Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features Ksudach, a remarkable volcanic complex located on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula.



“The peninsula is one of the world’s most active volcanic arcs due to tectonic plate movement, with the Pacific Plate subducting under the Eurasian Plate,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153779/ksudachs-nested-calderas-and-craters" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-eruptions-of-ksudach">Explosive eruptions of Ksudach</h2>



Ksudach is classified as a shield <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-helps-scientists-forecast-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> due to the gentle slopes formed by its extensive lava flows. The combination of its shield-like structure and the prominent caldera system makes Ksudach a unique volcanic feature on the Kamchatka Peninsula.



“Several overlapping calderas and craters comprise the volcano. Calderas are large, bowl-shaped depressions created by the collapse of overlying material into an emptied subsurface magma chamber,” explained NASA.



“Craters are circular depressions created by volcanic activity, surface impacts, or explosions.”



This volcanic system has a fascinating geological history shaped by multiple explosive eruptions.&nbsp;



The most significant of these occurred around 240 AD, leaving behind a prominent caldera that now hosts scenic crater lakes, such as Lake Ksudach. 



“Lakes within the volcanic region are primarily recharged by rain and snowmelt from the winter season. This photo shows the water’s contrasting blue hues surrounded by green vegetation,” noted NASA.



“Traces of snow fill valleys within and outside the volcano’s caldera complex. These snow-covered areas highlight the drainage patterns from higher to lower elevations. Water that flows through these erosional pathways and into the caldera supports its vegetation and lakes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-landscape-of-ksudach-nbsp">Unique landscape of Ksudach&nbsp;</h2>



Ksudach's landscape also features pyroclastic deposits, lava flows, and hydrothermal features like fumaroles.&nbsp;



The surrounding environment - which is part of the UNESCO-listed Kamchatka Volcanoes - supports a diverse ecosystem with unique wildlife. 



Despite its remote location, Ksudach has drawn the attention of geologists, offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic processes</a> and the dynamics of caldera formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-earth-s-geology-nbsp">Dynamic nature of Earth's geology&nbsp;</h2>



The most well-documented eruption of Ksudach occurred in March 1907. This eruption ranks as one of the largest in Kamchatka in the 20th century, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 5.



The eruption produced a colossal ash column that soared into the stratosphere, dispersing fine particles over vast distances and contributing to global atmospheric changes.&nbsp;



The sheer force of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/icelands-volcanic-eruptions-may-continue-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> unleashed pyroclastic flows - fast-moving avalanches of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris - that raced down the volcano's slopes, obliterating everything in their path.&nbsp;



These flows, capable of reaching temperatures over 1,000°C, decimated vegetation and altered the topography of the surrounding region.&nbsp;



Simultaneously, tephra deposits blanketed the landscape in layers of thick volcanic material, smothering ecosystems and creating a barren wasteland.&nbsp;



Today, Ksudach is considered an active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> but remains dormant. The region is closely monitored due to its potential for renewed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-ring-of-fire-nbsp">Pacific Ring of Fire&nbsp;</h2>



The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean where tectonic activity is highly concentrated.&nbsp;



This geologically dynamic area features numerous volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and frequent seismic activity - making it a hotspot for both natural beauty and scientific study. 



Kamchatka is home to over 160 volcanoes, with about 30 considered active, including Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest and one of the most active in the region.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



As the Pacific Plate dives into the Earth's mantle, it melts and generates magma that feeds Kamchatka’s volcanic systems.&nbsp;



This ongoing tectonic interaction also contributes to the broader activity of the Pacific Ring of Fire, which accounts for approximately 75% of the world's active and dormant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and about 90% of its earthquakes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-significance-nbsp">Broader significance&nbsp;</h3>



Beyond its geological significance, the Kamchatka Peninsula boasts a diverse ecosystem that is home to animals such as snow sheep, brown bears, red foxes, and unique plants that are adapted to its harsh environment. 



The coastal waters surrounding the peninsula support various fish species, including abundant salmon, as well as sea lions and killer whales.



The interplay of volcanic landscapes and pristine wilderness makes it a natural laboratory for understanding Earth's dynamic processes.



The image was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Ksudach: A volcano shaped by explosive forces

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a galaxy that is located about 600 million light-years away in the constellation Gemini. The Hubble Space Telescope observed a supernova in this galaxy - which appears as a bright blue dot in the photograph.



“This picture was taken roughly two months after a supernova named SN 2022aajn was discovered in this galaxy. The supernova is visible as a blue dot at the center of the image, brightening the hazy body of the galaxy,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-supernova">What is a supernova?</h2>



Supernovae are spectacular explosions marking the violent deaths of stars. These cosmic events are so luminous they can briefly outshine entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and radiate more energy in a few weeks than our Sun will in its entire lifetime.&nbsp;



Supernovae explosions release heavy elements like carbon, oxygen, and iron into the interstellar medium. This stellar debris becomes the building blocks for new stars, planets, and even life itself. 



Supernovae also produce neutron stars or black holes, depending on the remaining core’s mass after the explosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-supernovae-nbsp">Types of supernovae&nbsp;</h2>



There are two main types of supernovae, classified based on their causes. Type I supernovae occur when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a> in a binary system accretes material from its companion star, eventually reaching a critical mass and triggering a runaway nuclear reaction.&nbsp;



Type II supernovae happen when a massive star, at least eight times the mass of the Sun, exhausts its nuclear fuel. Unable to support its own gravity, the core collapses, resulting in a massive explosion that ejects the outer layers into space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-distance-to-faraway-galaxies-nbsp">Measuring the distance to faraway galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, SN 2022aajn is a Type Ia supernova. “Supernovae of this type help astronomers measure the distance to faraway galaxies. This is possible because Type Ia supernovae are thought to be of the same intrinsic luminosity - no matter how bright they seem from Earth, they put out the same amount of light as other Type Ia supernovae.”



This means that researchers can calculate the distance to the supernova and its host galaxy by comparing the observed brightness to the expected brightness.



“This seemingly simple measurement method is complicated by cosmic dust. The farther away a supernova is, the fainter and redder it will appear - but intergalactic dust can make a supernova appear fainter and redder as well,” explained ESA.



“To understand this complication, researchers will use Hubble to survey a total of 100 Type Ia supernovae in seven wavelength bands from the ultraviolet to the near-infrared.”



By analyzing the brightness of supernovae across multiple wavelengths, researchers can distinguish between the influences of dust and distance, refining our measurements of galaxies that exist billions of light-years away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-many-galaxies-exist">How many galaxies exist?</h2>



The number of galaxies in the universe is estimated to be around two trillion, based on observations from Hubble and more recent data from the James Webb Space Telescope. 



This estimate is derived from deep-field surveys that reveal countless galaxies, each containing billions to trillions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>.&nbsp;



However, because our observations are limited by current technology and the vastness of the cosmos, the actual number could be even higher.&nbsp;



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-galaxies-formed-from-the-earliest-elements-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> remain unseen due to their extreme distances, faintness, or obstruction by cosmic dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-gemini-nbsp">The constellation Gemini&nbsp;</h2>



Gemini is one of the 12 zodiac constellations and is best known for representing the mythological twins Castor and Pollux. It is located in the northern celestial hemisphere and is most visible during winter in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



The constellation is bordered by Taurus to the west, Cancer to the east, and Orion to the south.



