase incredible diversity.



They also display remarkable behaviors. For example, chimpanzees use sticks to fish for termites, while orangutans use leaves as gloves to handle spiky durian fruits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-timetree-for-primates">Building a timetree for primates</h2>



Despite extensive studies on their diversity, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> evolutionary history remains incompletely understood. 



There is no comprehensive molecular phylogenetic tree summarizing the relationships and timing of all primates.



Existing efforts include a timetree for just over 200 species, and a synthetic timetree, derived from over 4,000 studies, that covers only about 300 primate species. This leaves a significant portion of the primate evolutionary tree unresolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-complete-evolutionary-trees-matter">Why complete evolutionary trees matter</h2>



Timed evolutionary trees are essential for understanding biodiversity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary history</a>. 



These phylogenetic trees, also called timetrees, provide insights into when species emerged and how they relate to one another. Their importance extends beyond curiosity. 



Timetrees form the foundation for:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Taxonomy and species identification: they help identify and catalog new species. </li>



<li>Evolutionary studies: researchers analyze rates of evolution and factors like climate change or geological events that influence species development. </li>



<li>Biogeography and historical ecology: timetrees reveal spatial and ecological patterns in species distributions. </li>



<li>Conservation:&nbsp;as biodiversity declines, timetrees highlight conservation priorities and assess preservation efforts.</li>
</ul>



Simply put, phylogenies are critical tools for understanding the past, present, and future of species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rarity-of-complete-phylogenies">Rarity of complete phylogenies</h2>



Considering their value, one might assume that complete phylogenies are common. However, they remain rare. The NCBI taxonomy database holds molecular sequences for nearly 500,000 species. 



In contrast, <a href="https://timetree.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The TimeTree of Life</a>, the largest timed phylogeny database, includes only about 150,000 species. Most published phylogenies focus on smaller groups of organisms, averaging just 25 species.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/primates_timetree_455-species_credit-Craig_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/primates_timetree_455-species_credit-Craig_1s.webp" alt="Timetree of 455 species of primates. Images from phylopic.org. Credit: Craig et al., 2024." class="wp-image-1953893"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Timetree of 455 species of primates. Images from phylopic.org. Credit: Craig et al., 2024.</figcaption></figure>



These smaller phylogenies prioritize precision within limited taxonomic groups. However, to construct a complete tree of life, researchers must merge these smaller efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-path-to-build-complete-primate-timetrees">New path to build complete primate timetrees</h2>



While complete timetrees are uncommon, the resources to build them already exist. Untimed phylogenies, which outnumber timed ones, hold significant potential. 



By adding a few calibrations, researchers can transform these untimed trees into useful components of larger timetrees. 



Additionally, molecular data for many species exist in public repositories like&nbsp;NCBI GenBank, where DNA sequences are freely available.



This abundance of untapped data offers an opportunity to construct comprehensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary</a> trees. Researchers have developed a supertree-building method to maximize these resources. 



Their approach involves:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Collecting published, timed phylogenies of species. </li>



<li>Searching for untimed phylogenies and adding calibrations to estimate timing. </li>



<li>Assembling new alignments using molecular data from repositories. </li>



<li>Combining all of the above to produce a complete, synthetic timetree.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-complete-primate-timetree-to-date">Most complete primate timetree to date</h2>



Using this method, researchers from <a href="https://www.temple.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Temple University</a> have successfully constructed a new synthetic supertree of&nbsp;455 primate species, covering 98% of primates listed in NCBI taxonomy.



This achievement adds 55 species previously absent from the TimeTree of Life. The new primate timetree represents the most complete depiction of primate evolutionary relationships to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-on-primate-evolution">Insights on primate evolution</h2>



This effort proves that incomplete knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-who-are-facially-expressive-make-the-best-leaders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary</a> history can be addressed with existing data. Complete timetrees not only provide evolutionary context but also enable researchers to test new hypotheses.



For instance, in this study, the researchers explored whether the diversity of primate clades resulted from faster speciation rates in some lineages or simply from the passage of time. 



The findings revealed that major primate groups shared similar speciation rates. Therefore, older lineages accumulated more species over time. 



