Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a 9.5-mile section of Pangong Lake on the western end of the Tibetan Plateau. The image was captured by a crew member onboard the International Space Station. 



“In this winter scene, a sheet of cracked ice tops part of the lake,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “On the left side, open water appears blue. Shallow water offshore of a delta, formed by a small, winding river, appears green."



"Parallel lines along the coastlines of bays are visible in the high-resolution version of this image. These lines indicate raised beaches, which formed in the past when lake levels were higher.”



NASA pointed out that several roads cut across the landscape, including one with switchbacks that ascends a steep slope. "These roads facilitate tourist travel from both India and China.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-birds-at-pangong-lake-nbsp">Migratory birds at Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake and its surroundings are home to numerous bird species, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-burn-unexpected-amounts-of-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>. Visitors can spot various waterfowl and waders that are rarely seen elsewhere.



“During the summer, species such as bar-headed geese and Brahminy ducks attract bird watchers to the lake, which is a major breeding ground for migrating birds,” said NASA.



Pangong Lake is one of the few places in India where the endangered black-necked crane is found during its breeding season. 



Ruddy shelduck and brown-headed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gulls-are-shifting-their-habitats-to-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gulls</a> are also frequently spotted around the lake. The ruddy shelduck is known for its striking orange-brown body and creamy white head, while the brown-headed gulls are often seen flying or swimming in the lake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangong-lake-nbsp">Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake is a stunning high-altitude lake situated in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-are-rising-unexpectedly-fast-on-the-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, extending from India to the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. It is renowned for its mesmerizing beauty and dramatic setting, with the lake lying at an elevation of about 4,350 meters.



One of the most distinctive features of Pangong Lake is its changing colors, ranging from shades of blue to green and even red, influenced by the sky's reflection and the lake's mineral content.



This saline water lake is approximately 134 kilometers long and 5 kilometers wide at its broadest point. Despite its considerable size, Pangong Lake is relatively shallow.&nbsp;



The lake gained additional popularity after being featured in several Indian films - most notably the Bollywood hit "3 Idiots." Its remote location requires a permit for visitors, especially due to its proximity to the Line of Actual Control between India and China.



Despite the geopolitical sensitivities surrounding its location, Pangong Lake remains a favorite among tourists for its unparalleled natural beauty and serene environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-altitude-lakes">High-altitude lakes</h2>



High-altitude lakes are unique bodies of water found at elevations typically above 3,000 meters (about 10,000 feet) in mountain ranges like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-glaciers-retreating-threat-is-much-worse-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, Andes, and Rockies. 



These lakes are formed either by glacial activity, where glaciers erode the earth to create depressions that fill with melted snow and rainwater, or when natural dams created by landslides or moraines trap water in valleys.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-environments">Extreme environments</h3>



The conditions at high altitudes make these lakes distinct in several ways. The climate is typically colder and harsher, with significant temperature variations between day and night. 



This extreme environment affects both the physical characteristics of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> and the types of ecosystems they support. For example, due to lower atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is reduced, which can affect the type of life that can survive in these regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-habitats">Critical habitats</h3>



Biologically, high-altitude lakes often have limited biodiversity because only certain types of plants and animals can tolerate the cold temperatures and lower oxygen levels in the water. 



Despite this, these lakes are crucial habitats for some unique species of fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also serve as important indicators of climate change, as variations in their water levels and temperatures can reflect environmental shifts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-high-altitude-lakes">Significance of high-altitude lakes </h3>



Lakes at high altitudes are often clear and pristine, due to the low density of human populations in these areas and minimal industrial activity, making them significant for ecological studies and attractive for tourism. 



However, they are sensitive ecosystems, and increased tourist activity brings challenges like pollution and habitat disruption.



High-altitude lakes are not only beautiful and scientifically significant but also hold cultural importance for local communities, often considered sacred and associated with historical and spiritual significance.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Pangong Lake on the Tibetan Plateau

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means that NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko Glacier lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall.&nbsp;



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting. 



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the spiral galaxy NGC 5643, which is located roughly 40 million light-years away in the constellation Lupus.&nbsp;



NGC 5643 belongs to the Hubble classification SBc, indicating that it is a barred spiral galaxy with loosely wound arms.&nbsp;



Its orientation, nearly face-on to Earth, provides astronomers with an exceptional view of its detailed spiral structure and central bar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-5643-a-grand-design-spiral-nbsp">NGC 5643: A grand design spiral&nbsp;</h2>



“NGC 5643 is what’s known as a grand design spiral, referring to how the galaxy’s two large, winding spiral arms are clear to see,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images">ESA</a>. “The spiral arms are defined by bright blue stars, lacy reddish-brown dust clouds and pink star-forming regions.”



“As fascinating as the galaxy appears at visible wavelengths, some of NGC 5643’s most interesting features are invisible to the human eye.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-activity-in-ngc-5643">Intense activity in NGC 5643</h2>



This galaxy is notable for its Seyfert 2 nucleus, a type of active galactic nucleus (AGN). The intense activity in its core is powered by a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/awakening-of-a-black-hole-witnessed-for-the-first-time/">black hole</a> that accretes surrounding material, emitting energy across a wide range of wavelengths.&nbsp;



“When a supermassive black hole ensnares gas from its surroundings, the gas collects in a disc that heats up to hundreds of thousands of degrees. The superheated gas shines brightly across the electromagnetic spectrum, but especially at X-ray wavelengths,” said ESA.



Observations have revealed jets and outflows of material emanating from the nucleus, likely driven by the black hole’s activity.&nbsp;



NGC 5643’s AGN has been studied extensively for its role in galactic evolution, particularly in how its energetic processes interact with the galaxy’s interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-ngc-5643-x-1">The mystery of NGC 5643 X-1</h2>



However, ESA pointed out that NGC 5643’s active galactic nucleus isn’t the brightest source of X-rays in the galaxy.&nbsp;



“Researchers using ESA’s XMM-Newton discovered an even brighter X-ray-emitting object, called NGC 5643 X-1, on the galaxy’s outskirts. What could be a more powerful source of X-rays than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/">supermassive black hole</a>?”&nbsp;



“Surprisingly, the answer appears to be a much smaller black hole! While the exact identity of NGC 5643 X-1 is not yet known, evidence points to a black hole that is about 30 times more massive than the Sun.”&nbsp;



“Locked in an orbital dance with a companion star, the black hole ensnares gas from its stellar companion, creating a superheated disc that outshines the galactic center,” said ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-5643">Star formation in NGC 5643</h2>



NGC 5643 also exhibits prominent regions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/">star formation</a> within its spiral arms. These areas are rich in gas and dust - the raw materials for birthing new stars - and glow brightly in ultraviolet and infrared light.&nbsp;



Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope and the Very Large Telescope (VLT) have helped uncover the complex interplay between star formation and the galaxy's central activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extended-ionized-gas-regions-nbsp">Extended ionized gas regions&nbsp;</h2>



A defining feature of NGC 5643 is the presence of its extended ionized gas regions, which are shaped by the galaxy's AGN activity and star-forming regions.&nbsp;



These structures have been mapped through optical spectroscopy, revealing intricate patterns that help astronomers understand the physical conditions of the gas, such as density, temperature, and composition.



The galaxy also has a dust lane that crosses its nucleus, partially obscuring direct observations of the central region in visible light.&nbsp;



Overall, NGC 5643 offers a fascinating glimpse into the dynamics of barred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/">spiral galaxies</a> with active nuclei, serving as a valuable resource for studying the interactions between supermassive black holes, star formation, and galactic evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-lupus">The constellation Lupus</h2>



Lupus is a constellation located in the southern sky, its name meaning "wolf" in Latin. It has been known since antiquity and was cataloged by the Greek astronomer Ptolemy.&nbsp;



Once part of the larger constellation Centaurus, Lupus was later recognized as a distinct constellation. It is relatively faint but holds historical significance in mythology, often associated with a sacrificial wolf in ancient stories.