The two brightest stars in Gemini - Castor and Pollux - represent the heads of the twins and are easy to spot. Pollux, the brighter of the two, is an orange giant star about 34 light-years from Earth, while Castor is a more complex system made up of six stars. 



The constellation also contains several notable deep-sky objects, including the open cluster Messier 35, which is a beautiful collection of young stars located near Gemini’s western border.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Hubble spots a supernova in the constellation Gemini 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. 



“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;



The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.



NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.



Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.



“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;



Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;



However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;



Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.



The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change.&nbsp;Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.



The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1333, a reflection nebula located in the Perseus molecular cloud about 960 light-years away from Earth. The photo is a mosaic of images captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



“Webb’s superb sensitivity allows astronomers to investigate young objects with extremely low masses. Some of the faintest ‘stars’ in the picture are in fact newly born free-floating brown dwarfs with masses comparable to those of giant planets,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



The same cluster was featured in the 33rd anniversary image of the Hubble Space Telescope in April 2023. 



According to ESA, Hubble’s image just scratched the surface of this region, because clouds of dust obscure much of the star formation process. 



"Observing with larger aperture and in the infrared part of the spectrum, Webb is capable of peering through the dusty veil to reveal newborn stars, brown dwarfs and planetary mass objects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-view-of-ngc-1333">Webb’s view of NGC 1333</h2>



ESA noted that the center of the image presents a deep peek into the heart of the NGC 1333 cloud.&nbsp;



“Across the image we see large patches of orange, which represent gas glowing in the infrared. These so-called Herbig-Haro objects form when ionized material ejected from young stars collides with the surrounding cloud. They are hallmarks of a very active site of star formation."



The disks of gas and dust that surround the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in this image may eventually produce planetary systems.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-in-the-sun-s-birth-cluster">Stars in the Sun's birth cluster</h2>



“Similar to the young stars in this mosaic, our own Sun and planets formed inside a dusty molecular cloud, 4.6 billion years ago. Our Sun did not form in isolation but as part of a cluster, which was perhaps even more massive than NGC 1333,” explained ESA.



Over time, the stars in the Sun's birth cluster would have drifted apart due to gravitational interactions and the dispersion of gas in the region.



Astronomers have been studying certain clues, such as isotopic signatures in meteorites, that hint the Sun may have formed near massive stars. These stars likely produced supernovae, which could have influenced the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-objects-spotted-in-the-outer-solar-system-beyond-pluto/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> by injecting heavy elements like iron-60.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1333">Star formation in NGC 1333</h2>



NGC 1333 is a vibrant example of a stellar nursery, where active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> is ongoing. It is known for its chaotic appearance, shaped by the interactions between newborn stars and the surrounding material.



Within NGC 1333, astronomers have observed a high level of turbulence, which makes the region dynamic and complex. 



These disturbances are caused by the outflows of young stars as they eject material into their surroundings, creating shock waves and influencing further star formation.&nbsp;



These outflows are often seen as jets, which are visible in multiple wavelengths of light, especially infrared, as the surrounding dust absorbs visible light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-stages-of-planet-formation">Early stages of planet formation </h2>



NGC 1333 is also an area of interest for studying the early stages of star and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>, as many of the stars within the cluster are in their infancy.



These stars are still in the process of gathering material and developing protoplanetary disks. 



In images, NGC 1333 is marked by bright patches of blue and red, representing reflection <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and the ionized gas created by energetic young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-perseus-molecular-cloud-nbsp">The Perseus molecular cloud&nbsp;</h2>



The Perseus molecular cloud is a vast region of cold gas and dust located about 600 light-years away from Earth in the constellation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1500-billion-orphan-stars-discovered-in-the-perseus-galaxy-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseus</a>.&nbsp;



It is one of the most studied star-forming regions in our galaxy due to its relative proximity and the diversity of its young stellar objects. This cloud spans several hundred light-years and contains dense pockets of gas where new stars are actively forming.&nbsp;



These areas are often enshrouded in thick dust, which obscures them in visible light but allows astronomers to study them using infrared and radio wavelengths.



The Perseus molecular cloud is particularly interesting because of the chemistry taking place within it, including the formation of complex organic molecules that could be precursors to life.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA



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Stellar nursery shines in the Perseus cloud

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral galaxy NGC 2566, which is located 76 million light-years away in the constellation Puppis. The image was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



“A prominent bar of stars stretches across the center of this galaxy, and spiral arms emerge from each end of the bar. Because NGC 2566 appears tilted from our perspective, its disk takes on an almond shape, giving the galaxy the appearance of a cosmic eye,” said <a href="https://phys.org/news/2024-12-hubble-spies-spiral-galaxy-ngc.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“As NGC 2566 appears to gaze at us, astronomers gaze right back, using Hubble to survey the galaxy's star clusters and star-forming regions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-appearance-of-ngc-2566">Complex appearance of NGC 2566</h2>



NGC 2566 lies at a considerable distance from Earth, making it a challenging object for amateur astronomers to observe in detail without powerful telescopes.&nbsp;



It can be seen in the Southern Hemisphere sky and is better observed from locations with minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-light-pollution-influences-interest-in-astronomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light pollution</a>.&nbsp;



The galaxy's arms are populated with young, bright stars, regions of active star formation, and interstellar gas and dust - giving it a dynamic and complex appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-ages-of-stars">Measuring the ages of stars</h2>



According to NASA, data from Hubble is especially valuable for studying stars that are just a few million years old. “These stars are bright at the ultraviolet and visible wavelengths to which Hubble is sensitive.”



“Using these data, researchers can measure the ages of NGC 2566's stars, which helps piece together the timeline of the galaxy's star formation and the exchange of gas between star-forming clouds and the stars themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-galaxies">Star formation in galaxies</h2>



Star formation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> is a fascinating and complex process that unfolds over millions of years. It begins in vast clouds of gas and dust, known as molecular clouds, which are often found in the spiral arms of galaxies or in regions of irregular or starburst galaxies.&nbsp;



These clouds provide the raw material for star formation, consisting primarily of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of heavier elements.



As the molecular clouds collapse under their own gravity, regions within them begin to condense and fragment, forming dense clumps. Within these clumps, protostars emerge. Their formation is driven by the gravitational pull drawing in surrounding gas.&nbsp;



During this process, the gas heats up due to increasing pressure, eventually igniting nuclear fusion in the core, signaling the birth of a new star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rate-of-star-formation-nbsp-across-galaxies">Rate of star formation&nbsp;across galaxies</h2>



The rate of star formation varies across galaxies is influenced by numerous factors. In spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, star formation is most active in the spiral arms, where density waves compress gas and dust, triggering the collapse of molecular clouds.&nbsp;



Elliptical galaxies, which often have little cold gas and dust, typically exhibit low rates of star formation or none at all.



Starburst galaxies, on the other hand, experience episodes of exceptionally high star formation, often triggered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-captures-a-galaxy-collision-with-a-radiant-smile/">galactic collisions</a> or interactions. 



These events can funnel large amounts of gas into central regions, leading to intense star-forming activity. However, such bursts are usually short-lived on cosmic timescales, exhausting the available gas quickly.



