Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of South Georgia, a remote and rugged island located in the southern Atlantic Ocean. 



"Linked with the South Sandwich Islands to form a British Overseas Territory, this southern Atlantic island is a haven for a vast array of wildlife," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Around five million seals call the islands home, as well as 65 million birds of 30 different species. Migrating whales and various fish species populate the surrounding waters and there is a large penguin population."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-and-wildlife-of-south-georgia">Climate and wildlife of South Georgia </h2>



The island is dominated by mountains, glaciers, and fjords. Its highest peak, Mount Paget, rises to 2,935 meters, making it one of the tallest in the region.



South Georgia’s location within the Antarctic Convergence gives it a cold, maritime climate. Although not part of the Antarctic Treaty System, its environment and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-are-not-enough-to-save-antarctic-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> are closely linked to Antarctica. 



The island is home to vast colonies of penguins, seals, and seabirds. The surrounding waters are rich with krill, providing an abundant food source for marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguins-adapted-to-harsh-environments">Penguins adapted to harsh environments </h2>



The most notable species found here are the king penguins, which are the second-largest penguin species in the world. South Georgia also hosts large populations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-the-gentoo-penguin-the-worlds-fastest-swimming-bird/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gentoo</a> and macaroni penguins. 



The island's harsh climate, characterized by strong winds, snow, and cold temperatures, makes it a tough environment, but the penguins have adapted well. 



Their colonies - some of which number in the hundreds of thousands - can be found along the island's rugged coasts and beaches. 



The island’s isolation, combined with its plentiful food supply, makes it a critical breeding ground for these penguins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-south-georgia">History of South Georgia </h2>



The island has a history of exploration and exploitation. Captain James Cook first claimed South Georgia for Britain in 1775. 



During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it became a hub for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/echoes-of-the-past-whalings-long-term-impact-on-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whaling</a> industry, with stations like Grytviken serving as operational centers. These stations have since been abandoned, and the island is now a haven for scientific research and ecotourism.



South Georgia is also notable for its role in Ernest Shackleton’s famed Endurance expedition. His crew reached the island in 1916 after an extraordinary open-boat journey from Elephant Island. Shackleton later died on South Georgia in 1922 and is buried in Grytviken.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pristine-nature-of-the-island">Pristine nature of the island</h2>



Today, South Georgia is a focus of conservation efforts. The eradication of invasive species, such as rats and reindeer, has been a significant success, allowing native wildlife to recover. 



Rats and mice were responsible for the decline of ground-nesting birds, including the South Georgia pipit, the island's only endemic bird. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reindeer-use-ultraviolet-vision-to-find-food-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reindeer</a>, which had been introduced for farming in the 19th century, caused extensive damage to the island’s vegetation, disrupting the habitat for native species.



South Georgia is uninhabited except for a small number of scientists and staff working at research stations and administrative facilities, emphasizing its role as a protected wilderness area and an essential site for understanding global environmental changes.



Its uninhabited status has helped preserve its pristine nature. Visitors to South Georgia must follow strict environmental guidelines to minimize human impact on this extraordinary island.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance-of-remote-islands">Scientific significance of remote islands </h2>



Remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-life-on-islands-loses-diversity-when-humans-arrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">islands</a> are scientifically significant for several reasons. They often serve as unique ecosystems that can provide insights into evolutionary processes, biodiversity, and adaptation. 



Due to their isolation, species on remote islands may evolve differently from their mainland counterparts, resulting in the development of endemic species that exist nowhere else in the world. 



These islands also act as natural laboratories for studying the effects of climate change, human activity, and ecological interactions, as they are more vulnerable to disturbances. 



Moreover, remote islands can offer valuable information on the health of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, as their ecosystems are often less impacted by human-induced factors. This makes them ideal for studying natural processes in relatively undisturbed environments. 



The isolation of these islands can also help scientists study the patterns of species migration, colonization, and extinction.



Image Credit: ESA 



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—--



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

South Georgia: One of the most remote islands in the world

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Messak Settafet, a rocky plateau located in the central Sahara Desert. It is part of the greater Messak Plateau, which stretches between the Erg Uan Kasa and the Murzuq Sand Sea.&nbsp;



The plateau's surface is characterized by blackened sandstone, sculpted by thousands of years of wind erosion. This dark patina, often referred to as "desert varnish," adds to its distinctive appearance. The region is starkly beautiful but harsh, with extreme temperatures and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-climate-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-messak-settafet">Image of the Messak Settafet</h2>



“Towering over the desert in southwestern Libya, the Messak Settafet plateau resembles the wall of a giant fortress, with its dark, erosion-resistant sandstone separating the Ubari Sand Sea to the north and the Marzūq Sand Sea to the south,” noted NASA.



“The large outcrop of Cretaceous rock features a sharp escarpment on its north side. The cliff, some 300 meters (1,000 feet) high in places, is lined with a thin dark shadow.”&nbsp;



“Dark debris from rockfalls is visible to the north. Note that an optical illusion called relief inversion can make high-elevation areas appear low and vice versa when shadows appear on the northern side of a feature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaeological-significance-of-the-plateau-nbsp">Archaeological significance of the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



Messak Settafet is often referred to as the "land of stone tools" because it is one of the world's largest sites for prehistoric tools.&nbsp;



The area is littered with countless <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fstone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> and artifacts dating back to various prehistoric periods, including the Acheulean and Neolithic. These tools offer insights into early human technology and adaptation to desert environments.



“Signs of ancient tool making cover much of the plateau’s surface,” said <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “According to one archaeological survey, people discarded so many stone tools and rock fragments on the plateau over hundreds of thousands of years that roughly 75 artifacts per square meter now carpet the surface.”&nbsp;



“That makes this one of the earliest known examples of hominins modifying an entire landscape, according to the University of Cambridge archaeologists who conducted the survey.”



“Other signs of ancient activity include the bright spots that dot the image. These areas were likely quarrying pits where people dug up rocks and crafted them into tools, the archaeologists reported.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-art-on-the-plateau-nbsp">Rock art on the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



The plateau is home to numerous petroglyphs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negev-petroglyphs-ancient-art-rock-carvings-face-erosion-fungi-lichens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carvings</a>. These engravings depict animals, humans, and symbolic designs, providing valuable clues about the lives, beliefs, and environments of the region's ancient inhabitants.&nbsp;



“For instance, Wadi Mathendous, a prehistoric archaeological site located in the southern part of the plateau, contains engravings of rhinoceroses, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, fighting cats, giraffes, long-horned buffaloes, and elephants. The art is thought to be about 8,000 years old,” said NASA.



Some of the animals depicted, such as giraffes and elephants, indicate that the Sahara was once a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fa-lush-green-sahara-desert-helped-early-humans-migrate-out-of-africa%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">much wetter</a> and more hospitable environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-the-messak-settafet">Cultural significance of the Messak Settafet</h2>



Messak Settafet forms part of the Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985. This designation highlights the area's importance for understanding early human culture and environmental changes in the Sahara.