Lupus is bordered by other constellations like Scorpius, Centaurus, and Libra. Its stars do not form a particularly striking pattern, but it contains a variety of interesting astronomical features. Among them are numerous double stars, globular clusters, and other deep-sky objects, visible through telescopes.&nbsp;



For observers in the Southern Hemisphere, Lupus is best seen in the winter and spring months, while it appears closer to the horizon for those in northern latitudes.



This constellation also lies along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/">Milky Way</a>, offering a rich field of stars and nebulae for stargazers. Despite its modest brightness, Lupus holds a special place in the science of astronomy.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope



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NGC 5643: Secrets of a spiraling galactic powerhouse

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an astronaut view of Mount Nemrut, a volcano located in eastern Turkey near Lake Van.



Mount Nemrut is notable for its immense caldera, which was formed through a series of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a>. The caldera, one of the largest in the world, now contains several lakes such as Lake Nemrut.&nbsp;



"The eastern half of the caldera is partially filled by solidified lava flows from past eruptions. Snow cover present at the time of this photo accentuates pressure ridges that formed as the lava was flowing and cooling," noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"These pressure ridges vary in size, thickness, and orientation due to the varying viscosity and flow direction of the lavas during eruptions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-lake-nemrut">Formation of Lake Nemrut</h2>



"Lake Nemrut (Nemrut Gölü) occupies the western half of the caldera, creating a rough crescent shape that partially submerges the old lava flows," said NASA.



"This freshwater lake, reaching up to 176 meters deep, is accompanied by a smaller lake at the upper-center of the caldera."



The lake was formed after the collapse of the Nemrut volcano's summit. This collapse created a massive crater, which gradually filled with water over time, forming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unesco-world-heritage-site">UNESCO World Heritage Site </h2>



Mount Nemrut and its surroundings are part of a protected UNESCO World Heritage Site due to their ecological and geological significance.



The site is home to diverse wildlife, including various bird species that use the lake as a stopover during migration. The caldera also contains smaller lakes and wetlands, adding to the area's biodiversity.



Lake Nemrut is a popular destination for tourists, hikers, and nature enthusiasts, offering stunning views of the volcanic landscape.



Despite its popularity, the lake remains relatively remote and unspoiled, contributing to its appeal as a natural wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mount-nemrut-has-shaped-the-landscape">Mount Nemrut has shaped the landscape</h2>



Geologically, Mount Nemrut is interesting because its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a> have played a key role in shaping the local landscape. 



Its last major eruption occurred around 1441 AD, which indicates that it's not currently active but is considered dormant.



The area around Nemrut is known for its geothermal activity, including hot springs and fumaroles, suggesting that there is still significant heat beneath the surface.



Over thousands of years, various civilizations have inhabited the region around Nemrut, leaving behind a wealth of archaeological sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tribute-to-a-king">Tribute to a king</h2>



The summit of Mount Nemrut is dominated by a vast funerary mound constructed by King Antiochus I Theos, who ruled the Kingdom of Commagene in the 1st century BCE. 



The site was intended to serve as his tomb sanctuary and a place to commemorate the king's vision of divine kingship and unity between Eastern and Western cultures.



The mound, made of loose crushed stones, measures about 50 meters (164 feet) in height and spans a diameter of 150 meters (492 feet), creating an imposing feature visible from afar.



Surrounding the mound are terraces on the eastern, western, and northern sides, each adorned with colossal statues and reliefs. The statues, ranging in height from 8 to 10 meters (26 to 33 feet), represent various deities, including Zeus, Apollo, Hercules, and the goddess Tyche, alongside King Antiochus himself. 



The heads of the statues, many of which have toppled over due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a> and erosion, lie scattered around the site, creating an iconic and enigmatic scene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiritual-and-religious-practices">Spiritual and religious practices</h2>



In addition to the statues, inscriptions at Mount Nemrut provide valuable historical information about the kingdom, the king's lineage, and the religious practices of the time.



The site is not only a marvel of ancient engineering but also a spiritual and astronomical center. Scholars believe the terraces were aligned with celestial events, serving as an observatory for solstices and equinoxes.



In addition to its natural and historical significance, the Nemrut volcano has been the subject of scientific study, as researchers aim to understand more about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> in the region, the history of its eruptions, and the potential risks it may pose in the future.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Mount Nemrut: Ancient mysteries and natural marvels 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory (ESO) features the Dark Wolf Nebula, located around 5,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Scorpius.



According to ESO, this image of the dark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-the-ring-nebula-as-it-has-never-been-seen-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> creates the illusion of a wolf-like silhouette against a colorful cosmic backdrop.&nbsp;



“This image takes up an area in the sky equivalent to four full Moons, but is actually part of an even larger nebula called Gum 55. If you look closely, the wolf could even be a werewolf, its hands ready to grab unsuspecting bystanders,” noted <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-dark-nebulae">Observing dark nebulae </h2>



Dark nebulae are dense regions in space filled with gas and dust that absorb visible light, making them appear as dark patches against brighter backgrounds.&nbsp;



Unlike emission or reflection nebulae, dark nebulae do not glow on their own. Instead, they obstruct and obscure the light from stars and other objects lying behind them.&nbsp;



This characteristic makes them challenging to observe using visible-light telescopes, as they absorb and scatter light rather than reflecting or emitting it.&nbsp;



However, when viewed in infrared, where their obscuring effect is reduced, dark nebulae reveal intricate details about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-the-perseus-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular clouds</a> they contain.



According to ESO, astronomers study these clouds of frozen dust because they often contain new stars in the making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-wolf-nebula-nbsp">Dark Wolf Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Dark Wolf Nebula is part of a larger complex known as the Lupus Molecular Cloud, one of several significant star-forming regions close to Earth.&nbsp;



Inside of dark nebulae, the conditions are prime for star formation. The dense gas and dust clump together under gravitational forces. As these clouds contract, they heat up, eventually igniting nuclear fusion and forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new stars</a>.



The Dark Wolf Nebula is known for revealing young, low-mass stars - or T Tauri stars - which are in the early stages of their evolution. These stars are still surrounded by disks of material that may eventually form new planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-scorpius-nbsp">The constellation Scorpius&nbsp;</h2>



Scorpius is one of the most recognizable constellations in the sky. It resembles a scorpion with a long, curved tail and stinger.&nbsp;



Located in the southern sky, Scorpius is especially visible during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere and during the winter months in the Southern Hemisphere. 



The constellation is often associated with the story of Orion in Greek mythology. According to legend, the scorpion was sent by the goddess Artemis to kill Orion, the great hunter, either as punishment for his arrogance or to protect her animals, depending on the version of the tale.&nbsp;



The gods later placed both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a> and Scorpius in the sky, but in opposite parts of the heavens so they would never be seen together - as Scorpius rises in the east and Orion sets in the west.



Scorpius contains several notable stars and deep-sky objects. Its brightest star, Antares, is a red supergiant often referred to as the "heart of the scorpion" due to its reddish hue and central position. 



Antares is one of the largest visible stars in the sky and has a luminosity that is tens of thousands of times greater than that of our Sun. 



Scorpius is located close to the core of the Milky Way, making it a rich region for star clusters and nebulae. Among these are the Butterfly Cluster and the Ptolemy Cluster - both of which are visible to the naked eye under dark skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-dark-wolf-nebula">Image of the Dark Wolf Nebula </h2>



“This image shows in spectacular detail how the dark wolf stands out against the glowing star-forming clouds behind it,” noted ESO.



“The colorful clouds are built up mostly of hydrogen gas and glow in reddish tones excited by the intense UV radiation from the newborn stars within them.”