The environment within a galaxy also plays a significant role. Stellar winds and supernova explosions from existing stars can both inhibit and promote star formation. They may disperse gas, preventing further collapse, or compress nearby clouds, triggering new star formation.&nbsp;



Over time, as galaxies evolve, the availability of gas diminishes, leading to a gradual decline in star formation activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-puppis-constellation-nbsp">The Puppis constellation&nbsp;</h2>



The Puppis constellation in the southern sky represents the stern of a ship. It was once part of a larger constellation known as Argo Navis, which depicted the mythical ship of Jason and the Argonauts.&nbsp;



However, Argo Navis was later divided into three separate constellations: Puppis, Carina (the keel), and Vela (the sails). Puppis is the largest of these three and contains many notable celestial objects.



This constellation is home to several bright stars, including Naos (Zeta Puppis), a hot, massive star that emits intense ultraviolet radiation. Puppis also hosts a wide variety of deep-sky objects, such as open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-star-clusters-captured-in-the-extreme-outskirts-of-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star clusters</a> and nebulae.&nbsp;



Among these, Messier 46 and Messier 47 stand out. Both are beautiful star clusters that are visible through binoculars or small telescopes. The region is dense with stars because it lies along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-collision-may-change-everything-we-know-about-our-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, making it a prime area for stargazing and astrophotography. 



Image Credit: NASA



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A cosmic eye in the Puppis constellation

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features UGC 5460, a spiral galaxy that is located about 60 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



“This image combines four different wavelengths of light to reveal UGC 5460’s central bar of stars, winding spiral arms and bright blue star clusters. Also captured in the upper left-hand corner of this image is a far closer object: a star just 577 light-years away in our own galaxy,” said <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“UGC 5460 has hosted two recent supernovae named SN 2011ht and SN 2015as. It’s because of these two stellar explosions that Hubble targeted this galaxy, collecting data for three observing programmes that aim to study various kinds of supernovae.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-core-collapse-supernova-nbsp">A core-collapse supernova&nbsp;</h2>



SN 2015as is an example of a core-collapse supernova. This type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> occurs when the core of a massive star - typically with more than 8 times the mass of the sun - can no longer support its own gravity after exhausting its nuclear fuel. 



This causes the core to collapse under its own weight, leading to an extremely violent explosion. The collapse triggers the release of an enormous amount of energy, expelling the outer layers of the star into space.



In the aftermath of the explosion, a dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shockingly-bright-carbon-monoxide-detected-in-supernova-remnant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remnant</a> is created. This is often a neutron star or black hole, depending on the mass of the original star. Core-collapse supernovae are some of the most powerful events in the universe.



According to ESA, Hubble observations of SN 2015as will help researchers understand what happens when the expanding shockwave of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> collides with the gas that surrounds the exploded star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-stars-with-large-eruptions-nbsp">Rare stars with large eruptions&nbsp;</h2>



“SN 2011ht might have been a core-collapse supernova as well, but it could also be an impostor called a luminous blue variable. Luminous blue variables are rare stars that experience eruptions so large that they can mimic supernovae,” noted ESA.



“Crucially, luminous blue variables emerge from these eruptions unscathed, while stars that go supernova do not. Hubble will search for a stellar survivor at SN 2011ht’s location, and the explosion’s identity may be revealed at last.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-spiral-galaxy">What is a spiral galaxy?</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most recognizable and beautiful structures in the universe. They are known for their distinctive arms that spiral outward from a central bulge.&nbsp;



These galaxies are typically composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The arms are often sites of intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>, where clouds of gas collapse to form new stars. 



In the center of a spiral galaxy lies a dense concentration of older stars and, often, a supermassive black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-of-a-spiral-galaxy-nbsp">Structure of a spiral galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The structure of a spiral galaxy is generally divided into three main components: the disk, the bulge, and the halo.&nbsp;



The disk is where the spiral arms are located and contains most of the galaxy's visible stars and interstellar medium.&nbsp;



The bulge is a tightly packed region of older stars at the core, and the halo consists of a sparse collection of stars and globular clusters that surround the galaxy.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies can be classified into different types based on the tightness and number of their spiral arms, as well as the size of their central bulge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-galaxy">The Milky Way galaxy</h2>



Our solar system is located within a large spiral galaxy known as the Milky Way. The name refers to its appearance as a dim, milky band of light stretching across the night sky.&nbsp;



The term "Milky Way" comes from ancient Greek mythology, where it was associated the goddess Hera's milk spilling into the sky. In Greek, it was called "Galaxias Kyklos," meaning "milky circle."&nbsp;



Spanning about 100,000 light-years in diameter, the Milky Way is composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The galaxy has a distinct disk shape with spiral arms that wind outward from a central bulge, which houses a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>. 



Our sun is located in one of the spiral arms - known as the Orion Arm - positioned roughly halfway from the center to the outer edge.&nbsp;



The Milky Way is part of a small group of galaxies called the Local Group, which includes the Andromeda Galaxy and several smaller galaxies.



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Hubble views a spiral galaxy with stellar explosions

Wild hog in the Namib desert in Namibia Photo Credit: Photofex-AUT

Wild Hog

Population genetics can reveal surprising insights about the ancestry of any group, often challenging assumptions that have persisted for centuries. Japan is a prime example, with many believing its people descend from only two main lines of ancestry. 



New evidence now indicates that there may be a third strand woven into the country’s genetic heritage. Researchers are examining DNA clues and clinical data to piece together a bigger story, and the results are shaking up conventional wisdom on what it really means to be Japanese.



A paper published in the journal Science Advances presented findings that suggest a far more intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreating-the-face-of-dragon-man-harbin-skull-denisovans-an-ancient-human-cousin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic tapestry</a> is involved in the ultimate ancestry of people in Japan than previously thought. 



The project behind this discovery is led by experts who investigated thousands of samples to paint a detailed picture of ancestry. 



After sifting through these clues, RIKEN’s Chikashi Terao and colleagues propose that a third group, the so-called Emishi people, is part of this fascinating blend.



Terao, who headed the study at RIKEN's <a href="https://www.riken.jp/en/research/labs/ims/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Integrative Medical Sciences</a>, explains, “Our analysis revealed Japan's subpopulation structure on a fine scale, which is very beautifully classified according to geographical locations in the country.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-perspective-on-japanese-ancestry">Fresh perspective on Japanese ancestry</h2>



Researchers used whole-genome sequencing to analyze genetic information from more than 3,200 people across seven regions of Japan. 



This approach zooms in on all three billion DNA base-pairs, offering a much more comprehensive view compared to previous methods. 



Terao says, “Whole-genome sequencing gives us the chance to look at more data, which helps us find more interesting things.”



By examining the data, the team pinpointed differences that track with older population groups. Traditional narratives described only two main ancestral lines: the Jomon and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-study-reveals-secrets-of-weedy-rice-invasion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rice-farming</a> migrants from east Asia. 



The latest results identify a third source in the mix - people with connections to northeast Asia known as the Emishi. 



One key aspect of this research is the focus on subtle markers that illuminate how these historical groups spread out across the islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-japan-s-ancestry-gets-clues-from-jewel">Japan's ancestry gets clues from JEWEL</h2>



The Japanese Encyclopedia of Whole-Genome/Exome Sequencing Library (JEWEL) combines genetic material with related medical and family information. 



The researchers gathered this data to explore health links and ancestry, creating a resource that also sheds light on how certain diseases appear in distinct areas. 