The plateau has been a critical area for studying the migration and adaptation of early humans. Its archaeological richness offers a glimpse into how humans thrived in this region during periods when the climate was wetter.



“Although the plateau now receives less than 0.4 inches of rain annually, clues in the landscape make clear it was once much wetter,” noted NASA.



“Deeply incised dried stream valleys, or wadis, crisscross the plateau, indicating significant past water flow. The small, bright features scattered across the plateau are sand and silt deposits left where water once pooled.”



The Messak Settafet, like many remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> regions, faces challenges such as erosion, vandalism of ancient rock art, and the potential impacts of development. 



Efforts to preserve its archaeological treasures are vital for protecting its cultural and scientific significance.



The image was captured November 17, 2024 by the Operational Land Imager-2 (OLI-2) on Landsat 9 on&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Messak Settafet plateau in the Sahara Desert

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 6744 - a large, barred spiral galaxy located approximately 30 million light-years away in the constellation Pavo.&nbsp;



The galaxy is often considered a close analog to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> due to its similar structure and size, spanning about 175,000 light-years across.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The image was captured by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid</a> space telescope. NGC 6744 stands out as a prime example of the galaxies currently forming the majority of stars in the nearby universe, making it an ideal subject for study with the Euclid mission.&nbsp;



Euclid’s extensive field-of-view allows it to capture the entire galaxy, showcasing not only its large-scale spiral structure but also revealing intricate details on smaller scales across various wavelengths. These details include feather-like dust lanes, known as “spurs,” emerging from the spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-6744">Star formation in NGC 6744</h2>



Euclid's observations enable scientists to count individual stars within NGC 6744, trace the distribution of stars and dust throughout the galaxy, and map the dust associated with the gas that fuels the development of new stars. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star formation</a> is a key process in the growth of galaxies, making these studies crucial for understanding galaxy evolution.



Researchers are utilizing Euclid’s data to explore the relationship between dust, gas, and star formation; to map the distribution of different stellar populations and identify regions of active star formation; and to investigate the underlying physics of spiral galaxy structures.&nbsp;



Spiral arms play a significant role in star formation by compressing gas, yet the precise mechanisms behind this process are still unclear. The presence of “spurs” along NGC 6744’s spiral arms offers valuable insights into the dynamics of star formation within these structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-new-dwarf-galaxies-nbsp">Discovering new dwarf galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, Euclid's dataset will help scientists identify clusters of old stars (globular clusters) and discover new dwarf galaxies around NGC 6744. Remarkably, Euclid has already identified a new dwarf satellite galaxy of NGC 6744 - a surprising discovery given that the galaxy has been studied extensively.



With Euclid’s detailed observations, scientists are gaining a deeper understanding of the processes shaping galaxies, providing essential clues to the evolution and appearance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universes-expansion-rate-hubble-tension-puzzles-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ngc-6744">More about NGC 6744</h2>



NGC 6744's disk is rich in star-forming regions and contains numerous young, bright blue stars. The galaxy's nucleus is slightly elongated and has a bar structure, which influences the motion of the stars and gas within it.&nbsp;



The spiral arms of NGC 6744 are well-defined and extend outward, wrapping around the central bar. Additionally, NGC 6744 has a smaller companion galaxy, NGC 6744A, which is interacting with it, adding to the complexity and interest of this distant system.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-galaxies">Spiral galaxies</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are one of the most common types of galaxies in the universe, characterized by their distinct, spiral-shaped structure.&nbsp;



The galaxies typically consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, along with a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. This bulge is often surrounded by a halo of older stars.&nbsp;



The spiral arms, which extend from the central bulge, are regions of active star formation and are rich in young, hot stars, giving them a bright, bluish appearance.&nbsp;



These arms are also sites where interstellar gas and dust are concentrated, leading to the formation of new stars.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on the tightness of their spirals and the size of their central bulge, with classifications ranging from tightly wound arms in Sa galaxies to more loosely wound arms in Sc galaxies. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our home galaxy, is a prime example of a spiral galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-pavo">The constellation Pavo</h2>



Pavo, which means "peacock" in Latin, is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in the late 16th century, based on observations made during the Dutch explorations of the southern hemisphere. 



Pavo is one of the 12 constellations created by Plancius from the records of explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. 



The constellation is known for its distinctive shape, resembling a peacock with a long, curved tail. Pavo is not visible from most of the northern hemisphere, but it can be seen from the southern hemisphere, particularly during the winter months.



The constellation contains several interesting celestial objects, including the star Peacock, also known as Alpha Pavonis, which is the brightest star in the constellation. This star is a blue-white subgiant located about 179 light-years from Earth.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Spiral galaxy NGC 6744 in the constellation Pavo

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name "Antennae" comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions, offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a compilation of European cities that resemble stars. 



“Star-shaped cities are scattered across Europe, their geometric designs most appreciated when viewed from above,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2024/12/Earth_from_Space_Star_cities" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-star-shaped-cities">Development of star-shaped cities</h2>



The development of star-shaped fortresses, also known as bastion forts, emerged during the Renaissance in Italy as a response to the rapidly evolving art of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migrating-eagles-have-been-rerouted-by-the-war-in-ukraine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warfare</a>.&nbsp;



Traditional medieval fortifications, characterized by high, straight walls and square towers, became vulnerable with the advent of gunpowder weaponry. Cannons could easily reduce these structures to rubble, rendering them obsolete.



The star-shaped design addressed these vulnerabilities by incorporating wide moats and projecting bastions - angled structures that jutted outward from the main walls.&nbsp;



These bastions provided overlapping fields of fire, allowing defenders to cover blind spots and effectively repel attackers attempting to approach or scale the walls.&nbsp;



Additionally, the sloped walls of these fortresses, known as glacis, were designed to deflect cannonballs rather than absorb their impact, further enhancing their resilience.



This innovative design not only improved defensive capabilities but also transformed the battlefield, forcing attackers to develop new siege techniques. It marked a pivotal moment in military engineering, influencing fortress construction across Europe and beyond for centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-of-star-shaped-cities">Examples of star-shaped cities</h2>



“Four examples of such cities can be seen here, arranged clockwise from the top left: Bourtange in the Netherlands, Palmanova in Italy, Almeida in Portugal, and Neuf-Brisach in France,” said ESA.



“The green and red hues evoke a Christmas vibe, achieved through different band combinations during image processing to generate true-color (green) and false-color (red) visuals.”