The picture was created from images taken at different times. Each of the images has a filter that makes a different color of light visible.&nbsp;



Observations of the Dark Wolf Nebula provide astronomers with valuable information about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of stars</a> and the environments in which they form.



The image was captured by the VLT Survey Telescope (VST) at ESO’s Paranal Observatory in Chile.



Image Credit: ESO/VPHAS+ team



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Dark Wolf Nebula in the constellation Scorpius

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory...

During its research, MBARI highlighted that the deeper in the ocean an octopus lives, the longer it typically takes for its eggs to hatch. So this had resulted in deep-sea octopi, such as the one in the Monterey Canyon, having longer lifespans than their shallow-water counterparts. Photo Credit: Michael Zeigler/Getty Images

Live to breed

Can meditation truly be an effective treatment for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)? A growing body of evidence suggests that meditation may offer transformative benefits for individuals who are struggling with trauma.



A research team from <a href="https://www.miu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maharishi International University</a> (MIU) and Augusta University has recently concluded what they claim is the most comprehensive analysis to date on using the power of the mind to reduce trauma symptoms.



With an impressive sample of over 3,400 participants across 61 studies, the researchers evaluated the efficacy of four different kinds of meditative practices: mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), mindfulness-based other techniques (MBO), other meditations (OM), and transcendental meditation (TM).



This mammoth review reflects the rigorous nature of their analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-transcendental-meditation">The power of transcendental meditation</h2>



It appears that not all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-helps-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meditation techniques</a> are created equal, however. The net impact or "effect size" of the first three meditation types was moderate, ranging from -0.52 to -0.66.



But it was transcendental meditation (TM) that truly stood out, clocking a large effect size of -1.13. In simpler terms, TM was leaps and bounds more effective compared to the other meditation practices assessed.



"Our findings show that all meditation techniques studied can help alleviate PTSD symptoms, but TM stands out as producing the largest and most consistent reductions across diverse trauma populations," stated study lead author Dr. David Orme-Johnson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-benchmark-in-research">A new benchmark in research</h2>



This research sets a whole new benchmark in terms of its thoroughness and the adherence to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines.



In addition to the sheer quantity of data, the researchers ensured that they used advanced statistical models, analyzed within-group effects, and then followed with a direct comparison of different meditation techniques on this measure.



"We employed meta-regression to identify predictors of effectiveness, such as type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-can-cause-muscle-decline-adult-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trauma</a>, age, and research design. These methods allowed us to control for all variables that influence the size of the effect, making our conclusions about differences in meditation techniques highly reliable,” explained Dr. Orme-Johnson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complementary-approach-to-treatment">A complementary approach to treatment </h2>



The researchers also pointed out that meditation, especially TM, could supplement conventional medical treatment and enable patients to achieve full recovery.



Dr. Vernon Barnes, an assistant professor in the Georgia Prevention Institute at Augusta University, spoke about his first-hand experience of teaching TM in a hospital clinic for 12 years.



"The clinic is regarded as cutting edge for the treatment of complex concussion, which includes combat-related PTSD. TM is one of the few interventions with benefits that can be immediately translated into improved care in military medicine,” said Dr. Barnes.



Colonel Brian Rees added that transcendental meditation offers a non-trauma focused method that brings about a significant reduction in symptoms of traumatic stress without the discomfort linked to intense standard therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accessibility-of-transcendental-meditation">Accessibility of transcendental meditation</h2>



The study's findings appeal to a wide audience, including active-duty military members and many others as well.



Of those individuals offered transcendental meditation, a staggering 86% were willing to give it a shot, and an even higher percentage (92%) completed the instruction and stuck with the practice - a sign of its accessibility and acceptability.



The authors recommend large-scale clinical trials for validation and integration into various healthcare settings. 



The results highlight the importance of TM and its potential in contributing to the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-drug-mdma-shows-promise-for-reducing-post-traumatic-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PTSD</a> treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-acknowledgement-of-meditation">Growing acknowledgement of meditation </h2>



Finally, it is important to note that this most recent study adds to a growing body of research from MIU and other establishments indicating the potential health benefits of TM, which include reduction of cardiovascular risk, and promotion overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-the-hidden-casualty-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a>.



This comparison of meditation techniques signals the growing acknowledgement of meditation as an essential tool for mental health. 



This study is a step forward in understanding the intricate role that meditation plays in treating PTSD and will undoubtedly serve as a valuable resource for anyone interested in the intersection of mental health and holistic practices.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/60/12/2050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medicina</a>.



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Transcendental meditation: Using the power of the mind to heal trauma

Can meditation truly be an effective treatment for post traumatic...

Space can surprise even those who spend their lives studying it. People often think of our solar system as just a few planets and a bunch of empty space. 



Yet new observations suggest we have been living inside a hot, less dense region, and that there may even be a strange cosmic channel connecting us to distant stars.



After years of careful mapping, a new analysis reveals what appears to be a channel of hot, low-density plasma stretching out from our solar system toward distant constellations. Astronomers from the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a> recently confirmed it using data from the <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2021/03/aa39313-20/aa39313-20.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eRosita instrument</a>. Dr. L. L. Sala, lead researcher, and colleagues shared these findings in a paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/10/aa51045-24/aa51045-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-familiar">Looking beyond the familiar</h2>



For a long time, scientists have known that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-space-station-observes-something-unknown-55-miles-above-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> sits within a peculiar region of space called the <a href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/11550" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Local Hot Bubble</a>. 



This area, estimated to be <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">about 300 light years across</a>, formed as a result of powerful stellar explosions called supernovas. They heated the surrounding gas, producing a low-density, high-temperature environment. Traces of these distant events still linger as wispy distributions of hot plasma. “We find the temperature of the LHB exhibits a north-south dichotomy at high latitudes,” stated Dr. L. L. Sala, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-x-ray-explorer">A cosmic X-ray explorer</h2>



To better understand this environment, scientists turned to eRosita. This X-ray observatory, launched as part of the <a href="https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/srg/#:~:text=The%20scientific%20spacecraft%20%22Spectrum%2DRoentgen,of%20galaxies%20will%20be%20marked." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spectrum-Roentgen-Gamma mission</a>, scoured the sky to capture soft X-ray emissions. One of eRosita’s goals is to chart hot gas in space, learn about supernova remnants, and investigate the surroundings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-anticipated-comet-of-2024-returns-this-weekend-after-80000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our neighborhood</a>. 



By combining these results with older data from <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/rosat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ROSAT</a>, another X-ray survey, astronomers have pieced together a more detailed picture of our local region. They took on the challenging <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2013/10/aa22221-13/aa22221-13.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">task</a> of dividing the sky into thousands of bins, extracting subtle signals of warm gas, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/502/4/5779/6131844" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust cavities</a>, and interstellar structures. This painstaking approach helped isolate the faint glow of the surrounding plasma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzling-cosmic-channel">Puzzling cosmic channel</h2>



What stands out is the detection of a channel, or “tunnel,” that appears to stretch toward the <a href="https://www.constellation-guide.com/constellation-list/centaurus-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centaurus constellation</a>. This feature seems to punch through the hot material, connecting our neighborhood to distant star systems.&nbsp;



Another such pathway appears to link toward the vicinity of <a href="https://www.constellation-guide.com/constellation-list/canis-major-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canis Major</a>. Data hints these might be just one part of a larger, branching network of channels that run between star-forming regions and pockets of heated gas.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/milky-way_local-hot-bubble_eRosita_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/milky-way_local-hot-bubble_eRosita_1s.webp" alt="3D map of the Milky Way’s Local Hot Bubble (LHB) created from eROSITA data reveals a low-density region around the solar system, heated by ancient supernovas. The bubble shows temperature gradients and an interstellar “tunnel” toward Centaurus, likely formed by young stars’ winds. This bubble may connect to other superbubbles, shaping the Milky Way’s structure. The solar system entered the LHB a few million years ago, adding to our understanding of its cosmic neighborhood. Credit: Max Planck Institute" class="wp-image-1953925"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">3D map of the Milky Way’s Local Hot Bubble (LHB) created from eROSITA data reveals a low-density region around the solar system, heated by ancient supernovas. The bubble shows temperature gradients and an interstellar “tunnel” toward Centaurus, likely formed by young stars’ winds. This bubble may connect to other superbubbles, shaping the Milky Way’s structure. The solar system entered the LHB a few million years ago, adding to our understanding of its cosmic neighborhood. Credit: Max Planck Institute</figcaption></figure>



Each route may represent a kind of interstellar backroad, a path carved out by dynamic processes and influenced by the long-ago actions of exploding stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remembering-old-theories-on-cosmic-channels">Remembering old theories on cosmic channels</h2>



Ideas about a network of hot, low-density channels are not new. 