This analysis highlights the utility of large, complete timetrees. Without accurate dates and species counts, such conclusions would be unreliable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-completing-the-tree-of-life">Completing the tree of life</h2>



The new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-loss-is-forcing-endangered-primates-to-interbreed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> timetree demonstrates that filling gaps in evolutionary history is achievable. The tools and data exist, but collaboration and synthesis remain key. 



As researchers continue to combine molecular sequences, untimed phylogenies, and calibrated studies, the dream of a complete TimeTree of Life grows closer to reality.



Complete timetrees have far-reaching impacts. They guide taxonomic studies, reveal evolutionary trends, and can strengthen conservation efforts during the ongoing biodiversity crisis. 



This research offers a blueprint for future projects that aim to build complete evolutionary trees.



Ultimately, understanding primate evolution helps us appreciate the rich diversity of life on Earth - from the tiniest mouse lemur to the powerful gorilla - and the intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-hotspots-may-skew-our-view-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> that shaped it all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bioinformatics/articles/10.3389/fbinf.2024.1495417/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bioinformatics</a>.



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Primate evolution: Completing the timetree of life for all of our closest relatives

The order&nbsp;'"Primates"&nbsp;includes over 450 species of monkeys, lemurs, lorises, and...

Every time we think we're close to fully understanding the human body, something fresh and unexpected shows up. Recently, a team of researchers stumbled upon strange entities, or obelisks, living inside of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-chemicals-from-food-production-pass-into-the-human-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human bodies</a> that had escaped notice until now.



Their surprising presence challenges assumptions and raises pressing questions about what else might be lurking unseen inside us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-presence">Hidden presence</h2>



These new visitors appear smaller than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-viruses-hold-clues-to-earth-past-future-climate-and-microbial-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> most people learn about in basic biology classes. Rather than behaving like familiar microbes, they introduce themselves as something different.



Their discovery came about when researchers began analyzing massive genetic libraries, searching for patterns that did not match any known organisms. 



This unusual find was led by Nobel Prize winner in Medicine <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/andrew-fire">Andrew Fire</a>, from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calling-them-obelisks">Calling them obelisks</h2>



What the researchers uncovered are entities they have chosen to call "obelisks." They do not resemble typical life forms, and their name comes from their distinctive shape. 



“The more we look, the crazier we see,” said <a href="https://www.med.unc.edu/cellbiophysio/directory/mark-peifer-phd/">Mark Peifer</a>, a cell and developmental biologist at the <a href="https://www.northcarolina.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a>.



They resemble what scientists call viroids, which are infectious loops of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a> known for their effects on plants. 



Obelisks share certain traits with these plant pathogens, yet they appear in human-associated bacteria. 



According to <a href="https://microbiology.osu.edu/people/sullivan.948">Matthew Sullivan</a>, an integrative biologist at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a>, the health implications for humans remain unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-rna-the-basics">Understanding RNA -- the basics</h2>



RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a vital molecule that plays several important roles in all living cells. Think of it as the messenger that helps turn the genetic instructions stored in DNA into the proteins that build and repair your body. 



Unlike DNA, which usually forms a double helix, RNA is typically single-stranded and can fold into different shapes to perform various functions. 



There are different types of RNA, such as messenger RNA (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-vaccines-linked-to-neurological-blood-and-heart-related-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mRNA</a>), transfer RNA (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-diet-impacts-the-health-of-his-future-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tRNA</a>), and ribosomal RNA (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecular-fingerprints-could-be-key-to-early-cancer-detection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rRNA</a>) which is a key component of ribosomes, the cell’s protein factories.



But RNA isn’t just about making proteins -- it also helps regulate how genes are expressed and can even act as a catalyst in certain chemical reactions. 



For example, some RNA molecules can turn genes on or off, controlling what proteins are made and when. This regulation is crucial for everything from development to responding to changes in your environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-rna-loops">Strange RNA loops</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-are-1-5-billion-years-old/">Viruses</a> often have protective shells made of proteins. Obelisks seem to lack that familiar coat. Instead, they carry RNA instructions around in tiny loops.



Unlike standard viruses, they do not appear to encode protein shells. These differences suggest that life’s definitions might need some rethinking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-obelisks-throughout-human-bodies">Obelisks throughout human bodies</h2>



It is not just a single type of obelisk. Thousands of unique varieties have turned up when scientists comb through genetic datasets.