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bourtange-netherlands">Bourtange, Netherlands </h3>



Fort Bourtange, nestled in the picturesque countryside of northeast Netherlands near the German border, is a remarkable example of Renaissance military architecture and urban planning.&nbsp;



Constructed in 1593 during the Eighty Years' War, it was strategically positioned to control the only road linking Germany to the Dutch city of Groningen - a vital route for military and trade purposes.&nbsp;



Its unique pentagonal, star-shaped design featured angled bastions, wide moats, and interconnected defensive structures, making it nearly impenetrable to enemy forces equipped with the era's artillery.



In 1851, after centuries of military service, Fort Bourtange was decommissioned and transformed into a peaceful village.&nbsp;



Despite the change in purpose, its original geometric layout, defined by precise angles and symmetrical patterns, remained intact. The pentagonal walls, surrounding waterways, and radial street design continue to showcase the ingenuity of its designers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-palmanova-italy">Palmanova, Italy </h3>



Palmanova, located in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of northeast Italy, is a masterpiece of Renaissance urban and military planning.&nbsp;



Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site, it exemplifies the idealized city envisioned during the late Renaissance, combining beauty, functionality, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-u-s-military-bases-for-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">military</a> innovation.&nbsp;



Constructed in 1593 by the Republic of Venice, Palmanova was strategically designed to protect the Republic’s northeastern borders from external threats - particularly the Ottoman Empire.



The city’s layout embodies the principles of symmetry and order characteristic of the Renaissance. Its unique radial design spreads out from the central hexagonal square, known as Piazza Grande or Piazza del Duomo, which serves as the civic and social heart of the city.&nbsp;



From this central hub, six straight avenues fan outward, connecting the square to the surrounding neighborhoods and gates. This design was not only aesthetically pleasing but also practical, allowing for efficient movement and communication within the city.



Today, Palmanova is celebrated not only for its historical and architectural significance but also as a rare example of a perfectly preserved star fortress.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-almeida-portugal-nbsp">Almeida, Portugal&nbsp;</h3>



Perched on a high plain in northeast Portugal near the Spanish border, the fortress of Almeida is a striking example of military engineering and a symbol of Portugal’s resilience.&nbsp;



Built to secure the nation’s eastern frontier, Almeida has played a significant role in Portuguese history, particularly during its early years of independence and throughout various military conflicts, including the Peninsular War.



The fortress's defining star-shaped ramparts consist of twelve points, each projecting outward to eliminate blind spots and provide overlapping fields of fire against advancing enemies.&nbsp;



The thick walls, surrounding moats, and angular bastions made Almeida a formidable stronghold capable of withstanding prolonged sieges.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neuf-brisach-france">Neuf-Brisach, France</h3>



Neuf-Brisach, located in the Alsace region of northeastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">France</a> near the German border, is another fascinating example of military and urban design.&nbsp;



The town was constructed in 1697 after the loss of Breisach, which stood on the opposite bank of the Rhine River in Germany.&nbsp;



The name "Neuf" (meaning "new" in French) reflects its creation as a strategic replacement and fortification to strengthen France's defense along its eastern border.



Designed by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, the renowned military engineer under King Louis XIV, Neuf-Brisach is part of the extensive network of fortifications that Vauban designed to protect France from external threats.&nbsp;



Vauban's expertise in defensive architecture is evident in the town's star-shaped layout, which was intended to optimize defense while accommodating civilian life within the fortifications.&nbsp;



The fortifications were built to withstand sieges and were strategically positioned to control movement across the Rhine River and defend against potential invasions. The outer star-shaped ramparts extend in a way that creates a nearly impenetrable defensive perimeter.



Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Star-shaped cities scattered across Europe

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of Lake Maracaibo, located in the northwestern part of Venezuela. The lake is a significant geographical and ecological feature of South America. 



Lake Maracaibo is often considered more of a tidal bay due to its direct connection to the Caribbean Sea through the Tablazo Strait. It is one of the oldest lakes on Earth, formed approximately 36 million years ago.



"With an area of over 13,000 sq km, Lake Maracaibo is generally considered the largest lake in South America, although by some estimates it should be considered an inlet of the Caribbean Sea since much of its water is brought in by its direct connection to the ocean," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"As a result, the water in the northern part of the lake is rather brackish, while the southern waters are fresh, owing to the many rivers that flow into the lake. The biggest, the Catatumbo River, can be seen entering the lake from southwest, where a large amount of sediment carried by the river appears as a yellowish plume."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-catatumbo-lightning">The Catatumbo lightning</h2>



The lake is renowned for a unique weather phenomenon - the Catatumbo lightning. This natural spectacle occurs primarily where the Catatumbo River meets the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-has-affected-almost-every-lake-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.



Known as the most persistent lightning storm in the world, it produces frequent and dramatic flashes of lightning, illuminating the night sky for an average of 260 nights per year.



These storms generate thousands of lightning strikes in a single night, making the region one of the most electrified places on the planet. 



The phenomenon is so intense that it has been recognized by the Guinness World Records as the place with the highest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-on-earth-can-influence-the-weather-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lightning</a> activity.



Scientists believe the lightning is influenced by the area's geography and climate, including the warm air rising from the lake and its surrounding mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economical-significance-of-lake-maracaibo">Economical significance of Lake Maracaibo </h2>



Lake Maracaibo plays an important role in Venezuela’s economy, as it lies atop vast reserves of crude oil.



The discovery of petroleum in the early 20th century transformed the region into a major oil-producing area, leading to the establishment of numerous oil rigs and platforms. 



However, this economic activity has come at a cost. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-losing-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pollution</a> from oil spills, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff has significantly degraded the lake's ecosystem.



The appearance of a green, slimy algae known as Lemna has further exacerbated environmental concerns, threatening marine life and the livelihoods of local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-ties-to-lake-maracaibo">Cultural ties to Lake Maracaibo </h2>



The cultural significance of Lake Maracaibo is deeply rooted in the traditions and lifestyle of the Indigenous Añu people, who have inhabited its shores for centuries. The Añu, also known as Paraujano, are known for their distinctive stilt houses, called palafitos.



These wooden structures are built directly over the water, connected by walkways or small boats, allowing the Añu to live harmoniously with their aquatic environment. The architectural style of these stilt houses inspired the early Spanish explorers to nickname the region "The Venice of the Americas."



The Añu's way of life is closely tied to the lake. They rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> as a primary source of food and income, using traditional methods passed down through generations.



For the Añu, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-significantly-impacts-lake-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> is more than a resource; it is a spiritual and cultural cornerstone, shaping their identity and daily practices.



However, modernization and environmental challenges have disrupted their traditional lifestyle. The oil industry’s expansion around Lake Maracaibo has led to significant environmental degradation, which threaten the lake's biodiversity and the Añu’s primary sources of sustenance. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lake-maracaibo-and-venezuelan-history">Lake Maracaibo and Venezuelan history</h2>



Lake Maracaibo also played a pivotal role in Venezuelan history, particularly during the Battle of Lake Maracaibo in 1823. 