Decades ago, some <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/381679E86154865FF68FE884DA62F1D4/S0074180900089348a.pdf/div-class-title-the-structure-of-the-interstellar-medium-div.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> speculated that the space around us could hold labyrinths of connected cavities. But there was never enough data to be sure. Instruments like eRosita have now provided that clarity. By showing tunnels and pockets filled with hot plasma, the findings confirm at least one piece of these older theories. 



The presence of dust cavities packed with hot gas supports the notion that supernova events shaped a connected patchwork of interstellar matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-empty-space">Not just empty space</h2>



It is tempting to think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> as nothingness, but that is misleading. 



Even the void between stars contains various materials. The Local Hot Bubble is one example of how dramatic events can sculpt gas into unexpected forms.



Supernovas push out matter and energy that heat and churn the interstellar medium. Over millions of years, these actions create differences in density, temperature, and composition. 



The interplay of dust, plasma, radiation, and magnetic fields leads to an environment with far more complexity than a simple vacuum. The Max Planck Institute’s recent <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/10/aa51045-24/aa51045-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> argues that the average thermal pressure in this bubble is lower than expected, indicating that it might be open in some directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-channels-the-evidence">Cosmic channels: The evidence</h2>



While researchers have mapped parts of this hot region and uncovered these unusual passages, not every aspect is understood. 



Some star lines seem supported by a series of linked cavities. Other regions appear more blocked. The complexity of these patterns requires more sensitive data and further analysis. With time, better models may explain how these structures formed and how they continue to evolve.



Space’s calm appearance is deceiving. Over the past millions of years, our solar system drifted into the Local Hot Bubble. 



At roughly the same time, supernovas occurred nearby. The timing is not a coincidence. Those <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient blasts</a> likely shaped the conditions we find today. The fact that our Sun now sits near the bubble’s center is simply chance, but it makes for an interesting perspective. It is as if we arrived late to a party, only to find a lingering aftermath of dramatic events that took place long before humans even existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-inside-a-hidden-structure">Peering inside a hidden structure</h2>



Continuing to explore these cosmic channels will require increasingly sensitive instruments. New X-ray missions, deeper surveys, and refined models of hot gas distribution will improve our understanding. Over time, astronomers hope to fill in more of this cosmic map and explain how these tunnels affect everything from local cosmic rays to dust flow patterns and stellar wind dynamics.



The discovery of these hidden routes and temperature differences offers a reminder that even our own cosmic backyard holds surprises. 



These channels challenge old assumptions and add complexity to the picture of what lies between our Sun and the nearest stars. 



As technology advances and new methods improve, these discoveries are bound to raise even more questions. 



Every new piece of evidence will bring us closer to understanding both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curvature-propulsion-warp-drive-krasnikov-tube-future-intergalactic-space-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> we inhabit today and the ancient events that shaped it.



What once seemed distant and unknowable may soon reveal connections that redefine our place in the cosmos.



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Interstellar 'tunnel' found that connects our solar system to other stars

Space can surprise even those who spend their lives studying...

The quantum realm is full of theories and concepts that are impossible for most people to understand, and numbers that are both so large and so small they are equally difficult for our minds to grasp. 



Google's recent breakthrough announcement touches all of those angles, and does not disappoint in any of these "mind-blowing" categories. 



They announced last week that their new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-artificial-intelligence-ai-to-make-quantum-computers-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum AI chip</a> solved an equation in just five minutes that would take a normal computer one-septillion years of non-stop work to complete.



One septillion equals 1 followed by 24 zeros. So, it looks like this: 



1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000



To put that into perspective, if you tried to count to a septillion, it would take you billions of years -- way longer than the age of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-this-a-big-deal">Why is this a big deal?</h2>



Quantum computing, as cool and cutting-edge as it sounds, has always struggled with instability. 



Tiny particles don't follow the same tidy rules that govern everyday objects, and even the most advanced chip can fail as their fragile states fall apart with the slightest disturbance.



Researchers have tried to harness this wiggly behavior for decades, hoping to use it for computations that regular machines would never finish. 



There have been many promises, yet each attempt runs into the same stumbling block. Errors pile up faster than anyone can correct them, stalling progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-google-plays-in-the-quantum-world">Google plays in the quantum world</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-quantum-computers-just-got-easier-with-new-technique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum</a> error correction offered a possible solution but came with its own complications. It demands spreading information across multiple qubits, which are the fundamental units of quantum data. That sounds simple in theory, but in practice, it creates a juggling act. If too many qubits are involved, keeping the error rate below a certain critical threshold becomes tough. Until recently, no one had managed to show that error rates could dip beneath that crucial point for a code specifically designed to scale. This changed with a demonstration on a new quantum chip architecture. 



This accomplishment was shared by <a href="https://research.google/people/hartmutneven/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hartmut Neven</a>, quantum scientist and founder of Google's Quantum AI lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accessing-parallel-universes">Accessing parallel universes?</h2>



Neven called Willow's performance "astonishing." He added that its high-speed results "lend credence to the notion that quantum computation occurs in many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parallel universes</a>." 



Neven gave a shoutout to <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford University</a> physicist David Deutsch for coming up with the idea that successfully developing quantum computers could support the "many worlds interpretation" of quantum mechanics and the existence of a multiverse. 



Since the 1970s, Deutsch has become a pioneer in quantum computing, not so much for the technology itself, but to test his multiverse theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-parallel-universe">What is a parallel universe?</h2>



Also known as alternate or multiple universes, parallel universes are the idea that there could be other realities existing side by side with our own. 



Imagine our universe as just one bubble in a vast cosmic foam, where each bubble is a different universe with its own unique laws of physics, histories, and even versions of ourselves. 



Scientists explore this concept through theories like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-are-the-theories-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multiverse</a>, which suggest that there might be countless other universes out there, each with its own set of possibilities. 



While we haven’t found concrete evidence for parallel universes yet, the idea sparks fascinating discussions about the nature of reality and what might lie beyond what we can currently see and understand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dissenting-opinion-but-praise-nonetheless">Dissenting opinion, but praise nonetheless</h2>



However, astrophysicist-turned-writer Ethan Siegel didn't agree with Google’s take. He accused them of "conflating unrelated concepts, which Neven also ought to know." 



Siegel explained that Neven was mixing up the mathematical space where quantum mechanics happens with the idea of parallel universes and a multiverse.



According to Siegel, even if quantum computers succeed, they don’t prove the existence of parallel universes. 



Despite his disagreements, Siegel praised Google's achievement with Willow, calling it "a truly excellent step forward in the world of quantum computation." 



He believes that this breakthrough could help solve some of Earth’s biggest problems, like discovering new medicines, designing better batteries for electric cars, and advancing fusion and new energy sources. 



Neven echoed this optimism, saying, "Many of these future game-changing applications won’t be feasible on classical computers; they’re waiting to be unlocked with quantum computing."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-google-s-quantum-willow-chip">Google's quantum Willow chip</h2>



<a href="https://blog.google/technology/research/google-willow-quantum-chip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Willow chip</a> is the newest superconducting processor designed by a team at Google Quantum AI.