Discoveries have emerged from multiple locations around the world, indicating that these intruders are not rare oddities tucked away in one place.



Not only are these obelisks found far and wide, they also appear in different parts of the human body. They have cropped up in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-your-mouth-multiply-in-a-very-unique-way/">bacteria from the mouth</a> and in those dwelling in the intestinal tract.



The genetic signatures hint that distinct types prefer particular regions. This suggests an intricate relationship with our internal ecosystems, though it is too soon to say what they are doing there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-puzzles">Evolutionary puzzles</h2>



Their unusual nature stirs questions about how viruses, viroids, and these newcomers might be related. 



A persistent puzzle has always been whether today’s viruses originated from simpler <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-cells-communicate-with-each-other-through-rna/">RNA forms</a> or if they started out more complex and shed traits over time.



Entities like obelisks add color to these debates, leaving scientists wondering how ancient these forms might be and how they took shape during the planet’s biological history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-categorizing-human-obelisks">Categorizing human obelisks</h2>



Obelisks do not slide neatly into existing categories. They are not standard viruses, not classic bacteria, and not exactly viroids either.



Their discovery hints that we may be missing entire classes of RNA-based life that challenge current textbooks. This complicates efforts to catalog and understand the full range of microbial life.



This investigation involved scanning colossal gene catalogs derived from human-associated microbes. Researchers used new computational tools to spot circular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-molecular-orientation-new-discovery-deepens-the-mystery/">RNA molecules</a>. 



These approaches required careful filtering to ensure what they found was not just random noise. The effort paid off, revealing a strange world that had gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fresh-perspective">A fresh perspective</h2>



“This is one of the most exciting parts of being in this field right now,” said <a href="https://biosciences.lbl.gov/profiles/simon-roux/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Simon Roux</a>, a computational biologist at the <a href="https://jgi.doe.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DOE Joint Genome Institute</a> at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.



These sentiments reflect a general feeling among experts who are sifting through molecular data and finding surprises. 



The study that introduced obelisks was posted on January 21st on bioRxiv, sparking interest among scientists who study microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-so-many-unknowns">Still so many unknowns</h2>



While researchers piece together the story of obelisks, the potential impact on humans remains uncertain. They know these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/">RNA circles</a> live inside bacterial cells that, in turn, inhabit our bodies.



If these entities influence bacterial behavior, they could, by extension, shape aspects of our own biology. Nobody can say yet what the long-term implications will be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-human-obelisks">What's next for human obelisks?</h2>



The human body is more than organs and tissues; it is a crowded universe of tiny creatures, many of them strangers we have not fully met before.



Obelisks may be just one example of what can happen when scientists look at genetic data in new ways. There could be more discoveries ahead, each one forcing us to adjust how we describe life and its building blocks.



Until then, researchers continue to watch, learn, and puzzle over these miniature visitors that have managed to hide in plain sight.



The full study was published in <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a> and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>. 



Current research on circular RNA:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li><a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.30.596730v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Circular RNA in human microbiomes</a>.</li>



<li><a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.03.24.586467v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Circular RNA in microbiomes</a>.</li>



<li><a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.01.20.576352v1.full.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Classes of Replicating RNAs</a>.</li>
</ul>



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Scientists find new forms of life inside human bodies

Every time we think we're close to fully understanding the...

When young children misbehave, parents often face tough decisions on how to discipline them. 



A new national poll suggests many parents resort to threats - from skipping dessert to Santa bypassing their house - to control challenging behavior. But are these strategies effective?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threatening-kids-to-discipline-them">Threatening kids to discipline them</h2>



According to the University of Michigan Health C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital National Poll on Children’s Health,&nbsp;parents of children aged three to five are the most likely to use threats. About 25% admitted threatening that Santa might not visit if misbehavior continued.



Many parents also reported threatening to leave an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-under-two-should-not-be-exposed-to-tv-or-screen-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> or place, taking away toys, or skipping dessert as a consequence.



