Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a strong extratropical cyclone, which struck the Pacific Northwest on November 19, 2024.



“The storm knocked over trees and left nearly 600,000 people without power in Washington state on November 20, according to news reports,” noted <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2Fimages%2F153605%2Fextratropical-cyclone-whips-over-the-pacific-northwest&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “This image shows the storm system at 1:50 p.m. Pacific Time on November 19.” 



According to NASA, mature extratropical cyclones like this often feature comma-shaped cloud patterns that are the product of ‘conveyor belt’ circulation. “Heavy precipitation is often present near the low-pressure head of the comma.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-the-extratropical-cyclone-nbsp">Impacts of the extratropical cyclone&nbsp;</h2>



The “bomb cyclone” brought <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fhow-much-does-climate-change-influence-extreme-weather-events%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">severe weather</a>, including strong winds exceeding 70 mph, heavy rainfall, and snow in higher elevations. These conditions led to significant disruptions, including downed trees and hazardous travel conditions.



In urban and rural areas, damage to infrastructure and properties was substantial, with emergency responders and utility crews working around the clock to restore services.&nbsp;



Additionally, mountain passes faced dangerous blizzard conditions, with up to 20 inches of snow accumulating in some areas, severely affecting travel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-pace-of-acceleration">Rapid pace of acceleration</h2>



Chris Dolce is a meteorologist at The Weather Channel. He noted that on the evening of November 19, the storm’s central pressure dropped to levels on par with a storm in October 2021, which saw the lowest pressure in about 50 years of records for that region.



“The pace of the storm’s intensification was more than double the criteria for bombogenesis - a popular term that describes a midlatitude cyclone that rapidly intensifies into a ‘bomb cyclone,’” said NASA.



The rapidly dropping atmospheric pressure at the center of the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fcoastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm</a> caused winds to intensify quickly. According to the National Weather Service in Seattle, wind gusts reached up to 77 miles per hour in the mountains southeast of the city.



“The cyclone kicked off a long-duration atmospheric river that forecasters expect will park over Northern California and southern Oregon through November 22. The National Weather Service estimates that these areas could see rainfall totals of 12 to 16 inches over the duration of the storm,” noted NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-an-extratropical-cyclone">What is an extratropical cyclone?</h2>



An extratropical cyclone is a large-scale weather system that forms outside the tropics, typically between 30° and 60° latitude, and is associated with areas of low pressure.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-source">Energy source</h3>



These cyclones obtain their energy from the contrast in temperature between air masses, such as cold polar air and warm subtropical air. This contrast creates instability and drives atmospheric circulation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-extratropical-cyclones-nbsp">Development of extratropical cyclones&nbsp;</h3>



Extratropical cyclones usually have well-defined warm and cold fronts. They often develop along the polar front, where cold and warm air masses meet.



A common area for their development is the mid-latitudes, particularly in regions like the North Atlantic and North Pacific.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weather-conditions">Weather conditions</h3>



Extratropical cyclones can bring a variety of <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fhuman-activity-is-rapidly-changing-weather-in-north-america%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather conditions</a>, including heavy rain, snow, strong winds, and severe storms. They are responsible for much of the day-to-day weather in mid-latitude regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-vs-extratropical-cyclones-nbsp">Tropical vs. extratropical cyclones&nbsp;</h3>



While <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Ffast-moving-tropical-cyclones-are-becoming-more-powerful%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical cyclones</a> derive energy from warm ocean waters and have a warm core, extratropical cyclones gain energy from temperature contrasts and have a cold core.



Tropical cyclones typically lack fronts, whereas extratropical cyclones are defined by them.



These systems are essential in distributing heat and energy across the planet, playing a critical role in the Earth's climate system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caught-off-guard-by-the-weather">Caught off guard by the weather</h2>



The bomb cyclone in the Pacific Northwest highlights the importance of <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fnew-era-in-forecasting-ai-will-improve-extreme-weather-warnings%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparedness</a>, as residents were urged to secure loose outdoor items, stock emergency supplies, and avoid unnecessary travel.



The fire department in Bellevue, east of Seattle, posted a Severe Weather Safety alert on Facebook: “It’s severe out there. Trees are coming down all over the city, with multiple falling onto homes. If you are able, head to the lowest floor you can and stay away from windows. Do not go outside if you can avoid it.”



The image was captured by the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on NOAA’s JPSS-1 (Joint Polar Satellite System-1).