Terao remarks, “We reasoned that rare variants can sometimes be traced back to specific ancestral populations, and could be informative in revealing fine-scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-early-humans-great-migration-reached-america-challenged-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration patterns</a> within Japan.”



According to the analysis, Jomon ancestry remains most prominent in Okinawa, appearing in 28.5% of the samples studied there, while it is lowest in western Japan at just 13.4%. 



Meanwhile, the study found that individuals in western regions have closer connections to Han Chinese people. 



The influx of migrants from east Asia between the year 250 and year 794 correlates with that finding. Emishi-related lineage appears strongest in the northeast, gradually dwindling as one moves westward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-variants-and-their-role">Rare variants and their role</h2>



The study did more than trace broad patterns of ancestry. It also drilled down into uncommon gene variations to discover their potential involvement in various conditions. 



One particular variant of a gene called PTPRD has the potential to be highly damaging because it could be linked with hypertension, kidney failure, and myocardial infarction, according to Xiaoxi Liu, a senior scientist in Terao’s lab and the first author of the research. 



Additionally, significant incidences of variants in the GJB2 and ABCC2 genes were documented, tying them to hearing loss and chronic liver disease.



These clues demonstrate the practical potential of such extensive DNA surveys. By mapping rare changes, the researchers gain a sharper understanding of health outcomes, which may eventually guide new approaches to diagnosis or treatment. 



The JEWEL database thus provides a framework for aligning genetic signals with real-world health profiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-neanderthals-and-denisovans">Clues from Neanderthals and Denisovans</h2>



The project also examined segments inherited from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tinshemet-cave-more-evidence-neanderthals-and-early-humans-interacted-socially/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Denisovans</a>, two archaic human groups that intermixed with Homo sapiens millennia ago. 



Terao states, “We are interested in why ancient genomes are integrated and kept in modern human DNA sequences.” 



The team identified 44 ancient DNA regions present in Japanese people, many unique to East Asians. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/japanese_ancestry_introgressed-chart_credit-RIKEN_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/japanese_ancestry_introgressed-chart_credit-RIKEN_1s.webp" alt="Introgressed sequences from archaic Neanderthals or Denisovans in the Japanese population. Click to enlarge. Credit: RIKEN" class="wp-image-1963362"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Introgressed sequences from archaic Neanderthals or Denisovans in the Japanese population. Click to enlarge. Credit: RIKEN</figcaption></figure>



Among these was a Denisovan-derived segment within the NKX6-1 gene, which may influence how individuals respond to semaglutide, a drug used to treat type 2 diabetes.



They also located 11 Neanderthal-derived segments possibly tied to several conditions, including coronary artery disease, prostate cancer, and rheumatoid arthritis. 



Researchers in other parts of the world have shown that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-make-you-more-of-a-morning-person/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archaic DNA</a> occasionally grants advantages in extreme environments or impacts susceptibility to illness. 



This new study adds fresh details to the ongoing search for connections between ancient genes and modern-day health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-japan-ancestry-and-human-health">Japan, ancestry, and human health</h2>



Scientists point out that large-scale genetic investigations have mostly centered on European samples. Terao is keen to expand the reach of JEWEL by including more DNA profiles from Asia and beyond. 



This broader approach could highlight unique markers and conditions that are otherwise overlooked. “We’d like to connect population differences with differences in genetics,” he observes.



Population research of this magnitude promises to clarify how certain traits, disorders, and susceptibilities arise. 



It may also help fine-tune healthcare for specific communities by showing which variants are most influential. At the same time, it shows that no population is as uniform as once believed. 



The new evidence highlights how three ancestral groups contributed to the current mosaic in Japan, blending the histories of the Jomon, east Asian migrants, and the Emishi people into a more complete picture of Japan’s past.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adi8419" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Who are the Japanese people? DNA study results upend previous beliefs

Population genetics can reveal surprising insights about the ancestry of...

The European Space Agency (ESA) has unveiled the first survey data from its Euclid mission. The images feature a spectacular collection of galaxies, clusters, and deep cosmic fields. 



This first, massive Euclid data release previews what will soon become one of the largest cosmic maps ever created.



Three deep field mosaics highlight hundreds of thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-signals-from-the-center-of-our-galaxy-hint-at-a-new-kind-of-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>. Their shapes, brightness, and distributions offer a rich visual of the cosmic web. 



Each observation captures active galactic nuclei and rare, short-lived celestial events.



These glimpses already provide hints about the unseen forces shaping our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-found-in-the-early-universe-that-shouldnt-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-maps-26-million-galaxies">Euclid maps 26 million galaxies</h2>



The Euclid mission mapped 63 square degrees of galaxy-filled sky in just one week.



That area equals 300 full Moons. <a href="https://youtu.be/rXCBFlIpvfQ?si=jV1erYHoOnb-ggqy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">It captured more than 26 million galaxies</a>, including quasars up to 10.5 billion light-years away. The plan is for Euclid to scan each of the three deep regions 30–52 times before 2030.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Euclid_Galaxies-in-different-shapes_ESA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Euclid_Galaxies-in-different-shapes_ESA_1s.webp" alt="This image shows examples of galaxies in different shapes, all captured by Euclid during its first observations of the Deep Field areas. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1963131"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This image shows examples of galaxies in different shapes, all captured by Euclid during its first observations of the Deep Field areas. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



The final sky map will cover one-third of the sky, around 14,000 square degrees. 



These repeat passes will build an incredibly detailed 3D cosmic atlas that will help researchers explore how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-shows-signs-of-violent-past-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies formed</a> and how dark matter shaped their journey.



“We are unlocking a treasure trove of information for scientists to dive into,” stated Professor Carole Mundell, director of science at the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-reveals-galaxy-web-structure">Euclid reveals galaxy web structure</h2>



Each new observation sharpens our view of the universe's large-scale structure. 



Filaments of normal and dark matter stretch across space like a vast web. These filaments are where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-radiation-may-actually-be-a-catalyst-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> formed and evolved. 



Euclid’s visible and near-infrared instruments offer precision in measuring the shapes and distances of these galaxies.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Euclid_Deep-Field-South_70x-zoom_ESA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Euclid_Deep-Field-South_70x-zoom_ESA_1s.webp" alt="This image shows an area of Euclid’s Deep Field South. The area is zoomed in 70 times compared to the large mosaic. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1963129"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This image shows an area of Euclid’s Deep Field South. The area is zoomed in 70 times compared to the large mosaic. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



“Just think of the discoveries that await us,” noted Valeria Pettorino, an astrophysicist who works on the Euclid Project.



ESA scientists expect these images to refine our understanding of dark matter and dark energy. Together, these two invisible components make up 95% of the cosmos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-classifying-galaxies-by-shape-and-features">Classifying galaxies by shape and features </h2>



Euclid’s massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spherex-will-scan-the-galaxy-to-look-for-lifes-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> dataset requires fresh strategies. Every day, it sends back 100 GB of data. 



Scientists use AI models and citizen science to process this flood of information. A key result is a new catalogue of over 380,000 galaxies classified by shape and features.



“AI is a fundamental and necessary part of our process,” noted Mike Walmsley, a Euclid Consortium scientist based at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, Canada, who has been heavily involved in astronomical deep learning algorithms for the past decade. .