This naval battle was a decisive conflict in Venezuela’s war for independence from Spain and marked one of the final military engagements of the South American liberation movements led by figures like Simón Bolívar.



Today, the lake represents a remarkable blend of natural beauty, industrial significance, and cultural heritage. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-conservation-efforts">Ongoing conservation efforts </h2>



Ongoing efforts aim to harmonize ecological conservation with economic development, as both local and global stakeholders acknowledge the need to protect this extraordinary environment for generations to come.



Efforts to preserve the Añu culture and the lake's ecosystem have been initiated by local and international organizations. These initiatives focus on promoting sustainable development, preserving Indigenous languages and traditions, and mitigating the environmental damage caused by industrial activities. 



Despite these challenges, the Añu have shown remarkable resilience, maintaining their cultural identity and advocating for their rights and the health of their ancestral lands.



Image Credit: ESA



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—--



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Lake Maracaibo: One of the most electrified places on the planet

Plus, sheltered in the extra buildings were 20 locals. It was like a mini-community of sorts and was probably full of activity. Even so, it’s likely no amount of company could make up for the difficulties that Jacobus faced in his lifetime. Photo Credit: Facebook/Dyckman Farmhouse Museum

A difficult time

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are becoming a severe threat to global health, with potentially catastrophic consequences. 



New research led by Northern Arizona University (NAU) reveals that infection-related deaths could surge due to multidrug-resistant and pan-resistant bacteria. This isn’t a question of if, but when, warns the study’s lead author, Benjamin Koch.



Published in&nbsp;the journal Communications Medicine, the study highlights the growing danger of antibiotic resistance. As antibiotic usage increases worldwide, bacteria are evolving to resist multiple antibiotics, leading to multidrug-resistance.



What's even more troubling is that pan-resistant bacteria could emerge, marking a turning point in global health. Pan-resistant bacteria are immune to all known antibiotics. 



“Multidrug-resistance is bad, but once a pathogen gains resistance to all known antibiotics, known as pan-resistance, a dramatically rapid shift, rather than a gradual rise in public health impacts, can be expected,” said Koch, a senior research scientist at <a href="https://nau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NAU</a>’s Center for Ecosystem Science and Society (Ecoss).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-antibiotic-resistance">What is antibiotic resistance?</h2>



Antibiotic resistance is when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria evolve</a> to survive treatments meant to kill them. Antibiotics are medicines used to treat bacterial infections. Over time, certain bacteria adapt and develop defenses against these drugs.



This resistance often arises from improper or excessive use of antibiotics. For example, taking antibiotics for viral infections, not completing prescribed doses, or overusing them in farming can all contribute. 



When bacteria become resistant, they continue to grow and spread despite antibiotic treatment, making infections harder or even impossible to cure.



This problem isn’t limited to just one country or region. Resistant bacteria can spread globally, threatening public health and making previously treatable illnesses - like pneumonia or urinary tract infections - more dangerous.



To address this, we need better antibiotic use, policies, and the development of new medicines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-pan-resistance-strikes">What happens when pan-resistance strikes</h2>



Using hypothetical models, researchers studied the potential impact of a pan-resistant strain of E. coli on sepsis deaths in the United States. By analyzing long-term data on sepsis incidence, mortality rates, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-could-cause-39-million-deaths-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatment outcomes</a>, they found shocking results.



Their models predict that sepsis deaths could increase by 18 to 46 times within just five years after the introduction of a pan-resistant strain. This hypothetical strain doesn’t exist yet, but the rapid evolution of bacteria suggests it may be inevitable.



“With the available data, researchers aren’t able to predict the timing of pan-resistance with any accuracy; it could be in a year, or it could be in a century,” Koch noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-health-equalizer">Global health equalizer</h2>



Antibiotic resistance doesn’t discriminate. Unlike other health crises that disproportionately affect lower-income populations, pan-resistance would erase advantages like access to superior health care or varied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic options</a>.



People in both high-income and low-income countries would face the same grim outcomes from infections that were once easily treatable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-be-done-about-antibiotic-resistance">What can be done about antibiotic resistance?</h2>



The researchers emphasize that while the threat is grave, steps can be taken to reduce the risk. Governments, industries, and individuals have crucial roles to play.



Governments must enforce stricter policies around the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-increasing-enterococci-looming-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a> in both human and veterinary medicine. They must also incentivize the development of new antibiotics - an area of research that has slowed in recent years.



“There are technologies that could monitor the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance,” said Koch. Investments in these innovations could provide early warnings and help contain outbreaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responsible-antibiotic-use">Responsible antibiotic use</h2>



On an individual level, the proper use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a> is critical. Koch advises using antibiotics only when prescribed by a health care provider and avoiding unnecessary usage. 



Supporting policies that promote antibiotic stewardship can help curb the spread of resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-urgent-action">Need for urgent action</h2>



The rise of pan-resistant bacteria could redefine global public health challenges. 



“We must reduce the forces that currently promote the evolution and dissemination of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-livestock-are-major-drivers-of-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic</a>-resistant pathogens. Globally, this means improving antibiotic stewardship in human and veterinary medicine and in food-animal production,” Koch concluded.



The findings highlight the urgency of tackling antibiotic resistance before it spirals out of control. With coordinated action, the global community can slow the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and potentially save millions of lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43856-024-00693-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Medicine</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Antibiotic resistance could cause a global health crisis

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are becoming a severe threat to global health,...

Peeling back the layers of history, we find ourselves in the heart of the ancient copper industry in the time of King Solomon’s mines.



The tale of this legendary biblical king and his mines has been passed down through generations, with many people assuming that the mining process of ancient copper production left rampant pollution and environmental destruction.



But what if that ominous narrative isn't as factual as we’ve been led to believe?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-copper-production">New perspective on copper production </h2>



Researchers from Tel Aviv University (TAU) have recently challenged this story. Their study delivers a new perspective on the industrial history of these legendary mines.



Their findings not only rewrite the story of ancient copper smelting but also invite a reexamination of how we interpret environmental impacts in historical contexts.



The research, published in the journal Nature Scientific Reports, reveals that the environmental pollution generated by ancient copper production was far less severe than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surveys-at-copper-production-sites">Surveys at copper production sites</h2>



The study was led by Professor Erez Ben-Yosef, Dr. Omri Yagel, Willy Ondricek, and Dr. Aaron Greener from the Chaim Rosenberg School of Jewish Studies and Archaeology at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>.



To investigate, the team conducted comprehensive geochemical surveys at copper production sites in the Timna Valley near Eilat, Israel.



The sites dated back to the 10th century BCE - an era that echoes with the names of the biblical Kings David and Solomon.



"We inspected two major copper production sites in the Timna Valley, one from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hazelnut-shells-offer-clues-ancient-landscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Iron Age</a> and King Solomon’s era and another nearby that is about 1,500 years older,” said Professor Ben-Yosef.