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Bomb cyclone rapidly intensified in the Pacific Northwest

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the little-observed southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-star-formation">Fuel for star formation </h2>



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionised nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers studying stellar evolution and the lifecycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that are rich in young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



The galaxy’s central bar is believed to play a role in driving gas towards the core, fueling both the star formation and the activity around its nucleus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



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Spiral galaxy NGC 1559 is a loner in outer space

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba, about 43 million light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.



“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. “Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;



“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;



“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”



Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-evolution">Galaxy evolution</h2>



Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



These early galaxies were small and irregular, composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space.&nbsp;



These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



As galaxies evolve, their morphology - their shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. 



The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;



In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;



Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.



Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee



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NGC 1792: A galactic powerhouse 

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko Glacier lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall.&nbsp;



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting. 



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the spiral galaxy IC 5332, which is located over 29 million light-years away from Earth.



The galaxy spans approximately 66,000 light-years in diameter. This makes it notably smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is just over 100,000 light-years in diameter. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-look-at-ic-5332">Unprecedented look at IC 5332</h2>



In a stunning photo release by NASA and ESA in 2022, the spiral galaxy IC 5332 was presented in an unprecedented level of detail. The images were captured by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-incredible-new-image-of-uranus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>.



This feat was made possible through the use of the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI), which captures images in the mid-infrared spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-perspective-from-earth">Unique perspective from Earth</h2>



One of the most striking features of IC 5332, as revealed by these observations, is its almost perfect face-on orientation relative to Earth.&nbsp;



This unique perspective allows astronomers to clearly observe and admire the symmetrical arrangement of its spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-unveils-ic-5332-in-new-light">Webb unveils IC 5332 in new light</h2>



The clarity of these images represents a significant advancement over previous observations made by the Hubble Space Telescope, which imaged IC 5332 in ultraviolet and visible light.&nbsp;



While Hubble’s images revealed the galaxy’s symmetrical spiral arms, James Webb’s MIRI has unveiled these structures as a complex web of gas that emits infrared light at various temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-miri-instrument-on-james-webb-nbsp">The MIRI instrument on James Webb&nbsp;</h2>



Capturing this range of infrared light is no simple task. It requires highly specialized instruments that must be maintained at extremely cold temperatures.&nbsp;



The MIRI instrument on the James Webb Space Telescope is specifically designed for this purpose and performs exceptionally well. Its capabilities allow astronomers to see aspects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> that are otherwise hidden in other wavelengths.



The detailed images provided by MIRI offer more than just a visual spectacle; they provide valuable data about the composition and temperature of the gases that make up the spiral arms of IC 5332. 



This can help scientists understand the processes of star formation within the galaxy and how these processes compare to those in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-finds-hidden-features-of-the-universe-nbsp">Webb finds hidden features of the universe&nbsp;</h2>



The images of IC 5332 served as a critical test of the James Webb Space Telescope’s capabilities in observing the universe in infrared light. 



As astronomers continue to explore with Webb’s full suite of instruments, many more hidden features of the universe will be revealed.



The information provided by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-second-most-distant-galaxy-in-pandoras-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> not only expands our understanding of the cosmos but also enhances our appreciation for the complex and beautiful structures that exist in our universe.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-galaxies-like-ic-5332">Spiral galaxies like IC 5332</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most visually striking objects in the universe, characterized by their rotating arms that extend from a central nucleus, giving them a distinct spiral appearance.&nbsp;



These galaxies are primarily made up of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. These are often surrounded by a much fainter halo of stars, many of which reside in globular clusters.



Spiral galaxies differ from other galaxy types, such as elliptical and irregular galaxies, in their structure and content. 



The spiral arms are sites of ongoing star formation and are brighter than the rest of the disk because of the young, hot stars that are typically found there. The arms appear distinct because of their density waves, which compress the gas and dust, leading to star formation.



The rotation of the spiral arms also contributes to the galaxy's flat shape due to the centrifugal forces acting on the disk. The central bulge can vary in size and often contains older, red stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Barred spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Some spiral galaxies have a bar-shaped structure that extends from the central bulge, making them barred spirals. This bar affects the motion of stars and gas within the galaxy and can influence star formation activity.



Spiral galaxies are an important focus of study because they contain a significant amount of visible matter and play a crucial role in understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies.&nbsp;



Their distinct features also make them particularly useful for studying the laws of physics under extreme conditions, such as high densities and velocities.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, J. Lee and the PHANGS-JWST and PHANGS-HST Teams



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Spiral galaxy IC 5332: A complex web of gas and light

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

So what exactly was it that emerged from Ear Spring that day? Given the long and rich history of Yellowstone, there are plenty of contenders. Because this vast, 3,500-square-mile swathe of land is arguably the most ancient, as well as the oldest-official national park in America. And there’s little doubt that countless objects and artifacts have been lost there over the years.