Surprisingly, nearly half of parents have turned to bribes to address difficult behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-discipline-matters">Why discipline matters</h2>



“Discipline helps young children learn what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-traits-are-not-strongly-inherited-from-parents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> are safe and appropriate and can play a crucial role in helping them learn the difference between right and wrong,” said Dr. Susan Woolford, Mott pediatrician and <a href="https://mottpoll.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mott Poll</a> co-director.



However,&nbsp;empty threats may undermine trust&nbsp;and prove ineffective long-term. “Positive reinforcement and consistent discipline are more likely to shape long-term behavior,” Woolford emphasized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consistency-for-effective-discipline-in-children">Consistency for effective discipline in children</h2>



While&nbsp;half of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-resolutions-better-parenting-and-family-health-are-top-priorities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parents</a> rate themselves as “very consistent”&nbsp;in disciplining their children, many admit it’s a challenge. The report, based on responses from 725 parents with children aged one to five, found several common struggles:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Children are too young to understand</li>



<li>Strategies don’t always work</li>



<li>Preventing public tantrums becomes a priority</li>
</ul>



Nearly a quarter of parents also confessed to getting irritated or reacting impulsively when misbehavior occurs.&nbsp;Fatigue and feeling overwhelmed&nbsp;often hinder consistency.



“It can be difficult to have a consistent approach to discipline without consideration and planning,” Woolford said. 



“It’s important for parents to plan ahead and be on the same page with discipline strategies to provide a foundation for understanding expectations and prevent sending mixed signals about boundaries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-effective-are-current-strategies">How effective are current strategies?</h2>



Parents aren’t always confident their discipline strategies work. The poll revealed that two-fifths of parents believe their strategies are very effective, while three in five find them somewhat effective



Parents often seek advice from multiple sources, including the child’s other parent or family and friends. They also turn to parenting books, articles, and social media.



However,&nbsp;fewer than 20%&nbsp;of parents discussed discipline strategies with a healthcare provider. Alarmingly, one in eight parents admitted they haven’t thought much about their approaches.



Some also acknowledged using outdated or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-engage-physical-punishment-of-offspring-for-discipline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unadvised methods</a>. For example,&nbsp;two in five parents sometimes spank their children, despite evidence linking spanking to increased aggression and defiance in preschoolers.



“Parents should avoid the temptation to rely on tactics that might yield short-term compliance but have negative effects later on,” Woolford advised. "Discipline strategies should be appropriate for the child’s age and developmental level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-appropriate-discipline-in-children">Age-appropriate discipline in children</h2>



Woolford highlighted the importance of tailoring strategies to a child’s age and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-report-excess-burnout-due-to-unrealistic-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">development</a>:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-for-ages-1-2">For ages 1-2:</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Distraction and redirection work best.</li>



<li>Willful misbehavior is rare at this age, as children primarily explore their surroundings.</li>
</ul>



Parents of younger children in the poll were more likely to use redirection to address misbehavior.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-for-ages-3-5">For ages 3-5:</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Children begin testing boundaries and understanding how actions provoke reactions.</li>



<li>Warnings, firm communication, and timeouts are common strategies.</li>
</ul>



Woolford emphasized the importance of logical consequences for preschoolers. For example, if a child spills a drink in anger, an appropriate consequence would be cleaning up the mess.&nbsp;Unrelated punishments are less effective.



“Consequences should be immediate, so the child understands the connection with their misbehavior,” Woolford explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-strategies-as-children-grow">Adapting strategies as children grow</h2>



Parents need flexibility when implementing discipline strategies. “As children grow, their responses to discipline will also change, so parents should adapt their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddler-screen-time-linked-to-atypical-sensory-behaviors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> and stay open to new approaches,” Woolford said.



She also stressed balancing correction with&nbsp;positive reinforcement, such as praise and rewards. This approach helps children&nbsp;build self-esteem&nbsp;while learning from mistakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-approaches-to-discipline-children">Rethinking approaches to discipline children</h2>



Threatening children may feel like an easy fix, but it often lacks long-term impact. Instead, parents should focus on consistent, age-appropriate strategies that emphasize logical consequences and positive reinforcement.



As Woolford highlighted,&nbsp;discipline isn’t about control - it’s about teaching. With planning, patience, and adaptability, parents can help children develop safe, appropriate behaviors that last a lifetime.