“Our study was very extensive. We took hundreds of soil samples from both sites for chemical analyses, creating high-resolution maps of heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iron-was-lifes-first-essential-metal-and-shaped-early-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metal</a> presence in the region,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extremely-low-pollution-levels">Extremely low pollution levels</h2>



The results of the study were rather surprising. According to Professor Ben-Yosef, the team found that pollution levels at the Timna copper mining sites are extremely low and confined to the locations of the ancient smelting furnaces.



 “For instance, the concentration of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/151-million-americans-have-mental-health-disorders-linked-to-leaded-gasoline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lead</a> - the primary pollutant in metal industries - drops to less than 200 parts per million just a few meters from the furnace," said Professor Ben-Yosef.



"By comparison, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines industrial areas as safe for workers at 1,200 parts per million and residential areas as safe for children at 200 parts per million.”



The experts noted that this finding directly contradicts a series of papers published since the 1990s alleging pollution caused by the ancient copper industry.



"We demonstrate that this is not true. Pollution in Timna is very restricted spatially, and it’s likely that only those working directly at the furnace suffered from inhaling toxic fumes, while just a short distance away, the soil is entirely safe," said the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debunking-old-theories">Debunking old theories </h2>



Seeking to understand the bigger picture, the TAU archaeologists also conducted a comprehensive review of existing literature on ancient industrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-in-six-deaths-in-2019-was-caused-by-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution</a>.



Their review unveiled a recurring assumption: traces of ancient metallurgical activity were labeled as "pollution." 



As a result, the inference was drawn that metal industries, from their earliest beginnings, were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/car-tires-shed-pollutants-that-are-especially-toxic-for-humans-and-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harmful to humans</a>. This standpoint, the researchers argue, is far from the truth.



"Even when metal production was large-scale, becoming integral to human civilization, it was the toxic lead industry that caused global pollution, not necessarily other metals," the team noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-projecting-our-pollution-problems">Projecting our pollution problems </h2>



The experts emphasized that in dealing with the severe environmental challenges of our time, we must be cautious not to project modern pollution problems onto the past.



“While we might label a few pieces of slag on the ground as 'pollution,' we should not confuse this localized waste with regional or global environmental pollution,” they cautioned.



Taking us on a journey through time, the researchers at TAU help us see the past in a new light - one that challenges our preconceived notions about an ancient copper industry. 



The findings provide a crucial reminder that we need to view the past without the lens of our current environmental anxieties.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-80939-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Copper industry of King Solomon’s era didn't harm the environment

Peeling back the layers of history, we find ourselves in...

The COVID-19 pandemic drastically altered the world. Masks, lockdowns, travel bans, and public health mandates became the norm in 2020, as virus cases surged.



The World Health Organization estimates that over three million lives were lost to the virus in its first year alone, marking a profound impact on health systems and economies worldwide.



Now, half a decade later, researchers continue to explore how we can better prepare for future respiratory diseases. A study from the University of Surrey, led by Dr. Richard Sear, sheds light on the effectiveness of combined public health measures in mitigating airborne viral transmission.



These findings offer valuable insights for managing not just future pandemics but also seasonal illnesses like flu and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-viral-transmission">Understanding viral transmission</h2>



Dr. Sear, an associate professor at Surrey’s School of Mathematics and Physics, examined how COVID-19 spreads through airborne transmission.



His work combined data modeling with information from the UK’s NHS COVID-19 app to evaluate the effectiveness of strategies like mask-wearing and improved ventilation.



“I’ve tried to measure how effective strategies, such as mask-wearing, are for the transmission of airborne viruses. This is both for any future pandemic, and for seasonal flu,“ said Dr. Sear.



“I combined modeling with data from the UK’s NHS COVID-19 app. While these estimates are highly approximate, they provide guidance on the value of measures such as face masks, social distancing and improved indoor air quality, which could be tested in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-quality-face-masks">High quality face masks</h2>



Among the protective measures studied, high-quality face masks stood out as particularly effective. Masks like N95/FFP2 reduced the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virus-lifespan-and-transmission-boosted-by-high-co2-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19 transmission</a> rate by approximately ninefold when worn universally. 



Even when used individually, these masks cut transmission risk by threefold, regardless of the contact duration. However, surgical and cloth masks were found to be much less effective by comparison.



The study highlights the importance of prioritizing high-quality masks in future public health strategies, not just for pandemics but also for managing seasonal respiratory illnesses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-indoor-ventilation-a-key-strategy">Improving indoor ventilation: A key strategy</h2>



Beyond high-quality masks, ventilation plays a crucial role in reducing virus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-use-gps-to-move-precisely-within-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transmission</a>. Viral particles tend to accumulate in poorly ventilated spaces, especially during close-contact interactions, speaking, or coughing. 



Dr. Sear’s study found that doubling indoor air turnover rates - whether through open windows, increased airflow from air conditioning systems, or improved mechanical ventilation - can lower transmission risk by as much as 30%.



Coupling better ventilation with physical distancing further enhances protection, creating a multi-layered approach to airborne transmission prevention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-and-behavioral-factors">Environmental and behavioral factors</h2>



The variability in COVID-19 transmission rates can be influenced by multiple factors, including viral load, individual susceptibility, and environmental conditions. 



Some contacts pose a significantly higher risk than others, emphasizing the need for public health strategies that address both environmental and behavioral aspects.



“The COVID-19 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-covid-19-virus-travels-deep-inside-our-lungs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pandemic</a> was terrible for many of us, which is why it’s important that we learn from our experiences. It also demonstrated how quickly we can develop and roll out vaccines when faced with a global health crisis,“ noted Dr. Sear.



“Moving forward, both we as individuals and our leaders have an opportunity to apply these lessons to better control respiratory diseases - not only to head off any future pandemics, but to also manage seasonal diseases such as flu and RSV.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-reduce-viral-transmission">Strategies to reduce viral transmission </h2>



The lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic highlight the value of preventive measures in controlling airborne diseases. 



Investing in high-quality masks, improving indoor air quality, and promoting behavioral changes like distancing and masking during outbreaks can significantly reduce viral transmission risks. These strategies will not only help in preventing future pandemics but also improve management of seasonal respiratory illnesses.



By understanding and applying these findings, society can better protect itself from the health and economic impacts of airborne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-infection-equips-the-body-to-fight-off-the-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a>. 



As Dr. Sear’s study demonstrates, simple yet effective measures like wearing N95 masks and enhancing ventilation can make a substantial difference in reducing virus transmission and saving lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.110.064302" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review E</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Preparing for the next pandemic: Lessons about viral transmission

The COVID-19 pandemic drastically altered the world. Masks, lockdowns, travel...