The Zoobot algorithm, trained by nearly 10,000 volunteers, now classifies galaxies by traits like spiral arms and mergers. This first catalogue is just 0.4% of what Euclid is expected to deliver.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravitational-lenses-reveal-hidden-matter">Gravitational lenses reveal hidden matter</h2>



When light travels to us from faraway galaxies, it doesn't always move in a straight line. If it passes through matter - like a galaxy or a cluster of galaxies - on the way, the light gets bent. 



This bending is called gravitational lensing. It's a natural effect caused by gravity and helps scientists detect dark matter, which we can't see directly.



Using artificial intelligence and help from human volunteers, Euclid has already found 500 possible examples of strong gravitational lenses. Most of these had never been seen before.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Euclid_strong-gravitational-lenses-captured_deep-field-south_ESA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Euclid_strong-gravitational-lenses-captured_deep-field-south_ESA_1s.webp" alt="This image shows examples of gravitational lenses that Euclid captured in its first observations of the Deep Field areas. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1963167"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This image shows examples of gravitational lenses that Euclid captured in its first observations of the Deep Field areas. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



By the end of the mission, it is anticipated that Euclid will find about 100,000 strong lenses. That’s a hundred times more than we currently know. 



Each one gives scientists a powerful tool to study how dark matter is spread out across the Universe and how galaxies are shaped by it.



“We are combining the strengths of Euclid, AI, citizen science, and experts into a single discovery engine,” said Pierre Ferruit, ESA’s Euclid mission manager.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-euclid-mission">What’s next for the Euclid mission</h2>



By March 2025, Euclid had already scanned 2,000 square degrees of the sky, packed with galaxies. That’s about 14% of its total planned survey. This work is just the start. 



The mission will share its first full set of cosmology data in October 2026. That upcoming release will include many repeated observations of three special regions called deep fields. 



These repeated scans will give scientists a clearer, more detailed view of those distant parts of the Universe.



Euclid launched in July 2023. It began regular science work in February 2024. ESA built the spacecraft with support from NASA and companies like Thales Alenia Space and Airbus. 



The mission is backed by the Euclid Consortium, a global team of over 2,000 scientists from 15 countries.



You can now explore the first deep field images through the <a href="https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/esdc/esasky" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESASky</a> platform. This is just the beginning. Euclid will continue to uncover the hidden structure of the cosmos.



Details of the latest Euclid Project images are available in this ESA <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid/Euclid_opens_data_treasure_trove_offers_glimpse_of_deep_fields" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">press release.</a>



Image Credit: ESA/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA, image processing by M. Walmsley, M. Huertas-Company, J.-C. Cuillandre



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26 million galaxies captured in vivid deep field photos in just one week

The European Space Agency (ESA) has unveiled the first survey...

In the heart of the Lighthouse Reef Atoll, off the coast of Belize in the Caribbean, lies a fascinating geological wonder - the Great Blue Hole. This vast, circular sinkhole bears an uncanny resemblance to a giant oceanic eye gazing up at the sky.



Nestled in the turquoise waters of the atoll, about 43 miles from the coast of Belize, this dark circular pit is surrounded by coral and contains sediments that tell a story about centuries of storms.



The Great Blue Hole began as a limestone cave on a dry island. During the last ice age, its roof collapsed, leaving it open to the elements. 



Today, this underwater cave plunges to a depth of 410 feet, spans 980 feet, and is one of the most fascinating places to scuba dive.



As glaciers melted and sea levels rose, the cave filled with water, turning it into a natural vault of sediment that has quietly recorded the passage of time.



In the summer of 2022, a team of scientists from <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University Frankfurt</a> led a mission to explore this hidden archive. 



Funded by the German Research Foundation, the researchers brought a drilling platform out to sea and extracted a 30-meter-long sediment core from the bottom of the Great Blue Hole.



The analysis, carried out by researchers from the universities of Frankfurt, Cologne, Göttingen, Hamburg, and Bern, has given new insight into storm history and climate change in the southwestern Caribbean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storm-record-written-in-sediment">Storm record written in sediment</h2>



Roughly 7,200 years ago, the limestone island that once held the Great Blue Hole was overtaken by the sea. Since then, layers of sediment have quietly accumulated at the bottom of the underwater cave.



These layers act like a natural time capsule, offering a window into 5,700 years of storm activity. Each layer records the passing of time, just as is found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-weather-extremes-found-in-600-year-old-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a>.



“Due to the unique environmental conditions – including oxygen-free bottom water and several stratified water layers – fine marine sediments could settle largely undisturbed in the Great Blue Hole,” said Dr. Dominik Schmitt, a researcher in the Biosedimentology Research Group at Goethe University Frankfurt.



“Inside the sediment core, they look a bit like tree rings, with the annual layers alternating in color between gray-green and light green depending on organic content.”



But not all layers are the same. Some are made up of coarser, lighter-colored particles. 



These event layers, called tempestites, formed when powerful waves from hurricanes and tropical storms swept coarse material from the atoll’s outer reef into the hole. 



“The tempestites stand out from the fair-weather gray-green sediments in terms of grain size, composition, and color, which ranges from beige to white,” Schmitt added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-climate-patterns">Long-term climate patterns </h2>



The team identified and dated 574 individual storm events that were preserved in the sediment core. This detailed storm record stretches far beyond the reach of written or instrumental history, which only covers about 175 years. 



The results offer a unique look into long-term climate patterns and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-propose-adding-a-category-6-to-the-current-hurricane-intensity-scale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hurricane</a> behavior in the region.



The data paints a clear picture: storm activity in the southwestern Caribbean has steadily risen over the past 6,000 years.



“A key factor has been the southward shift of the equatorial low-pressure zone. Known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-rains-will-shift-northward-in-the-coming-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a>, this zone influences the location of major storm formation areas in the Atlantic and determines how tropical storms and hurricanes move and where they make landfall in the Caribbean,” Schmitt said.



The researchers also discovered a connection between sea surface temperatures and storm frequency. Warmer waters matched up with periods of increased storm activity. 



“These shorter-term fluctuations align with five distinct warm and cold climate periods, which also impacted water temperatures in the tropical Atlantic,” Schmitt noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warning-from-the-storm-record">A warning from the storm record</h2>



Historical averages suggest that the Great Blue Hole experienced between four and sixteen major storms per century. However, the sediment record shows that nine storms have already occurred in just the past 20 years.



“Our results suggest that some 45 tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-fueled-unexpected-and-deadly-storms-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a> and hurricanes could pass over this region in our century alone. This would far exceed the natural variability of the past millennia,” said Prof. Eberhard Gischler of Goethe University Frankfurt.



The team emphasizes that natural climate changes alone cannot explain this dramatic increase. Instead, they point to human-driven global warming. 



The rise in ocean temperatures and the growing strength of La Niña events are creating the perfect conditions for more frequent and more intense storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sediment-core-with-a-message">A sediment core with a message</h2>



The Great Blue Hole, once thought to be a quiet underwater marvel, is now telling a louder story - one of climate shifts and increasing storm risk.



As the sediment layers continue to build, so does the urgency to address the accelerating pace of extreme weather. 



This research reminds us that history, especially the kind written in mud and sand, still has much to teach us.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ads5624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Sediment in the Great Blue Hole reveals an alarming storm record

In the heart of the Lighthouse Reef Atoll, off the...