Information obtained from <a href="https://www.michiganmedicine.org/health-lab/naughty-or-nice-many-parents-rely-threats-manage-misbehavior">Michgan Medicine</a>.



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Many parents use threats to discipline children, but it's not effective in the long run

When young children misbehave, parents often face tough decisions on...

TRAPPIST-1 b, one of seven rocky planets that orbit the star TRAPPIST-1, continues to intrigue astronomers.



Located just 40 light-years away, this planetary system is unique. It offers a rare opportunity to study seven Earth-like planets, three of which reside in the habitable zone - where liquid water could exist on the surface.



Using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), researchers have now gathered deeper insights into TRAPPIST-1 b.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-trappist-1-b">Observing TRAPPIST-1 b</h2>



A team led by Elsa Ducrot from the Commissariat aux Énergies Atomiques (CEA) in France analyzed thermal infrared measurements captured by <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>'s Mid-Infrared Imager (MIRI).



The researchers, including experts from the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy (<a href="https://www.mpia.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPIA</a>), published their findings in the journal Nature Astronomy. 



The results challenge earlier conclusions and raise questions about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trappist-1-has-seven-earth-like-planets-that-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s atmosphere</a> and surface activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-geologically-active-surface">A geologically active surface?</h2>



Last year’s research described TRAPPIST-1 b as a dark, rocky planet without an atmosphere. However, the latest measurements offer new clues. 



“The idea of a rocky planet with a heavily weathered surface without an atmosphere is inconsistent with the current measurement,” said Jeroen Bouwman, an astronomer at MPIA. “Therefore, we think the planet is covered with relatively unchanged material."



Surfaces on rocky planets usually weather due to stellar radiation and meteorite impacts. Yet, TRAPPIST-1 b’s surface appears remarkably young. Researchers estimate the rock on its surface could be only about 1,000 years old - far younger than the planet’s estimated age of several billion years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-geological-activity-on-trappist-1-b">Dramatic geological activity on TRAPPIST-1 b</h2>



This discovery hints at dramatic geological activity. The planet’s crust could undergo constant changes driven by extreme volcanism or plate tectonics. 



Bouwman noted that TRAPPIST-1 b might retain internal heat, much like Earth.



Tidal forces from the host star and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jwst-provides-new-insights-into-a-distant-star-and-its-exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neighboring planets</a> could deform its surface, generating internal friction and heat - a phenomenon seen on Jupiter’s volcanic moon Io. Additionally, heating from the star’s magnetic field may contribute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hidden-atmosphere">A hidden atmosphere?</h2>



Could TRAPPIST-1 b possess an atmosphere after all? 



Thomas Henning, emeritus director at MPIA and co-creator of the MIRI instrument, suggested another possibility.



“Contrary to previous ideas, there are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> under which the planet could have a thick atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide (CO2),” said Henning. A crucial factor could be haze - hydrocarbon smog - forming in the upper atmosphere.



The study involved two observational programs that measured the planet’s brightness at 12.8 and 15 micrometers. These wavelengths are sensitive to CO2 absorption.



Since no dimming occurred, researchers initially concluded that TRAPPIST-1 b lacked an atmosphere. However, new model calculations suggest that haze could alter the scenario.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-effect-of-haze-in-planetary-atmospheres">The effect of haze in planetary atmospheres</h2>



Haze absorbs starlight and warms upper atmospheric layers, potentially altering the expected temperature structure.



Instead of a warmer ground-level layer, the upper atmosphere could heat up and emit infrared radiation - a greenhouse effect. Henning compares this to Saturn’s moon Titan, where UV radiation transforms carbon-rich gases into haze.



While plausible, researchers note key differences. Titan’s atmosphere is methane-rich, whereas TRAPPIST-1 b would require CO2. 



Moreover, red dwarf stars like TRAPPIST-1 emit intense radiation and stellar winds, which can strip away planetary atmospheres over billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eclipses-and-occultations-tools-for-exploration">Eclipses and occultations: Tools for exploration</h2>



The study benefited from the favorable orientation of TRAPPIST-1. From Earth, its seven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroids-found-in-the-main-belt-are-the-smallest-ever-detected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> periodically pass in front of the star, dimming its light - a phenomenon known as transit.