You’ve likely heard of the Great Wall of China, that stone and brick marvel of fortifications that stretches vast distances across the historical border of northern China. But have you heard of the Great Green Wall of China?



Unlike its ancient counterpart, this is a living, breathing wall of greenery -- a massive tree-planting initiative aimed at combating desertification on the edge of the Gobi Desert.



Recently, the Great Green Wall reached a pivotal milestone, marking over four decades of relentless effort to transform arid landscapes into thriving ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-great-green-wall-encircles-the-desert">Great Green Wall encircles the desert</h2>



Late last year, dedicated workers in the northwest autonomous region of Xinjiang triumphantly finished a roughly 2,000-mile "green belt" that encircles the infamous Taklimakan Desert.



Often referred to as the "Sea of Death," the Taklimakan is the nation's largest desert, and this initiative is a component of the bigger Three-North Shelterbelt Forest Program -- also known as the Great Green Wall of China.



Since its inception in 1978, this effort symbolizes one of the globe's most comprehensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planting</a> missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-taklimakan-desert-the-basics">Understanding the Taklimakan Desert -- the basics</h2>



The Taklimakan Desert sits in the Tarim Basin in northwest China, and it’s often called one of the largest shifting-sand deserts in the world. This place is enormous, covering over 130,000 square miles. 



Most of its surface is made up of constantly moving sand dunes, which can sometimes reach heights of several hundred feet. 



The region gets very little rain, so it’s incredibly dry, but it can still experience temperature swings with scorching summers and chilly winters.



You’ll find a handful of oases around the desert’s edges. These oases historically served as crucial pit stops for traders passing through on the ancient Silk Road. Because the desert’s interior is so harsh, people stuck to the perimeter. 



As a result, communities sprang up where water was more accessible and trade routes were established. Those settlements often became hubs of cultural exchange, bringing in traders from distant lands.



Wind plays a big role in shaping the Taklimakan’s sand dunes. Strong gusts blow the sand from one place to another, which means the dunes are constantly rearranging themselves. 



On top of that, the overall dryness makes it tough for vegetation to grow, so there isn’t much stopping the sand’s movement... until the Great Green Wall was built.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-china-s-great-green-wall-expansion">China's Great Green Wall expansion</h2>



China's verdant endeavor is on track to span 13 provinces, covering a whopping 1.5 million square miles (3.9 million square kilometers) and a hefty 42% of the country's land area by mid-century, according to government resources.



The program's aspirations include protecting China from the northern sandstorms and halting the encroachment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floods-are-becoming-more-deadly-in-the-desert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deserts</a> such as the one in Xinjiang.



Upon completion of the Taklimakan section, an impressive 116,000 square miles (300,000 square kilometers) of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> had been planted, significantly boosting China's forest coverage from a mere 10% in 1949 to an expected 25% by 2023. Particularly in Xinjiang, forest coverage has leaped from 1% to 5% in 40 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-economic-stability">Improving economic stability </h2>



Distinct from the similarly ambitious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-great-green-wall-is-economically-worthwhile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Green Wall in Africa</a>, China's program has already gained considerable success, with government sources stating that it is "improving ecological stability and supporting the local communities."



Farmers in the dry northern regions have reaped visible benefits. Wang Yinji, a farmer in the northwest Gansu province, has seen significant improvements since 1999 when the tree-planting efforts escalated.



"Our corn grew taller. The sand that used to blow in from the east and northeast was stopped," said Wang.



Through the years, the campaign has skilfully rallied workers and volunteers. The project has also explored the plant species best suited to desert conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-the-great-green-wall">Challenges of the Great Green Wall</h2>



However, the initiative isn't without its critics. Some have argued that the program hasn't curtailed sandstorms in Beijing, and others have scrutinized the low survival rates of the planted trees.



Critics have also argued that the planted trees compete with agricultural activities for the use of water and land. Yet, many believe in the value of tree-planting amidst increasing global warming and erratic weather patterns.



"The completion of the Taklimakan Desert control project is not an end to desert control but a new beginning," said Jiang Donghui, an official in Xinjiang. "We will continue to expand the green belt … to ensure sustainable development through desert control."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-global-reforestation-efforts">A blueprint for global reforestation efforts</h2>



The success and challenges of the Great Green Wall of China offer valuable insights for other nations grappling with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oases-grow-by-human-effort-but-face-threats-from-desertification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desertification</a>. 



Similar initiatives, such as Africa’s Great Green Wall project, have drawn inspiration from China's approach, emphasizing the importance of tailored strategies for local ecosystems.



China’s program demonstrates the significance of combining scientific research with community involvement to achieve long-term environmental sustainability. 



The use of drought-resistant tree species, soil stabilization techniques, and advanced irrigation systems have been key to transforming barren landscapes into fertile ecosystems.



As global climate change continues to exacerbate desertification and land degradation, the Great Green Wall serves as a reminder of the transformative power of reforestation - when backed by innovation, collaboration, and persistence.



The information for this article was published in <a href="https://english.news.cn/20241213/0073ff86fa9a4412860504c0c74f7b23/c.html">Xinhua</a>, the official news agency of the People's Republic of China



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

China’s Great Green Wall has reached a new milestone

You’ve likely heard of the Great Wall of China, that...

NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has achieved an incredible feat, venturing closer to the Sun than ever before. On December 24, 2024, the spacecraft made a record-breaking approach, flying just 3.8 million miles from the Sun’s surface.



The probe is the fastest human-made object in history. Its daring journey occurred at an astonishing speed of 430,000 miles per hour.



A beacon tone received on December 26 confirmed the spacecraft’s safety and functionality, marking a significant milestone in space exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historic-achievement-of-parker-solar-probe">Historic achievement of Parker Solar Probe</h2>



The mission represents humanity’s first attempt to “touch” a star. 



"Flying this close to the Sun is a historic moment in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-parker-solar-probe-reaches-closest-approach-to-the-sun-perihelion-survival-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humanity’s first mission</a> to a star,” said Nicky Fox, Science Mission Directorate leader at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. 



By studying the Sun’s behavior up close, scientists hope to better understand its impact on the solar system, including effects on Earth’s technology and insights into stellar processes across the universe. 



This knowledge could aid in the search for habitable worlds beyond our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-the-parker-solar-probe">Journey of the Parker Solar Probe</h2>



Launched in 2018, Parker Solar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parker-solar-probe-will-fly-through-suns-atmosphere-tomorrow-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Probe</a> has spent six years preparing for this achievement. Seven Venus flybys adjusted its trajectory, bringing it closer to the Sun with each orbit. The spacecraft reached its optimal orbit after its final Venus flyby on November 6, 2024.



This unique path allows Parker Solar Probe to study the Sun’s enigmatic processes every three months while maintaining a safe distance to avoid excessive heat and radiation. This orbit will remain unchanged for the duration of the mission.