Unlike older devices that struggled to manage errors, Willow pushes performance into a new zone that supports techniques intended to make quantum error correction actually live up to its promise. This system meets the conditions for a particular approach known as the surface code. Past attempts ran into snags as more qubits were added, but here, Willow moves beyond that barrier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-code-distances-and-google-s-quantum-chip">Code distances and Google's quantum chip</h2>



Quantum error correction frameworks often refer to something called code distance. In simple terms, this represents how many qubits are used to safeguard a chunk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-instead-of-oil-or-coal-powers-a-new-kind-of-engine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum data</a>. 



Larger distances, like moving from a code distance of three to five to seven, are supposed to reduce the overall probability of failure if certain conditions are met. On this new device, each step up in distance chops the logical error rate <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08449-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in half</a>. That kind of improvement had long been a major goal for researchers in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-giant-leap-forward-breakthrough-ultra-pure-silicon-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum computing</a>. According to the <a href="https://blog.google/technology/research/google-willow-quantum-chip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> findings, “Willow performed a standard benchmark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-survives-in-quantum-superposition-for-a-record-shattering-23-minutes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">computation</a> in under five minutes that would take one of today’s fastest supercomputers 10 septillion years,” said Hartmut Neven, quantum scientist and founder of Google's Quantum AI lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-and-steady-marathon-pace">Slow and steady marathon pace</h2>



Running a test for only a few cycles might not reveal the full story of a system's stability. Google's new quantum chip overcomes this by pushing performance for up to a million cycles. The device keeps its below-threshold performance intact across a timescale that would normally leave other systems gasping for air. Maintaining real-time <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7979" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decoding accuracy</a> over such an extended period is no small feat. The team behind Willow arranged their operations so that corrections could be applied on the fly. That sort of approach ensures the chip can avoid drifting off track. “We see Willow as an important step in our journey to build a useful quantum computer,” said <a href="https://blog.google/authors/sundar-pichai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sundar Pichai</a>, CEO of Google.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-classical-bottlenecks">Looking beyond classical bottlenecks</h2>



Traditional supercomputers handle complex tasks using billions of tiny switches working in well-understood ways. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-can-instantly-execute-a-task-that-would-normally-take-47-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum computers</a>, by contrast, tap into phenomena that cannot be reduced to classical shortcuts. The problem until now has always been keeping the delicate quantum states alive long enough to complete a meaningful calculation. With Willow, the team shows that qubits can collaborate in such a way that errors do not race out of control. The demonstration suggests that quantum chips can move toward computations that might surpass anything a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">classical system</a> can handle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-google-want-a-quantum-chip">Why does Google want a quantum chip?</h2>



Relying on hardware that can pass these tough tests of reliability hints that quantum computing is not stuck in the toy problem phase forever. 



Increasing the code distance without losing the ability to correct errors suggests that large collections of qubits could someday power algorithms relevant to real-world tasks. Examples include speeding up complex simulations, refining drug discovery pipelines, and exploring new materials for energy storage. 



Willow’s success in reaching below-threshold error rates for extended periods might encourage work in industries that have been waiting on solid evidence that quantum hardware will grow into a trustworthy tool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-error-correction-becomes-routine">When error correction becomes routine</h2>



Quantum error correction has never been about eliminating mistakes entirely. It is about making them so rare that the machine can run a calculation to its conclusion. 



If future designs build on Willow’s stability and scaling characteristics, there might come a day when such corrections occur behind the scenes, invisible to users. Achieving that level of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fault tolerance</a> could let quantum computers crunch through workloads that stretch far beyond the reach of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms7979" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">classical hardware</a>. This reveals a practical route for scaling up these incredible machines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-fault-tolerance-with-quantum-chips">Scaling fault tolerance with quantum chips</h2>



The efforts from Google Quantum AI and other groups worldwide are not happening in a vacuum. 



The field of quantum error correction has attracted attention from many researchers intent on finding a path to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practical devices</a>. Over the past decade, studies have shown the importance of certain<a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevA.86.032324" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> lattice designs</a> and logical qubits arranged in careful layouts. Willow now shows that with the right chip architecture and error correction schemes, thresholds can be crossed. This brings the entire field closer to building machines that solve useful problems. While the journey is not over, one essential puzzle piece has clicked into place.



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Google: Record-shattering quantum AI chip accesses 'parallel universes'

The quantum realm is full of theories and concepts that...

According to the most commonly accepted theory, modern humans left Africa around 60,000 years ago, mingling with Neanderthals along the way.



This interaction left a legacy of two to three percent Neanderthal DNA in the genomes of people outside Africa.



However, the story of the first modern humans in Europe and the timing of their intermingling with Neanderthals remains incomplete. 



A recent study sheds light on this chapter, uncovering new connections between early European humans and Neanderthals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-neanderthals-the-basics">Understanding Neanderthals -- the basics</h2>



Neanderthals were our closest extinct relatives, living alongside early modern humans in Europe and parts of Asia for hundreds of thousands of years. They first appeared around 400,000 years ago and thrived until about 40,000 years ago. 



Unlike the stereotypical image of burly, brutish cave dwellers, Neanderthals were actually quite sophisticated. 



They built shelters, made clothing from animal hides, and even created art and jewelry, showing a level of creativity and culture that rivals our own.



Physically, Neanderthals were well-adapted to the cold climates of the Ice Age. They had robust bodies with strong muscles, shorter limbs, and a wider ribcage compared to modern humans, which helped them conserve heat. 



Their large noses may have warmed and humidified the cold, dry air they breathed. Neanderthals also had larger brains than us, though their brain structure was different, suggesting they processed information in unique ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zlaty-kun-and-ranis-sites">Zlatý kůň and Ranis sites</h2>



The Zlatý kůň site in Czechia holds a critical piece of this puzzle. Archaeologists discovered a skull there, estimated to be 45,000 years old, and belonging to an early modern human.



Unfortunately, this individual’s cultural and archaeological context remained unclear. Nearby, the Ilsenhöhle in Ranis, Germany, presented another mystery. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/early-humans_genome-sequenced_Zlaty-kun_Ranis-group_Czechia-Europe_credit-Tom-Bjorklund_1m.webp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/early-humans_genome-sequenced_Zlaty-kun_Ranis-group_Czechia-Europe_credit-Tom-Bjorklund_1s.webp" alt="Illustration of the Zlatý kůň/Ranis group. Around 45,000 years ago, individuals from Ranis in Germany and Zlatý kůň in Czechia likely traveled together across the open steppe landscapes of Europe. Credit: Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology" class="wp-image-1953468"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of the Zlatý kůň/Ranis group. Around 45,000 years ago, individuals from Ranis in Germany and Zlatý kůň in Czechia likely traveled together across the open steppe landscapes of Europe. Credit: Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</figcaption></figure>



This site, about 230 km from Zlatý kůň, housed tools linked to the Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician (LRJ) culture, but it was unclear if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-neanderthals-mastered-adhesive-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> or modern humans created them.



Thirteen bone fragments from Ranis had previously been analyzed and revealed mitochondrial DNA from modern humans. 



Yet mitochondrial DNA, a small fraction of the genome, could not clarify their broader genetic relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-zlaty-kun-and-ranis">Link between Zlatý kůň and Ranis</h2>



A breakthrough came with a new study, published in&nbsp;Nature, that provided the link between Europe's first modern humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homo-juluensis-new-human-species-vanished-just-fifty-thousand-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a>.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> analyzed the nuclear genomes of the thirteen specimens from Ranis, and uncovered genetic ties between Zlatý kůň and the Ranis population. 



The bones from Ranis represented at least six individuals, including a mother-daughter pair and other distant relatives.