What Came Out?

Coal ash is the chalky leftovers from a fuel that's been our mainstay for centuries. Now, it's something of a hot issue, considering that it's been accumulating across the nation for decades. 



A new study, led by researchers from The University of Texas at Austin, unearthed a hidden treasure in these mounds of ash – a large supply of rare-earth elements that could significantly beef up the national supply and reduce the need for new mining operations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-trash-to-treasure">From trash to treasure</h2>



“This really exemplifies the ‘trash to treasure’ mantra,” said co-lead author Bridget Scanlon, a research professor at UT’s Bureau of Economic Geology at the Jackson School of Geosciences. 



“We’re basically trying to close the cycle and use waste and recover <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-rise-as-nations-tackle-fossil-fuel-dependence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a> in the waste, while at the same time reducing environmental impacts.”



Rare-earth elements, a group of 17 pivotal chemical soldiers, are the backbone of our modern tech-dependent world. These unseen heroes also play a critical part in our energy transition towards lower carbon fuels, as they are used in solar panels, batteries, magnets and a host of other energy technologies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-earth-dilemma">Rare-earth dilemma</h2>



The United States is heavily dependent on imports - about 75% - for these strategic elements, and most of it is from China. It's a risky situation, given the convoluted labyrinth of global supply chains and rising geopolitical tensions.



But UT Austin's trailblazing study provides a ray of hope. A whopping 11 million tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crucial-rare-earth-elements-discovered-coal-mines-united-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare-earth elements</a> could be up for grabs in easily accessible coal ash piles; this represents nearly eight times the amount currently hoarded in U.S. domestic reserves.



This study, the first to take stock of our national coal ash resources, estimates that $8.4 billion worth of these elements could be unearthed from this accessible coal ash treasure.



Moreover, the U.S. Department of Energy is keen to apply this new methodology to conduct its own assessment of national coal ash resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-value-from-coal-ash">Building value from coal ash</h2>



Though the levels of rare earth elements in coal ash are low compared to traditional geological sources, the sheer volume of readily available coal ash makes it a promising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-gas-isnt-as-clean-as-we-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resource</a>. 



“There’s huge volumes of this stuff all over the country. And the upfront process of extracting the (mineral host) is already taken care of for us,” said co-author Davin Bagdonas, a research scientist at the University of Wyoming.



The scientists discovered that from 1985 to 2021, nearly 70% of coal ash produced, amounting to 1,873 million tons, could potentially be recovered.



This ash is largely stored in landfills, ponds, and offsite storage areas. The rest has been sold off and put to use by other industries, such as in cement production and road construction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coal-ash-origin-affects-the-content">Coal ash origin affects the content</h2>



The coal ash's place of origin impacts the concentration of rare-earth elements it contains, and the quantity that can be extracted.



Ashes from Appalachian Basin coal contain the highest amounts of rare-earth elements (an average of 431 milligrams per kilogram), but only about 30% of it can be extracted.



On the other hand, coal from the Powder River Basin has a lower average rare-earth content (264 milligrams per kilogram), but nearly 70% of it can be extracted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implementing-the-strategy">Implementing the strategy</h2>



Chris Young, the Chief Strategy Officer at Element USA, a company that extracts critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-jet-fuel-could-revolutionize-aviation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minerals</a> from waste, sees this new research as further proof of coal ash's potential. 



“The idea of getting rare-earth elements out of tailings (mining by-products) just makes a lot of sense. It’s a common-sense approach,” he said. “The challenge is to convert that common-sense approach to an economic approach.”



The study's promising results have sparked a surge in industry interest. Element USA is moving its analytical lab and pilot equipment to Austin to leverage the mineral expertise at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas</a> and provide students with hands-on experience in critical mineral research and careers.



The funding for this research was raised by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management, and the Jackson School of Geosciences.



The study's other co-authors include Robert Reedy, J. Richard Kyle, and Kristine Uhlman from the Bureau, James Hower from the <a href="https://www.uky.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Kentucky</a>, and independent consultant Dennis James.



The research is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40789-024-00710-z">International Journal of Coal Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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U.S. coal ash holds tons of rare-earth elements worth $8.4 billion

Coal ash is the chalky leftovers from a fuel that's...

Sipping on a citrus soda, have you ever wondered why the flavor seemed to be evenly distributed? A secret ingredient called BVO, or brominated vegetable oil, played a big role.