These events provide valuable data about planetary size, composition, and atmospheres through a method called transit spectroscopy.



However, transit spectroscopy has limitations for systems like TRAPPIST-1. Cool, red dwarf stars often exhibit starspots and flares that can interfere with measurements. 



To address this, researchers observed TRAPPIST-1 b’s thermal infrared radiation. By focusing on the planet’s bright dayside just before and after it vanishes behind the star, scientists gathered detailed information about its surface and atmosphere.



This method, known as secondary eclipse measurement, is time-consuming. The current observations lasted nearly 48 hours but remain insufficient to confirm the presence of an atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-questions-about-trappist-1-b">Lingering questions about TRAPPIST-1 b</h2>



NASA recently approved the ambitious&nbsp;"Rocky Worlds"&nbsp;program - 500 hours of JWST observations to study rocky planets around nearby stars. Researchers hope this program will help resolve lingering questions about TRAPPIST-1 b.



One promising method involves monitoring the planet’s entire orbit to create a phase curve, which is a map of its temperature distribution.



This approach detects how heat moves across the planet’s surface. If heat distributes evenly between the dayside and nightside, an atmosphere likely exists. If temperatures shift abruptly, it indicates a lack of atmospheric insulation.



The research team has already begun this phase curve measurement for TRAPPIST-1 b. By analyzing temperature changes, they aim to confirm whether the planet harbors an atmosphere. 



“The presence or absence of an atmosphere will significantly impact our understanding of TRAPPIST-1 b and similar exoplanets,” noted Bouwman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study </h2>



The study highlights the challenges of studying rocky planets, even with advanced tools like the JWST. Compared to gas giants, rocky planets have thinner atmospheres that produce faint signals. Despite the hurdles, TRAPPIST-1 b offers a valuable case study.



The findings also provide insight into exoplanets that orbit red dwarf stars - the most common stars in the galaxy. Understanding their atmospheres, geological activity, and potential habitability will shape future research and exploration.



The study is the result of international collaboration. Researchers from MPIA, CEA, and institutions across Europe contributed to this original work. The MIRI instrument itself is a product of efforts by ESA member states and organizations like the Max Planck Society.



TRAPPIST-1 b remains a puzzle. Is it a geologically active world with a young surface? Could it hide a thick, CO2-rich atmosphere cloaked in haze?



The answers will require further observations. With JWST’s capabilities and the ongoing&nbsp;Rocky Worlds&nbsp;program, astronomers are closer than ever to solving these mysteries.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02428-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Image Credit: JPL-Caltech/NASA



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Rocky exoplanet TRAPPIST-1 b may have a hidden atmosphere

TRAPPIST-1 b, one of seven rocky planets that orbit the...

The Earth’s magnetic field is essential for life. It shields the planet from cosmic radiation and solar wind. While scientists understand the basic mechanisms, many details remain unresolved. 



To investigate, a new simulation method has been developed by researchers from the Center for Advanced Systems Understanding (CASUS) at Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR), Sandia National Laboratories, and the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA).



This simulation method offers fresh insights into the structure of Earth’s core and supports innovations in technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computer-simulations-of-earth-s-core">Computer simulations of Earth’s core</h2>



The Earth’s magnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">field</a> is generated by the geodynamo effect. 



“We know that the Earth’s core is primarily composed of iron,” noted Attila Cangi, Head of the Machine Learning for Materials Design Department at <a href="https://www.casus.science" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CASUS</a>.



As you move closer to the core, pressure and temperature increase. The outer core remains molten, while the inner core stays solid due to these conditions.



Electrically charged, liquid iron flows around the solid core. These flows are driven by Earth’s rotation, as well as by convection currents, which generate electric currents that produce the magnetic field.



However, scientists still face questions. What is the core’s exact structure? Do additional elements besides iron influence the geodynamo effect? Seismic wave experiments provide some clues. These waves travel through Earth and are measured using sensitive sensors.