“To our surprise, we discovered a fifth- or sixth-degree genetic relationship between Zlatý kůň and two individuals from Ranis," noted lead author Arev Sümer.



"This means that Zlatý kůň was genetically part of the extended family of Ranis and likely also made LRJ-type tools.” 



The study also sequenced high-quality genomes from the skull found at Zlatý kůň and a well-preserved male bone from Ranis, referred to as Ranis13. 



These genomes represent the oldest high-quality modern human genomes sequenced to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-european-with-african-traits">European with African traits</h2>



Genetic analysis revealed that individuals from both Zlatý kůň and Ranis likely had dark skin, dark hair, and brown eyes.



This aligns with their recent African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isolation-played-a-key-role-in-neanderthal-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestry</a>. By analyzing shared genetic segments, the researchers estimated that their population consisted of only a few hundred individuals, dispersed over a broad region.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/early-humans_genome-sequenced_Zlaty-kun_Ranis-group_credit-Tom-Bjorklund_1m.webp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/early-humans_genome-sequenced_Zlaty-kun_Ranis-group_credit-Tom-Bjorklund_1s.webp" alt="Illustration of Zlatý kůň, who belonged to the same population as the Ranis individuals and was closely related to two of them. Credit: Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology" class="wp-image-1953469"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of Zlatý kůň, who belonged to the same population as the Ranis individuals and was closely related to two of them. Credit: Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</figcaption></figure>



Interestingly, the Zlatý kůň/Ranis group left no genetic legacy in later European or global populations. This small group represents a distinct lineage of modern humans that diverged early after migrating out of Africa.



The new dates also imply that the initial migration of modern humans from Africa into Eurasia was basically over by 43,500 years ago.



"The timing is really important because it has direct implications on our understanding of the timing of the out-of-Africa migration as most non-Africans today inherit 1-2% ancestry from Neanderthals," said <a href="https://moorjanilab.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Priya Moorjani</a>, an assistant professor of molecular and cell biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and one of two senior authors of the study. 



"It also has implications for understanding the settlement of the regions outside Africa, which is typically done by looking at archeological materials or fossils in different regions of the world."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-and-neanderthal-connection">Human and Neanderthal connection</h2>



The Zlatý kůň/Ranis population coexisted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-and-humans-had-multiple-waves-of-contact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> in Europe. However, their genomes showed no evidence of recent interbreeding with Neanderthals. 



This contrasts with other early human groups in Europe, which exhibit such evidence. &nbsp;



“The fact that modern human groups, which may have arrived in Europe later, carry such Neanderthal ancestry while Ranis and Zlatý kůň do not could mean that the older Zlatý kůň/Ranis lineage may have entered Europe by a different route or did not overlap as extensively with the regions where Neanderthals lived,” speculated co-supervisor Kay Prüfer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-ancestry-discovered">Shared ancestry discovered</h2>



Although the early modern humans showed no signs of recent Neanderthal admixture, they shared Neanderthal ancestry from an older event.



By analyzing the Neandertal DNA segments and using radiocarbon dating, researchers estimated that this admixture occurred between 45,000 and 49,000 years ago.



“These results provide us with a deeper understanding of the earliest pioneers that settled in Europe. They also indicate that any modern human remains found outside Africa that are older than 50,000 years could not have been part of the common, non-African population that interbred with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-love-of-carbs-may-date-back-to-the-neanderthals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> and is now found across much of the world,” senior author Johannes Krause remarked.



A lot of the Neanderthal genes we still have today are connected to our immune systems, skin color, and how our bodies handle energy. 



For example, one of these Neanderthal immune genes actually helps protect us against the coronavirus that causes COVID-19. 



Over time, some of these Neanderthal genes for immunity and skin pigmentation became more common in humans, which suggests they gave us an advantage and helped us survive better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-humans-and-neanderthals-in-europe">First humans and Neanderthals in Europe</h2>



This study offers valuable insights into Europe’s earliest settlers. The Zlatý kůň/Ranis group represents a distinct lineage of early modern humans who carried traits reflecting their African heritage.



Despite their similarities and interactions with Homo sapiens, Neanderthals eventually disappeared, likely due to a combination of climate change, competition for resources, and possibly diseases brought by migrating humans.



Their story reminds us of the complex web of human evolution and the rich history we share with our ancient relatives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08420-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Neanderthals and humans mated much more recently than we thought

According to the most commonly accepted theory, modern humans left...

Io, the innermost of Jupiter’s four large moons, is the most volcanically active body in our solar system. Its surface is dotted with hundreds of volcanoes, some of which erupt with towering plumes of sulfur dioxide gas reaching up to 500 kilometers (310 miles) into space.



Scientists affiliated with NASA’s Juno mission have made an intriguing discovery about the moon's intense volcanic activity.



The researchers have determined that Io's fiery volcanoes are not fueled by a global magma ocean as previously believed. Instead, each volcano is powered by an individual chamber of molten magma.



This breakthrough ends a 44-year-old mystery surrounding the subsurface foundations of the moon’s most dramatic geological phenomena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-understanding-of-io-s-volcanoes">A new understanding of Io's volcanoes</h2>



Io, which is similar in size to our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a>, hosts approximately 400 volcanoes, which continuously belch out lava and plumes. This ongoing volcanic activity coats the surface in a fiery veneer.



The moon’s existence was first noted by Galileo Galilei in 1610, but it wasn’t until 1979 that its volcanic activity was identified, when imaging scientist Linda Morabito discerned a volcanic plume emanating from the moon's surface.



Scott Bolton, Juno's principal investigator from the <a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio</a>, elaborated on the significance of the research.



“Since Morabito’s discovery, planetary scientists have wondered how the volcanoes were fed from the lava underneath the surface," said Bolton.



"Was there a shallow ocean of white-hot magma fueling the volcanoes, or was their source more localized? We knew data from Juno’s two very close flybys could give us some insights on how this tortured moon actually worked."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-inner-workings-of-the-fiery-moon-io">The inner workings of the fiery moon Io</h2>



In the winters of 2023 and 2024, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/io-jupiter-moon-juno-mission-discovers-fire-mountains-polar-cyclones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juno spacecraft</a> conducted daringly close flybys of Io. It skimmed within approximately 930 miles of the moon's mottled surface.



During these crucial missions, Juno linked up with NASA’s Deep Space Network and acquired meticulous, dual-frequency Doppler data. This data was used to gauge Io’s gravity and offered new insights into the effects of a phenomenon known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-exoplanet-glows-with-red-hot-molten-lava/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tidal flexing</a>.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="cmBpwLmYCC-4135273-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-under-jupiter-s-sway-the-tidal-influence">Under Jupiter’s sway: The tidal influence</h2>



Due to its proximity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fresh-look-at-jupiter-through-an-ultraviolet-lens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> and rapid orbit, Io is subjected to an intense gravitational pull.



As Io swings closer and further away from Jupiter, the planet’s gravity exacts an unrelenting squeeze on the moon. This results in extreme tidal flexing, which generates immense internal heat energy.



“This constant flexing creates immense energy, which literally melts portions of Io’s interior," explained Bolton.



"If Io has a global magma ocean, we knew the signature of its tidal deformation would be much larger than a more rigid, mostly solid interior. Thus, depending on the results from Juno’s probing of Io’s gravity field, we would be able to tell if a global magma ocean was hiding beneath its surface."



The scientists compared the Doppler data with observations from previous missions to the Jovian system and ground-based telescopes. The team discovered evidence that did not support the presence of a shallow global magma ocean within Io.



“That’s what’s happening inside Io,” Bolton said. “That squeezing is generating heat, and it’s getting so hot that [Io’s] insides are literally melting and popping out. The eruptions are constant. It’s like a nonstop rainstorm. It’s just always erupting all over the place.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-formation-and-evolution">Planetary formation and evolution</h2>



Study lead author Ryan Park is a Juno co-investigator and supervisor at the Solar System Dynamics Group at JPL.