An international research team deployed the unmanned submarine named 'Ran' beneath thick Antarctic ice. After that, things got weird. 



They captured the first detailed maps of a glacier’s underside, revealing vital clues about future sea level rise. 



They programmed ‘Ran’ to dive into the Dotson ice shelf cavity in West Antarctica and scan the ice with advanced sonar. 



Over 27 days, it traveled more than 1,000 kilometers under the glacier and reached 17 kilometers into the cavity. Previously, the team had used satellite data and ice cores to observe how glaciers change over time. 



"By navigating the submersible into the cavity, we were able to get high resolution maps of the ice underside," says lead author Anna Wåhlin, Professor of Oceanography at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a>.



"It’s a bit like seeing the back of the moon.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-dotson-ice-shelf-melt">Antarctic Dotson Ice Shelf melt</h2>



The Dotson Ice Shelf in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-loss-increases-snowfall-over-west-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West Antarctica</a> is a significant player in the discussion about future sea levels. 



Far from being flat, passive expanses of ice, these shelves are dynamic, evolving entities. They're thick bodies of glacial ice sustained by land-based glaciers. 



Uniquely, these ice shelves float atop the sea -- and beneath them are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-meteorites-vanish-in-antarctica-due-to-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice shelf cavities</a>.



One such cavity was the focus of Ran's recent mission - a survey that has unlocked new secrets about the structures and melting patterns of these ice shelves. 



The Dotson Ice Shelf, in particular, plays a crucial role in the West Antarctic ice sheet's overall stability and potential future sea level rise due to its size and location.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-lurks-beneath-antarctica-s-ice">What lurks beneath Antarctica's ice</h2>



The glacial exploration yielded expected results: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-natural-process-is-making-antarcticas-ice-melt-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice melted faster</a> where strong underwater currents erode its base. 



But what was surprising was the irregularity of the base itself. 



Instead of the smooth surface expected, the underwater landscape was reminiscent of peaks, valleys, plateaus and formations akin to sand dunes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Antarctica_Dotson-ice-shelf_mystery-shapes_credit-UGothenburg_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Antarctica_Dotson-ice-shelf_mystery-shapes_credit-UGothenburg_2s.webp" alt="Never before seen &quot;swirls and scoops&quot; map the meltwater's journey as it flows beneath the ice (Credit: Filip Stedt/ University of Gothenburg)" class="wp-image-1963348"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Never before seen "swirls and scoops" map the meltwater's journey as it flows beneath the ice. Click to enlarge. Credit: Filip Stedt/ University of Gothenburg</figcaption></figure>



The team believes these features may have been sculpted by flowing water under the influence of Earth’s rotation. 



This unexpected discovery has challenged previous scientific assumptions, sparking new questions about the complex mechanisms of glacier melting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-perspective-on-antarctic-melt">Unique perspective on Antarctic melt</h2>



"By navigating the submersible into the cavity, we were able to get high-resolution maps of the ice underside. It's a bit like seeing the back of the moon for the first time," said lead author Anna Wåhlin, Professor of Oceanography at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a> in Sweden.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Antarctica_RAN-AUV_operational-details_illustration_UGothenburg_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Antarctica_RAN-AUV_operational-details_illustration_UGothenburg_1s.webp" alt="The autonomous underwater vehicle Ran was programmed to perform missions under the ice shelf. An advanced multibeam sonar was used to map the base of the ice at a distance of about 50 meters. Credit: Anna Wåhlin/Science Advances" class="wp-image-1963354"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The autonomous underwater vehicle Ran was programmed to perform missions under the ice shelf. An advanced multibeam sonar was used to map the base of the ice at a distance of about 50 meters. Click to enlarge. Credit: Anna Wåhlin/Science Advances</figcaption></figure>



This exploration was part of the <a href="https://thwaitesglacier.org/projects/tarsan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TARSAN project</a>, a collaborative endeavor studying the atmospheric and oceanic processes influencing the behavior of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomsday-glacier-seems-to-have-lost-its-ability-to-recover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thwaites "doomsday glacier"</a> and Dotson Ice Shelves.



While the project expected to gather data, the spectacle they discovered was beyond their wildest dreams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracks-swirls-and-patterns">Cracks, swirls and patterns</h2>



Upon receiving the first images from beneath the ice shelf, the researchers were thrilled yet baffled. 



The textures and patterns they saw were unexpected, resembling works of art more than naturally occurring formations. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Antarctica_Dotson-ice-shelf_mystery-shapes_credit-UGothenburg_3m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Antarctica_Dotson-ice-shelf_mystery-shapes_credit-UGothenburg_3s.webp" alt="Under the east side of the Dotson Ice Shelf, the water has eroded several layers of ice into structures (Credit: Filip Stedt/ University of Gothenburg)" class="wp-image-1963350"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Under the east side of the Dotson Ice Shelf, the water has eroded several layers of ice into structures. Click to enlarge. Credit: Filip Stedt/ University of Gothenburg</figcaption></figure>



Intrigued by these findings, the team brainstormed to understand the forces behind them.



As they delved deeper, they found a series of firsts - a glimpse, for the first time, into the processes that melt the underside of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-threat-lurking-in-antarcticas-ice-shelves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice shelves</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-antarctic-ice-shelves">Melting Antarctic ice shelves</h2>



While these ice shelves floating on the sea may not directly affect sea levels when they melt, the repercussions are more indirect. 



As these ice shelves melt, the land-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> they feed flow faster and destabilize, leading to a rise in sea levels.



The newly uncovered data will significantly help ice modelers reduce the uncertainties in future sea level predictions.



Despite a wealth of new discoveries, the exploration also revealed numerous processes still left to understand in future expeditions. 



Existing models could not explain the complex patterns discovered. Continued collaborative study, combining remote sensing with oceanographic field data, is needed to understand the changes taking place.



"For us, it's not just a new discovery, but also a wake-up call that many previous assumptions about melting of glacier undersides are falling short," elucidates Prof Wåhlin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-antarctic-ice-melt">Future of Antarctic ice melt</h2>



The research expedition planned to repeat the survey in January 2024, eager to document any changes. Unfortunately, the team could only complete one dive before Ran disappeared under the ice.



"Although we got valuable data back, we did not get all we had hoped for," said Prof Wåhlin. 



Despite the setback, the team remains optimistic and hopeful of continuing this crucial research.



In the midst of the climate crisis, every bit of insight matters. As we unravel the mysteries of these icy landscapes, we inch closer to understanding our planet's future. 



This important and disturbing research from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East Anglia</a> and the University of Gothenburg is leading the way, and we anxiously anticipate their next expedition into the unknown.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn9188" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Never-before-seen Earth shapes described as 'like seeing the back of the moon'

An international research team deployed the unmanned submarine named 'Ran'...

Recently, astronomers made an astonishing discovery -- a mysterious and powerful burst of radio waves reached Earth after traveling through space for 8 billion years. Dubbed FRB 20220610A, it is one of the most distant and energetic radio signals ever observed.



Fast radio bursts (FRBs), including this particular one, are extremely intense flashes of radio waves that last only milliseconds, yet their origins remain a source of great intrigue and perplexity. 



Although astronomers are getting closer to understanding these enigmatic energy bursts, there is still much debate in the field as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-radio-bursts-traced-to-chaotic-magnetospheres-of-neutron-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">each new discovery</a> adds a new twist.