“These experiments suggest that the core contains more than just iron,” said Svetoslav Nikolov from <a href="https://www.sandia.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sandia National Laboratories</a>. “The measurements do not agree with computer simulations that assume a pure iron core.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shock-waves-and-earth-s-magnetic-field">Shock waves and Earth's magnetic field</h2>



To address these questions, the research team developed a remarkable simulation method called&nbsp;"molecular-spin dynamics." This method integrates two previously separate approaches:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Molecular dynamics&nbsp;– models atomic motion.</li>



<li>Spin dynamics&nbsp;– accounts for magnetic properties.</li>
</ol>



“By combining these two methods, we were able to investigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-north-pole-is-moving-faster-than-ever-as-it-races-toward-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence of magnetism</a> under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions on length and time scales that were previously unattainable,” stated <a href="https://www.cea.fr/english/Pages/Welcome.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CEA</a> physicist Julien Tranchida.



The team simulated the behavior of two million iron atoms and their magnetic spins. They analyzed how mechanical and magnetic properties interact under extreme pressure and temperature conditions.



Artificial intelligence played a crucial role. The researchers used machine learning to determine precise force <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doughnut-shaped-region-discovered-in-earths-liquid-core-impacts-our-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fields</a>, which define how atoms interact. High-performance computing resources enabled this level of accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-results-from-the-simulations">Results from the simulations</h2>



Once the models were ready, the team simulated Earth’s core <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>. They propagated pressure waves through the iron atoms, mimicking the heating and compression deep inside Earth.



When the shock waves were slower, the iron remained solid and formed different crystal structures. Faster shock waves turned the iron mostly liquid. The findings revealed significant effects of magnetism on material <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plasma-can-bend-magnetic-fields-into-unique-shapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">properties</a>.



“Our simulations agree well with the experimental data,” said Mitchell Wood, a materials scientist at Sandia National Laboratories. “They suggest that under certain temperature and pressure conditions, a particular phase of iron could stabilize and potentially affect the geodynamo.”



This phase, called the&nbsp;bcc phase, has not been experimentally observed in such conditions. It has only been hypothesized. If confirmed, this discovery could resolve key questions about how Earth’s magnetic field <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-and-severe-solar-storms-will-continue-through-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-efficient-ai-systems">Energy-efficient AI systems</h2>



The research extends beyond understanding Earth’s core. The new simulation method could advance materials science and technology. Cangi aims to use this technique to model neuromorphic computing devices.



Neuromorphic computing is inspired by the human brain’s functioning. It promises faster, energy-efficient AI processing. By simulating spin-based neuromorphic systems, the team’s method could drive innovative hardware development.



Additionally, the method may revolutionize data storage. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weak-magnetic-field-may-have-set-the-stage-for-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Magnetic domains</a> on tiny nanowires could serve as future storage media. These systems would be faster and more efficient than current technologies.



“There are currently no accurate simulation methods for either application,” said Cangi. "But I am confident that our new approach can model the required physical processes in such a realistic way, that we can significantly accelerate the technological development of these IT innovations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-simulations-of-earth-s-core">Future simulations of Earth's core</h2>



This breakthrough offers a powerful tool for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geophysics</a> and materials science. Understanding the Earth’s core remains vital for answering fundamental questions about our planet’s magnetic field.



At the same time, the method’s potential in neuromorphic computing and advanced storage systems could transform future technologies. As researchers refine these simulations, they move closer to solving the mysteries of Earth’s magnetic field and driving innovations in AI and IT.



The new molecular-spin dynamics method represents a step forward for both geoscience and technology. Whether solving Earth’s mysteries or building energy-efficient AI, its impact promises to be far-reaching.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2408897121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: B. Schröder/ HZDR/ NASA/ Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio



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Magnetism at Earth’s core: Simulations offer breakthrough insights

The Earth’s magnetic field is essential for life. It shields...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

With her skin becoming pale and loose, the octopus would still not take any food. Yes, easy prey around her continued to get a free pass! While her priority towards her unborn offspring is understandable, something else made the octopus’ actions a particularly impressive feat.

Clear priorities

The researchers discovered that, in addition to not seeking food, the octopus had taken no notice of the tiny crabs and shrimps that had been going past her. Clearly, it had a job to do. As the months passed, the translucent eggs under her tentacles grew significantly. The octopus was a female, one that was apparently going to be a mother. But was she really taking care of these eggs for all four and a half years?