Park elaborated on how Juno’s discovery does more than reshape our understanding of Io's geology.



“It has implications for our understanding of other moons, such as Enceladus and Europa, and even exoplanets and super-Earths. Our new findings provide an opportunity to rethink what we know about planetary formation and evolution,” said Park. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-exploration-of-volcanic-moons">Future exploration of volcanic moons</h2>



The discovery that Io's volcanoes are fueled by individual magma chambers rather than a global magma ocean has significant implications for future planetary exploration. 



The finding suggests that volcanic activity on other celestial bodies, such as Europa or Enceladus, could similarly arise from localized geological processes.



The research encourages a re-examination of the geological dynamics on moons across the solar system and beyond.



Moreover, understanding the internal mechanisms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brilliant-new-images-of-jupiters-moon-io-captured-by-juno-spacecraft/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Io’s volcanic activity</a> provides a template for studying the geophysical behaviors of exoplanets. 



Researchers believe that many super-Earths and exomoons might exhibit similar tidal flexing and localized heat generation due to the gravitational forces from their parent stars or planets.



By studying Io, scientists can develop new models for detecting and analyzing geological activity in distant worlds.



As Juno continues its mission, the spacecraft’s unique data will help refine exploration strategies for future missions targeting moons with suspected subsurface activity. 



The full scientific paper is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08442-5.epdf?sharing_token=CJBB89O68uMgxB_LsPNeadRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0NjXxFCBfLiSlorskpWVf8UxDq5XG8IddBV4PFQByvPiqsYUkOJnkktREIU81Fmun6FsiHaS0TErG20R3LhYOSWWTidJRfZrzprLoKNICvZrjvf-gTe4eINgk8qhTB0RWI%3D">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ SwRI/ Gerald Eichstädt



Video Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/Koji Kuramura/Gerald Eichstädt



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Juno reveals the hidden forces behind Jupiter's fiery moon Io

Io, the innermost of Jupiter’s four large moons, is the...

Are human spacecraft and landers on Mars just space trash, or are they artifacts of historical importance? 



University of Kansas anthropologist Justin Holcomb argues that the remnants of human exploration on Mars deserve preservation. 



These objects, Holcomb suggests, mark a pivotal moment in human history - our first steps into interplanetary exploration.



Holcomb's new paper, titled&nbsp;“Emerging Archaeological Record of Mars,” makes the case for viewing Mars exploration <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-moon-soil-lunar-regolith-space-debris-into-building-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">debris</a> as heritage rather than litter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-material-footprint-of-human-exploration">Material footprint of human exploration </h2>



“Our main argument is that Homo sapiens are currently undergoing a dispersal, which first started out of Africa, reached other continents and has now begun in off-world environments,” Holcomb explained.



“We've started peopling the solar system. And just like we use artifacts and features to track our movement, evolution and history on Earth, we can do that in outer space by following probes, satellites, landers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-moon-soil-lunar-regolith-space-debris-into-building-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">various materials left behind</a>.”



Holcomb sees a “material footprint” of human exploration on Mars. Much like ancient middens - garbage dumps studied by archaeologists on Earth - space debris tells a story. These objects, deemed “space trash” by some, hold immense archaeological value.



“These are the first material records of our presence, and that's important to us. I've seen a lot of scientists referring to this material as space trash, galactic litter," Holcomb noted.



"Our argument is that it's not trash; it's actually really important. It's critical to shift that narrative towards heritage because the solution to trash is removal, but the solution to heritage is preservation. There's a big difference.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planning-future-missions-to-preserve-artifacts">Planning future missions to preserve artifacts</h2>



To preserve these artifacts, the team from <a href="https://www.ku.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kansas</a> urges future missions to consider landing locations carefully.



“Missions to other planets must consider this in their planning,” noted Holcomb. “They won't land in areas that could disturb these sites. They'll think about them differently than just trash lying around.”



This perspective introduces new academic and practical challenges. Holcomb explained that tracking humanity’s presence on Mars requires studying its stratigraphy - the layers of soil and artifacts left over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-archaeological-record-on-mars">New archaeological record on Mars</h2>



Holcomb’s research expands on earlier work, where he advocated for recognizing a “lunar anthropocene” - a period marking human impact on the Moon.



While Mars may not yet have a defined “anthropocene,” Holcomb argues it already has an archaeological record. Preserving it could allow us to place artifacts within a structured timeline of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-space-exploration-could-be-shut-down-by-orbiting-debris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human exploration</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_archaeological-record_illustration_credit-Justin-Holcomb_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_archaeological-record_illustration_credit-Justin-Holcomb_1s.webp" alt="Map of Mars illustrating the fourteen missions to Mars, key sites, and examples of artifacts contributing to the development of the archaeological record: (B) Viking-1 lander; (C) trackways created by NASA's Perseverance rover; (D) Dacron netting used in thermal blankets, photographed by NASA's Perseverance rover using its onboard. Front Left. Hazard Avoidance Camera A; (E) China's Tianwen-1 lander and Zhurong rover in southern Utopia Planitia photographed by HiRISE; (F) the ExoMars Schiaparelli Lander crash site in Meridiani Planum; (G) Illustration of the Soviet Mars Program's Mars 3 space probe; (H) NASA's Phoenix lander with DVD in foreground. Credit: Justin Holcomb" class="wp-image-1953903"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Map of Mars illustrating the fourteen missions to Mars, key sites, and examples of artifacts contributing to the development of the archaeological record: (B) Viking-1 lander; (C) trackways created by NASA's Perseverance rover; (D) Dacron netting used in thermal blankets, photographed by NASA's Perseverance rover using its onboard. Front Left. Hazard Avoidance Camera A; (E) China's Tianwen-1 lander and Zhurong rover in southern Utopia Planitia photographed by HiRISE; (F) the ExoMars Schiaparelli Lander crash site in Meridiani Planum; (G) Illustration of the Soviet Mars Program's Mars 3 space probe; (H) NASA's Phoenix lander with DVD in foreground. Credit: Justin Holcomb</figcaption></figure>



The first major event in this record dates back to 1971, when the Soviet Union’s Mars 2 rover crash-landed on the planet.



“The Mars 2 crash represents one of the first times our species touched another planet - not a celestial body, because that was the Moon,” said Holcomb. "But the Mars 2 crash is the first time our species left a preserved imprint on the surface of another planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-preserving-artifacts-on-mars">Challenge of preserving artifacts on Mars</h2>



Unlike Earth, Mars presents unique challenges for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/undetectable-space-junk-is-now-easier-to-detect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preserving</a> and studying artifacts. Holcomb emphasized the need for a new field: planetary geoarchaeology. This discipline would explore how Martian conditions affect artifacts over time.



“That field is called geoarchaeology - specifically, the field that studies geological effects on archaeological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clusters-final-mission-a-fiery-return-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials</a>,” Holcomb said.



“Planetary geoarchaeology is a future field for sure, and we need to consider the materials not only on Mars in general but also in various places on Mars, which have different processes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-martian-factors-threaten-artifact-preservation">Martian factors threaten artifact preservation</h2>



Mars’s cryosphere, iron-rich sands, and massive dust storms are major factors that threaten the preservation of artifacts.



“For example, Mars has a cryosphere in the northern and southern latitudes, so ice action there will increase the alteration of materials much more rapidly,” Holcomb explained. 



“With Mars’s iron-rich sands - what happens when materials get buried? The most obvious issue is burial by large dune sands. Mars has global dust storms, which are unique. A single storm can literally travel across the entire globe." 



"On top of that, there are local dust storms. The Spirit Rover, for example, is right next to an encroaching dune field that will eventually bury it.”