The nature of these signals challenges our understanding of the universe, as they can originate from regions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-radio-bursts-from-space-may-be-signs-of-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">far beyond our Milky Way galaxy</a>, hinting at processes and events that we are only beginning to comprehend.



Dr. Stuart Ryder, an esteemed astronomer at <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macquarie University</a> in Australia, is among the dedicated team of scientists working diligently to unravel the mysteries surrounding this cosmic enigma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-fast-radio-bursts-frbs">Understanding fast radio bursts (FRBs)</h2>



Researchers speculate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farthest-known-fast-radio-burst-traced-to-rare-cluster-of-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these cosmic events</a> might be linked to magnetars, the highly energetic remnants left behind by exploding stars.



Astronomers deployed the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder (<a href="https://www.atnf.csiro.au/projects/askap/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASKAP</a>) to detect the burst and track down its origin. 



"We used ASKAP’s radio dishes to skillfully pinpoint where the burst came from," says Dr. Ryder. 



The reveal didn't end there. The team also located the source galaxy using the European Southern Observatory’s <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Very Large Telescope</a>, discovering it to be older and more distant than any other FRB source found to date. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-location-of-frb-20220610a">Pinpointing location of FRB 20220610A</h2>



The European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope confirmed it came from a distant location, and it was four times more energetic than closer FRBs. 



Researchers relied on Hubble’s clarity to pinpoint the burst’s origin. 



"It required Hubble's keen sharpness and sensitivity to pinpoint exactly where the FRB came from," said lead author Alexa Gordon of <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> in Evanston, Illinois. 



"Without Hubble's imaging, it would still remain a mystery as to whether this was originating from one monolithic galaxy or from some type of interacting system. It's these types of environments - these weird ones - that are driving us toward better understanding the mystery of FRBs."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/radio-burst_8-billion-years_FRB-20220610A_Hubble-locates-origin_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/radio-burst_8-billion-years_FRB-20220610A_Hubble-locates-origin_NASA_1s.webp" alt="A Hubble Space Telescope image of the host galaxy of an exceptionally powerful fast radio burst, FRB 20220610A. Hubble’s sensitivity and sharpness reveals a compact group of multiple galaxies that may be in the process of merging. They existed when the universe was only 5 billion years old. Credit: NASA, ESA, STScI, Alexa Gordon" class="wp-image-1963342"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A Hubble Space Telescope image of the host galaxy of an exceptionally powerful fast radio burst, FRB 20220610A. Hubble’s sensitivity and sharpness reveals a compact group of multiple galaxies that may be in the process of merging. They existed when the universe was only 5 billion years old. Click to enlarge. Credit: NASA, ESA, STScI, Alexa Gordon</figcaption></figure>



Hubble’s crisp images hint that up to seven galaxies in this region may be merging, which is pretty intriguing. 



Co-investigator Wen-fai Fong, also of Northwestern, says scientists want to figure out what kicks off these bursts, who (or what) their progenitors are, and where they form. 



According to Fong, Hubble’s view of these unexpected environments gets us one step closer to solving the mystery behind these powerful flashes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weighing-the-universe-with-frbs">'Weighing' the universe with FRBs</h2>



Believe it or not, these fleeting cosmic fireworks could help us 'weigh' the universe. There's a discrepancy between the amount of normal matter we can detect and what cosmologists theorize should exist. Could the answer be outside our visual spectrum? 



"More than half of the normal matter that should exist today is missing," says Professor Ryan Shannon. He suggests that this 'missing' matter might be hiding in the vast spaces between galaxies, where it's too hot and diffuse to see with conventional methods.



Enter FRBs. Their unique ability to 'sense' the ionized material in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-alien-radio-signals-may-be-caused-by-starquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nearly empty space</a> allows scientists to measure the matter located between galaxies. 



This method, established in 2020 by the late Australian astronomer Jean-Pierre Macquart, is now known as the Macquart relation. 



"This detection confirms the Macquart relation, even for bursts halfway across the known universe," adds Ryder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-telescopes-will-soon-join-the-search">New telescopes will soon join the search</h2>



Nearly 50 FRBs have been traced back to their origins, and about half were discovered using the ASKAP telescope. 



Despite the unknown causes of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glitching-star-explains-cosmic-radio-bursts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enormous bursts</a>, one thing is certain: FRBs are common events in the cosmos and have enormous potential for advancing our understanding of the universe.



Professor Shannon believes that future radio telescopes, currently under construction, will detect thousands more FRBs. 



"FRBs are common and hold great promise," he says. "We could use them to create a new map of the universe's structure and answer big questions about cosmology."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-matter-mystery">Missing matter mystery</h2>



The universe is enormous, and much of it still baffles us, especially the disparity between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origins-of-matter-discovered-by-recreating-the-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observable and theoretical matter</a>. 



This "missing matter" refers to a significant amount that should be there according to our current models of cosmic evolution but hasn’t been seen. 



It turns out that visible matter -- like stars, planets, and galaxies -- makes up only about 5% of the universe's total mass-energy content. 



The other 95% is thought to be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-may-consist-of-particles-that-travel-faster-than-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, which we can’t directly detect. This gap raises some big questions about how the universe is structured and behaves.



Figuring out what this missing matter is and where it’s located is key to getting a complete picture of cosmic evolution and fine-tuning our models of how the universe works. 



Fortunately, the discovery of FRBs and their ability to trace hidden matter could revolutionize how we understand the cosmos. 



As Professor Shannon points out, even in nearly empty space, FRBs can 'see' electrons and measure the matter present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exciting-future-of-frb-research">Exciting future of FRB research</h2>



With more advanced radio telescopes on the horizon, the future of FRB research is looking bright. Each new detection brings us closer to unveiling the secrets of these powerful cosmic events. 



Beyond mapping the universe's structure, FRBs could guide us to fundamental questions about the inner workings of the universe -- aligning us closer with the cosmic forces and events that shape our cosmos.



Despite our growing knowledge base, FRBs remain one of the universe's great mysteries. As researchers venture deeper into the study of these cosmic flashes, one thing becomes clear: we still know very little about the universe in which we live.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adf2678" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Deep space radio burst reaches Earth after an 8 billion year journey

Recently, astronomers made an astonishing discovery -- a mysterious and...

In the forests of Tanzania, chimpanzees have long been known to fish for termites using handmade tools crafted from local plants. But what makes this behavior even more fascinating is how carefully they seem to choose the materials for their tools.



New research now shows that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> are not just grabbing any nearby stick to poke into a termite nest - they’re making smart choices based on how flexible and effective the material is.



This discovery comes from a collaborative effort between researchers at the University of Oxford’s <a href="https://www.anthro.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Anthropology</a> and Museum Ethnography, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, the Jane Goodall Institute in Tanzania, the University of Algarve, the University of Porto in Portugal, and the University of Leipzig.



The study sheds light on the technical thinking behind chimpanzee tool use, a largely invisible part of primate evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-prefer-flexible-tools-for-fishing">Chimpanzees prefer flexible tools for fishing</h2>



To eat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termites</a>, chimpanzees must first catch them. The primates use thin plant probes to pull the insects carefully out of narrow, winding tunnels inside termite mounds.



The team proposed that flexible tools would work better in these tight spaces than rigid sticks. To test this, lead author Alejandra Pascual-Garrido brought a portable mechanical tester to Gombe Stream National Park. She measured the amount of force it took to bend different plant materials.