“Parker Solar Probe is braving one of the most extreme environments in space and exceeding all expectations,” said Nour Rawafi, project scientist at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APL</a>). 



“This mission is ushering a new golden era of space exploration, bringing us closer than ever to unlocking the Sun’s deepest and most enduring mysteries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-marvel-withstanding-extreme-heat">Engineering marvel: Withstanding extreme heat</h2>



Operating in the Sun’s corona, where temperatures exceed 1 million degrees Fahrenheit, Parker Solar Probe relies on a specially designed carbon foam shield. 



This shield endures temperatures up to 2,600 degrees Fahrenheit while keeping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-the-fastest-human-made-object-ever-nasas-parker-solar-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacecraft’s</a> instruments at room temperature. 



“It’s monumental to be able to get a spacecraft this close to the Sun,” said John Wirzburger, mission systems engineer at APL. 



Decades of technological advancement made this achievement possible, addressing challenges first identified in 1958.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-rules-of-solar-science">Rewriting the rules of solar science</h2>



Parker Solar Probe is rewriting the rules of solar science. By flying through the corona, it collects unprecedented data to answer longstanding questions about solar processes. 



Researchers aim to understand why the corona is so hot, how the solar wind originates, and how particles accelerate to incredible speeds.



“The data is so important for the science community because it gives us another vantage point,” said Kelly Korreck, a heliophysicist at NASA. 



Observations from Parker Solar Probe have already revealed unexpected features like spikes and valleys in the corona’s outer boundary and pinpointed the origins of switchbacks in the solar wind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-discoveries-in-the-solar-system">Broader discoveries in the solar system</h2>



Beyond studying the Sun, Parker Solar Probe has made important discoveries about the inner solar system. It showed that&nbsp;coronal mass ejections (CMEs) - massive eruptions from the Sun - act like giant vacuums, sweeping up dust particles as they move through space.



This process helps scientists understand how solar events influence the environment between planets.



The spacecraft also provided detailed information on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-solar-storm-warning-issued-as-two-cmes-will-hit-earth-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar energetic particles</a>, which are high-energy particles ejected by the Sun. These particles play a critical role in space weather, affecting satellites, astronauts, and even communication systems on Earth.



During its flybys of Venus, Parker Solar Probe made remarkable observations. It detected natural radio emissions from Venus’s atmosphere, providing a better understanding of the planet’s atmospheric conditions.



Additionally, the probe captured the first-ever complete image of Venus’s orbital dust ring - a collection of fine particles that encircle the planet along its orbit. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-data-will-soon-reach-earth">Valuable data will soon reach Earth</h2>



The spacecraft’s recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-has-officially-reached-its-solar-maximum-period-in-this-solar-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar</a> pass produced valuable data which will soon be transmitted to Earth.



"The data that will come down from the spacecraft will be fresh information about a place that we, as humanity, have never been,” said Joe Westlake, NASA’s Heliophysics Division director.



With upcoming close approaches scheduled for March 22 and June 19, 2025, Parker Solar Probe promises to deepen our understanding of the Sun and its influence on the solar system. 



These efforts mark a significant step forward in humanity’s quest to unlock the secrets of the cosmos.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Parker Solar Probe completes closest-ever approach to the Sun

NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has achieved an incredible feat, venturing...

We’ve come a long way from viewing robots merely as tools. Today, artificial intelligence (AI) and AI-enabled robots play increasing roles in human lives - from assisting us in mundane everyday tasks to aiding in complex scientific research.



They’re becoming our partners and social entities, blurring the boundaries between human and machine.



And this transition is not without its pitfalls. This transformation challenges existing legal and ethical frameworks, raising pressing concerns about privacy, safety, and regulation. 



A new publication,&nbsp;The Cambridge Handbook of the Law, Policy, and Regulation for Human-Robot Interaction, addresses these issues. The book provides a roadmap for navigating this rapidly evolving landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexities-of-human-robot-interactions">Complexities of human-robot interactions </h2>



Edited by Woodrow Barfield, Yueh-Hsuan Weng, and Ugo Pagallo, the handbook gathers insights from social sciences, computer science, and engineering. 



It stands as the first book to focus on the legal, policy, and regulatory aspects of human-robot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dancing-robots-the-future-of-human-robot-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a>.



“Humanities are crucial to AI development,” said Yueh-Hsuan Weng, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a> and <a href="https://www.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a>.



“Tech professionals can create cutting-edge systems, but without input from legal and humanities perspectives, these systems may struggle to coexist with humans. We hope this book serves as a compass for developers, ensuring AI systems better benefit our society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-core-issues-of-human-robot-interaction">Core issues of human-robot interaction </h2>



The handbook’s 46 chapters are organized into four parts, each tackling a critical dimension of human-robot interaction:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Legal and ethical challenges: This section introduces foundational issues like trust in robots and anthropomorphism - where humans attribute emotions or intentions to non-human entities.</li>



<li>Societal impacts: This part explores whether AI entities should have legal personhood and the societal adjustments needed for greater human-robot integration.</li>



<li>Ethical and cultural values: Value alignment between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-can-feel-emotions-for-robots-especially-those-in-distress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI systems and human societies</a> is examined, highlighting regional and cultural differences. Topics include robots in long-term assistance and religious settings.</li>



<li>Legal evolution: The final section delves into how consumer, criminal, and constitutional laws must adapt to accommodate intelligent systems.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-ai-pacing-problem">Addressing the AI pacing problem</h2>



“A major issue I addressed in the book is the AI pacing problem,” noted Professor Weng.



This concept highlights the gap between rapid AI advancements and slower legislative responses. While efforts to regulate AI are underway globally, comprehensive laws often lag behind technological progress.



Professor Weng proposes solutions like global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-deception-how-do-humans-respond-to-lying-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> ethics standards developed by the IEEE, where he leads a working group. 



This initiative aims to modularize core issues and region-specific concerns, helping developers apply ethical guidelines effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-privacy-anthropomorphism-and-boundaries">Privacy, anthropomorphism, and boundaries</h2>



The handbook delves into key issues like anthropomorphism, robots in healthcare, and privacy protection, which are becoming increasingly relevant as robots integrate into human society. 



Anthropomorphism, where robots are designed to exhibit human-like behaviors or emotions, can enhance interaction but raises ethical concerns about trust and potential manipulation. 



In healthcare, robots play vital roles as caregivers, especially for older adults, assisting with tasks like mobility and medication reminders. 



However, these interactions can lead to emotional complexities, as individuals may perceive robotic caregivers as true companions, resulting in dependency or confusion. 



Privacy protection emerges as another critical concern, as robots collect vast amounts of personal data to deliver high-quality services. 