Once buried, locating artifacts becomes extremely difficult. This highlights the urgency of creating a systematic approach to track and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/treaty-needed-to-protect-earth-from-space-debris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preserve these materials</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-a-preservation-database">Creating a preservation database</h2>



Holcomb proposes establishing a methodology for tracking and cataloguing human material on Mars. This could be achieved using existing systems, such as the U.N. Register of Objects Launched into Outer Space (<a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/spaceobjectregister/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNOOSA</a>). He emphasizes that each artifact, no matter how small, is historically significant.



“If this material is heritage, we can create databases that track where it’s preserved, all the way down to a broken wheel on a rover or a helicopter blade, which represents the first helicopter on another planet,” Holcomb said. 



“These artifacts are very much like hand axes in East Africa or Clovis points in America. They represent the first presence and, from an archaeological perspective, they are key points in our historical timeline of migration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trash-or-treasure">Trash or treasure?</h2>



Holcomb’s work challenges us to rethink what we call “space trash.” These artifacts document humanity’s expansion onto Mars and in space overall. They are more than debris - they are the first chapters in our species’ journey beyond Earth.



Future missions must carefully plan to avoid disturbing these important sites. By cataloguing and preserving these artifacts, we ensure that future generations can study and appreciate humanity’s interplanetary history.



“There’s a material footprint to this dispersal,” noted Holcomb. Recognizing its value now could shape how we view our exploration of the solar system for centuries to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02439-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Image Credit: Justin Holcomb



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Debris left on Mars by humans should be treated as historical artifacts

Are human spacecraft and landers on Mars just space trash,...

Frontal,Portrait,Of,A,Male,Mandrill

The order&nbsp;'"Primates"&nbsp;includes over 450 species of monkeys, lemurs, lorises, and galagos, in addition to our closest relatives, the seven species of great apes. 



From 400-pound gorillas to minute mouse lemurs (Microcebus) that can weigh a single ounce, primates showcase incredible diversity.



They also display remarkable behaviors. For example, chimpanzees use sticks to fish for termites, while orangutans use leaves as gloves to handle spiky durian fruits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-timetree-for-primates">Building a timetree for primates</h2>



Despite extensive studies on their diversity, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> evolutionary history remains incompletely understood. 



There is no comprehensive molecular phylogenetic tree summarizing the relationships and timing of all primates.



Existing efforts include a timetree for just over 200 species, and a synthetic timetree, derived from over 4,000 studies, that covers only about 300 primate species. This leaves a significant portion of the primate evolutionary tree unresolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-complete-evolutionary-trees-matter">Why complete evolutionary trees matter</h2>



Timed evolutionary trees are essential for understanding biodiversity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary history</a>. 



These phylogenetic trees, also called timetrees, provide insights into when species emerged and how they relate to one another. Their importance extends beyond curiosity. 



Timetrees form the foundation for:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Taxonomy and species identification: they help identify and catalog new species. </li>



<li>Evolutionary studies: researchers analyze rates of evolution and factors like climate change or geological events that influence species development. </li>



<li>Biogeography and historical ecology: timetrees reveal spatial and ecological patterns in species distributions. </li>



<li>Conservation:&nbsp;as biodiversity declines, timetrees highlight conservation priorities and assess preservation efforts.</li>
</ul>



Simply put, phylogenies are critical tools for understanding the past, present, and future of species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rarity-of-complete-phylogenies">Rarity of complete phylogenies</h2>



Considering their value, one might assume that complete phylogenies are common. However, they remain rare. The NCBI taxonomy database holds molecular sequences for nearly 500,000 species. 



In contrast, <a href="https://timetree.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The TimeTree of Life</a>, the largest timed phylogeny database, includes only about 150,000 species. Most published phylogenies focus on smaller groups of organisms, averaging just 25 species.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/primates_timetree_455-species_credit-Craig_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/primates_timetree_455-species_credit-Craig_1s.webp" alt="Timetree of 455 species of primates. Images from phylopic.org. Credit: Craig et al., 2024." class="wp-image-1953893"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Timetree of 455 species of primates. Images from phylopic.org. Credit: Craig et al., 2024.</figcaption></figure>



These smaller phylogenies prioritize precision within limited taxonomic groups. However, to construct a complete tree of life, researchers must merge these smaller efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-path-to-build-complete-primate-timetrees">New path to build complete primate timetrees</h2>



While complete timetrees are uncommon, the resources to build them already exist. Untimed phylogenies, which outnumber timed ones, hold significant potential. 



By adding a few calibrations, researchers can transform these untimed trees into useful components of larger timetrees. 



Additionally, molecular data for many species exist in public repositories like&nbsp;NCBI GenBank, where DNA sequences are freely available.



This abundance of untapped data offers an opportunity to construct comprehensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-bonds-are-not-just-about-love-theyre-strategic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary</a> trees. Researchers have developed a supertree-building method to maximize these resources. 



Their approach involves:



<ol start="1" class="wp-block-list">
<li>Collecting published, timed phylogenies of species. </li>



<li>Searching for untimed phylogenies and adding calibrations to estimate timing. </li>



<li>Assembling new alignments using molecular data from repositories. </li>



<li>Combining all of the above to produce a complete, synthetic timetree.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-complete-primate-timetree-to-date">Most complete primate timetree to date</h2>



Using this method, researchers from <a href="https://www.temple.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Temple University</a> have successfully constructed a new synthetic supertree of&nbsp;455 primate species, covering 98% of primates listed in NCBI taxonomy.



This achievement adds 55 species previously absent from the TimeTree of Life. The new primate timetree represents the most complete depiction of primate evolutionary relationships to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-on-primate-evolution">Insights on primate evolution</h2>



This effort proves that incomplete knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-who-are-facially-expressive-make-the-best-leaders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary</a> history can be addressed with existing data. Complete timetrees not only provide evolutionary context but also enable researchers to test new hypotheses.



For instance, in this study, the researchers explored whether the diversity of primate clades resulted from faster speciation rates in some lineages or simply from the passage of time. 



The findings revealed that major primate groups shared similar speciation rates. Therefore, older lineages accumulated more species over time. 



This analysis highlights the utility of large, complete timetrees. Without accurate dates and species counts, such conclusions would be unreliable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-completing-the-tree-of-life">Completing the tree of life</h2>



The new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-loss-is-forcing-endangered-primates-to-interbreed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> timetree demonstrates that filling gaps in evolutionary history is achievable. The tools and data exist, but collaboration and synthesis remain key. 



As researchers continue to combine molecular sequences, untimed phylogenies, and calibrated studies, the dream of a complete TimeTree of Life grows closer to reality.



Complete timetrees have far-reaching impacts. They guide taxonomic studies, reveal evolutionary trends, and can strengthen conservation efforts during the ongoing biodiversity crisis. 



This research offers a blueprint for future projects that aim to build complete evolutionary trees.



Ultimately, understanding primate evolution helps us appreciate the rich diversity of life on Earth - from the tiniest mouse lemur to the powerful gorilla - and the intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-hotspots-may-skew-our-view-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> that shaped it all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bioinformatics/articles/10.3389/fbinf.2024.1495417/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bioinformatics</a>.



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Primate evolution: Completing the timetree of life for all of our closest relatives

The order&nbsp;'"Primates"&nbsp;includes over 450 species of monkeys, lemurs, lorises, and...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

Well, the octopus has a breeding strategy called semelparity, meaning that it will go through pregnancy once and will die soon after giving birth. While it may seem harsh, this strategy enables this species to maximize its breeding potential. Although it&#8217;s a sad end for the mother octopus, her story provided some important biological insights.

Circle of life

While the fate of the baby octopi is open to interpretation, the MBARI research team was fairly certain that they were alive and well. Because they live in such chilly waters, unborn octopi need time to develop before they hatch. So this female octopus’ offspring should have been more than ready to survive in the ocean on their own and hunt for small prey. But what of their mother? Photo Credit: Bureau of Land Management Oregon and Washington/Wikimedia Commons | CC BY 2.0