The results were striking. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-sense-when-something-touches-them-despite-not-having-nerves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants</a> that the chimpanzees actually used were much more flexible than those that were available but ignored. 



On average, unused plants were 175 percent more rigid. Even among plants growing side-by-side near the termite mounds, the ones that were repeatedly used produced significantly more flexible tools.



“This is the first comprehensive evidence that wild chimpanzees select tool materials for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-a-peak-season-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termite fishing</a> based on specific mechanical properties,” said Pascual-Garrido, who has been studying chimpanzee tool-making in Gombe for over ten years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-preferences-across-africa">Shared preferences across Africa</h2>



Interestingly, the same plant species used by chimpanzees in Gombe such as Grewia - are also used by other chimpanzee populations living thousands of kilometers away.



This pattern suggests that the mechanical qualities of these plants are so useful that they’ve become common knowledge among different chimpanzee groups. It also hints that this knowledge might be deeply embedded in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-cultures-are-more-complex-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee culture</a>.



Their choices suggest a kind of natural logic. Chimpanzees may have what scientists call a “folk physics” - an intuitive understanding of which materials will get the job done.



Their knack for selecting the right plant isn’t just done by trial and error. It’s a skill. And it's one that might reflect the kind of thinking our early human ancestors used when building their own tools.



“This novel approach, which combines biomechanics with animal behaviour, helps us better understand the cognitive processes behind chimpanzee tool construction and how they evaluate and select materials based on functional properties,” said Pascual-Garrido.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-about-chimpanzees">New questions about chimpanzees </h2>



The research opens up more questions than it answers. How do young chimpanzees learn which materials to use? Do they copy their mothers? And do they apply the same rules when choosing tools for other jobs - like collecting ants or honey?



“This finding has important implications for understanding how humans might have evolved their remarkable tool using abilities,” explained Adam van Casteren from the Department of Human Origins at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



“While perishable materials like wood rarely survive in the archaeological record, the mechanical principles behind effective tool construction and use remain constant across species and time.”



These behaviors also raise questions about memory, experience, and even innovation in non-human primates. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-early-humans">Clues about early humans</h2>



Understanding how chimpanzees refine their techniques over time could reveal a primitive form of trial-and-error learning that mirrors early human problem-solving.



By studying chimpanzees and their preferences for certain types of materials, researchers hope to uncover clues about how early humans may have started crafting implements long before stone tools appeared in the archaeological record.



It’s a small but meaningful step toward understanding the roots of human intelligence - through the eyes, and hands, of our closest extant relatives.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00419-5?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004225004195%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Chimpanzees have tool-making skills similar to human engineers

In the forests of Tanzania, chimpanzees have long been known...

Why is a good night’s sleep so crucial for a sharp memory? A team of neuroscientists has taken a major step toward answering this question.&nbsp;



By monitoring brain activity in rats for up to 20 hours after a learning task, they discovered that sleep reorganizes neural patterns in a way that helps memories take hold and prepares the brain for new information.&nbsp;



The study, led by researchers from the <a href="https://ista.ac.at/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Science and Technology Austria</a> (ISTA), offers new insights into how the brain engraves long-term memories during times of rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-brain-cell-activity-during-sleep">Monitoring brain cell activity during sleep</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sleep</a>’s role in helping animals remember things - like where food is hidden - has long been known. But scientists still don’t fully understand how this happens at the neuronal level.&nbsp;



To investigate, the ISTA team focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-remarkable-spatial-memory-and-sense-of-direction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spatial memory</a>, by training rats to locate food rewards in a maze while recording brain activity using a wireless system.&nbsp;



The setup allowed them to monitor hippocampal neurons, which play a key role in spatial navigation and learning, for up to 20 continuous hours of sleep following the task.



“We showed that the neuronal assemblies in the early stages of sleep reflect recently learned spatial memories. However, as sleep progresses, neuronal activity patterns gradually transform into those seen later, when the rats awaken and remember the locations of their food rewards,” explained Professor Jozsef Csicsvari, the senior author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hippocampus-as-a-map-maker">The hippocampus as a map maker</h2>



Earlier research has shown that the hippocampus creates internal “maps” of an animal’s environment by firing specific neurons at specific locations. These mental maps are updated during learning and become especially focused around important activities, like where food is found.&nbsp;



The hippocampus continues to play a vital role during sleep by replaying memory traces, a process called reactivation.



Previous work by the Csicsvari group showed that the more frequently the hippocampus reactivated a reward location during sleep, the better the animal remembered it later. When this replay was blocked, the rats struggled to recall the location - suggesting that reactivation is key to cementing memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-patterns-shift-during-sleep">Memory patterns shift during sleep</h2>



Until now, such studies were limited to short sleep sessions lasting just a few hours. In the new study, the team extended the recordings to cover a full overnight sleep.&nbsp;



The extended monitoring revealed a previously unseen phenomenon: memory-related neural patterns shifted gradually during sleep.



“Our findings were unexpected,” said co-first author Lars Bollmann. “We showed that the activity patterns of neurons linked to the reward locations reorganized during the long sleep.”



Initially, when the rats entered sleep, the same neurons that were active during learning remained active, forming what the researchers called a “stable subgroup.”&nbsp;



But as sleep progressed, some of these neurons stopped firing and new neurons took their place. By the end of the sleep period, the firing pattern had evolved to resemble the one seen when the rats successfully remembered the reward locations the next day.



This representational shift occurred specifically during non-REM sleep, the researchers found, while REM sleep seemed to prevent or counteract this reorganization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-room-for-new-memories">Making room for new memories</h2>



What’s the point of this neural reshuffling? The researchers suggest it could be a way for the brain to optimize its memory storage.



“It is possible that memory representations must be formed quickly during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a> but that such representations are not optimal for long-term storage,” Csicsvari explained.&nbsp;



“Therefore, a process may take place in sleep that optimizes these representations to reduce brain resources to store a specific memory.”



In other words, by trimming down the number of neurons needed to represent a particular memory, the brain may free up resources for encoding new experiences.&nbsp;



Supporting this idea, the researchers found that fewer neurons were linked to a given reward location after sleep than before.



“Any new memories must find a way to be integrated into existing knowledge,” Csicsvari adds. “Frequent repetitions of the new memories as well as partial change in the neuronal code may thus help optimize their integration into existing memory representations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-sleep-and-memory">Understanding sleep and memory</h2>



This study marks a significant advance in understanding how sleep strengthens memory. By showing that the brain reorganizes memory representations over the course of sleep - and by linking these shifts to improved recollection - the research sheds light on one of the most essential functions of sleep.



While the findings come from animal models, they offer promising avenues for future research into human memory and the consequences of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-sex-differences-in-sleep-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep disorders</a>.&nbsp;



As scientists continue to explore how memories evolve overnight, they may eventually uncover strategies for enhancing learning, supporting brain health, and even treating memory-related conditions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2025.02.025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuron</a>.



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Sleep rewires the brain to strengthen memories

Why is a good night’s sleep so crucial for a...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Black Widow Spider -Female, male and egg sac Photo Credit: Mark_Kostich

Black Widow Spider

Close-up of dangerous horned viper in the sahara Photo Credit: acceptphoto

Black Widow Spider

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