Without proper safeguards, this data could be misused, making robust and innovative regulatory solutions essential to address these challenges responsibly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-perspective-on-human-robot-interaction">Global perspective on human-robot interaction</h2>



The handbook brings together experts from various countries and presents case studies from across the globe, promoting a global dialogue on ethical dilemmas in human-robot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-humans-react-to-coexisting-with-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a>. 



“As human-AI interactions become more common, I hope designers, manufacturers, and users of robots will engage with our book. Responsible research and innovation are crucial for the development of AI and robots, and this requires input from people across various societal sectors,” said Professor Weng.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-the-future-of-ai-and-robotics">Shaping the future of AI and robotics</h2>



The Cambridge Handbook of the Law, Policy, and Regulation for Human-Robot Interaction&nbsp;offers a comprehensive framework for understanding and addressing the complexities of AI-enabled robots. 



By sparking discussions across disciplines, it aims to guide the responsible integration of robots into society. 



“We warmly invite everyone to explore this book and join us in creating IEEE’s global standards for AI ethics,” said Professor Weng.



The <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-handbook-of-the-law-policy-and-regulation-for-humanrobot-interaction/5740D8AEA42968E6A195BEDF5CBD0E5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">book</a> is now available online, providing essential insights for navigating the future of human-robot interaction.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Human-robot interaction: Are we prepared for the ethical challenges?

We’ve come a long way from viewing robots merely as...

Plans to revisit the Moon by the end of this decade promise an exciting step for space exploration. Experts now caution that our arrival could bring unexpected hazards by creating thin, short-lived, toxic atmospheres made of moon dust right above the lunar surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-footprints-new-frontiers">Human footprints, new frontiers</h2>



Our natural satellite has little more than an extremely sparse layer of gas around it at any given moment, which scientists call an exosphere. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-plans-to-build-house-on-the-moon-by-2040/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In the near future</a>, astronaut activities, mining efforts, and rocket launches may change that fragile environment and kick up large amounts of <a href="https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/letss/regolith.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regolith</a> that jeopardize missions and equipment.



<a href="https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/sci/bio/rosemary.killen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosemary Killen</a>, a planetary scientist at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a>, has voiced concerns about tiny dust particles swirling into the air and endangering explorers. “One thing that really worries us is that the dust raised by the explorers and so on will be loaded,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-moon-dust-clouds">Tiny moon dust clouds</h2>



Moon dust, or regolith, has formed over billions of years from space rock impacts and solar wind effects. 



The fine grains <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117724008615" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pose health risks</a> when stirred up by rocket boosters and rovers, and their static-like buildup may affect visibility, respiratory health, and electronic instruments.



Exhaled vapors, leakages from spacecraft, and even little bits of water from life support systems can also add gas to the surrounding area. 



Although these additions may be short-lived, they can spread across miles before settling and freezing in the Moon’s shaded regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lunar-science-at-stake">Lunar science at stake</h2>



Researchers intend to unlock ancient secrets by analyzing pristine ice in permanently shadowed craters, where water may have existed for ages. 



But human-introduced <a href="https://baas.aas.org/pub/2024i009/release/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water vapor</a> can confuse those findings, since it can freeze in the same dark spots and obscure chemical clues about the Moon’s past.



Many instruments and experiments depend on analyzing dust and gases with as little contamination as possible. 



Equipment set up to measure local atmospheric makeup might be thrown off by unwanted clouds of exhaust or recycling byproducts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spaceships-and-moon-dust-blasts">Spaceships and moon dust blasts</h2>



NASA has partnered with commercial groups to ferry astronauts and cargo to the Moon in an effort often referred to collectively as the Artemis missions (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Artemis</a>). Large vehicles, including Starship variants, might cause forceful landings that fling moon dust up at high altitudes and create brief “atmospheric” pockets of gas and tiny particles.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-nasa-plans-to-keep-people-in-space-after-the-iss-is-gone/">Space agencies</a> say they will try to minimize these effects by choosing suitable landing sites and carefully planning flight paths. 



Yet observers warn that a few seconds of rocket thrust could hurl moon dust long distances and deposit fresh contaminants in remote locations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-moon-dust-causes-concern">Why moon dust causes concern</h2>



Moon dust is not just an irritant: it can damage lungs, scratch surfaces on suits, and clog machinery. 



Some analysts compare it to the harm that soot or coal dust causes to miners if inhaled over time, which might reduce the safety margin for extended <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-new-lunar-fss-mission-will-explore-moon-far-side-moonquakes/">Moon missions</a>.



Astronauts also risk tracking moon dust back inside their living quarters. Dirty suits, tools, and rovers can transport the debris into airlocks and the interiors of space craft, which raises concerns about health impacts and mechanical damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-scientific-treasures">Protecting scientific treasures</h2>



High-priority research targets include regions that have barely changed in billions of years. Certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103517307340?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shadowy craters</a> may hold ice that could reveal how water arrived on Earth and the Moon, and offer clues about our planet’s beginnings.



Adding even a small amount of new water or gas can make existing data hard to interpret. Some scientists recommend carefully planned operations and restricted zones to preserve these ancient substances until samples can be taken under controlled conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-exploration-with-caution">Balancing exploration with caution</h2>



No one wants to halt progress in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-has-unexpected-effects-on-gut-health/">space travel</a>. But specialists suggest that mindful mission designs, gentle landing technologies, and well-managed mining or drilling are necessary to keep the lunar surface intact.



<a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> aims to collect enough data to separate what is truly native to the Moon from anything brought by humans. 



Such efforts will help us learn the limits of lunar resources, the dangers of moon dust, and the best ways to safeguard explorers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-dust-and-lunar-exploration">Moon dust and lunar exploration</h2>



Our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lunar-glass-may-rewrite-the-geological-history-of-the-moon/">renewed presence on the Moon</a> introduces a host of fascinating possibilities. Yet it also places the spotlight on how fragile the lunar environment can be, reminding us that every footprint, launch, or sample has an impact.



From potential dust hazards to artificial atmospheric bursts, new lunar developments call for cooperation among space agencies, scientists, and private companies.&nbsp;



If handled wisely, tomorrow’s Moon missions will open a window to incredible discoveries while preserving our cosmic neighbor for future generations.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

NASA alert: Humans risk creating a toxic atmosphere on the Moon

Plans to revisit the Moon by the end of this...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

Well, according to the Dyckman Farmhouse Museum Alliance website, the main building housed a group of ten in 1820. Jacobus was one of them, of course, and he had three children. Their names were Isaac, Michael, and Jacob. And Jacobus’ niece and grandson came to join the clan, too. Photo Credit: Facebook/Dyckman Farmhouse Museum

A home to ten

As well as the farmhouse, there were three more homes peppered throughout the land. And you would have also found a barn, cider mill, stable, and a few corn cribs. All in all, then, it was a bustling space. But how many people stayed there after Jacobus took over. Photo Credit: Village Preservation (Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation) / Flickr