However, after much consideration and several studies indicating potential health risks, this soda additive is nearing its end in the United States.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-banning-the-soda-additive">Banning the soda additive </h2>



The Food and Drug Administration (FDA), America's federal agency for regulating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-tongue-could-revolutionize-food-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food safety</a>, has recently taken a decisive step. After revoking the registration of BVO, this modified vegetable oil is now officially banned across the country.



The decision came after clear evidence of toxicity emerged from recent studies, making the continued usage of BVO untenable.



James Jones, FDA deputy commissioner for humans foods, announced the significant proposal.



"The proposed action is an example of how the agency monitors emerging evidence and, as needed, conducts scientific research to investigate safety-related questions, and takes regulatory action when the science does not support the continued safe use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-ingredients-in-u-s-foods-are-potentially-unsafe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">additives</a> in foods," noted Jones. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questioning-the-safety-of-the-soda-additive">Questioning the safety of the soda additive</h2>



The story of BVO dates back to the 1930s. As an emulsifying agent, it was added to keep the citrus flavor from floating to the top of soda. 



Animal studies have suggested that the compound may slowly accumulate in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-late-increases-hunger-and-changes-fat-tissues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fat tissues</a>, preventing iodine from performing crucial functions within our thyroid gland. This led health authorities worldwide to question the emulsifier's safety.



In fact, BVO has already been scrapped from the ingredients list in several countries, including India, Japan, and European Union nations. Even the state of California bid it farewell in October 2022, with the ban expected to be active by 2027.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-about-potential-toxicity">Concerns about potential toxicity </h2>



The <a href="https://www.fda.gov.ph/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a> had its reservations. In the 1950s, it considered BVO a generally recognized as safe (GRAS) ingredient. This status was given to items that had either been adequately tested or to those in common use prior to 1958.



The perception changed in the next decade when concerns about potential toxicity arose, leading to a temporary limit on BVO usage, especially in citrus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-levels-of-toxic-metals-detected-in-popular-drinks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinks</a>.



Getting hard data on the long-term risks was not an easy task, hence the delay. However, research in the UK during the 1970s found bromine building up in human tissues, and its high concentrations were linked to heart and behavioral issues in animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soda-makers-move-on">Soda makers move on</h2>



After several studies, the FDA is finally convinced that BVO should be banned. Companies such as PepsiCo and Coca-Cola Co. have already started the process of phasing out this ingredient from their products over the last decade.



"Over the years many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-are-consuming-more-sugary-drinks-than-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beverage</a> makers reformulated their products to replace BVO with an alternative ingredient, and today, few beverages in the US contain BVO," said Jones. 



This decision could be the first of many. The FDA is currently reviewing regulations authorizing certain food additives, aiming to enhance the process and prohibit food coloring agents found to cause cancer in humans or animals.



The final decision on BVO's classification went through a comprehensive review process that has now come to an end. With alternatives already being used globally to keep citrus drinks tangy to the last drop, it appears the days of BVO are truly numbered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-soda-ingredients">The future of soda ingredients</h2>



With BVO officially banned, soda manufacturers are now turning to safer and more sustainable alternatives to maintain flavor consistency in citrus beverages. 



Common replacements include natural stabilizers such as ester gum and sucrose acetate isobutyrate (SAIB), which offer similar emulsifying properties without the associated health risks.



This shift reflects a broader trend in the beverage industry toward cleaner labels and transparency in ingredient sourcing. 



As consumers become more health-conscious, brands are under increasing pressure to minimize the use of synthetic additives and embrace natural formulations.



In addition, regulatory bodies are expected to intensify their scrutiny of food and beverage ingredients, encouraging innovation in the development of safe and effective stabilizers. 



These advancements could pave the way for a new era of beverages that prioritize both taste and health.



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Controversial soda additive has been banned by the FDA

Sipping on a citrus soda, have you ever wondered why...

Astronomers have discovered a planet that is just 3 million years old - a baby in planetary terms. Named IRAS 04125+2902 b, it is the youngest planet discovered using conventional detection methodologies.



The planet was spotted by a team of scientists led by Madyson G. Barber, a graduate student at the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unc.edu%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a>.



To understand the location of the newborn planet, we must take a metaphorical journey 430 light-years away to the Taurus Molecular Cloud. This is an active stellar nursery housing hundreds of newborn stars, making it a prime target for astronomers. 



According to the researchers, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-worlds-do-not-fit-the-definition-of-a-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">young world</a> is still glowing from to the heat of its formation, as it continues to evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-planets-are-usually-hidden">Young planets are usually hidden</h2>



The Taurus Molecular Cloud provides important information about the formation and evolution of young stars. However, when it comes to the planets in this stellar nursery, it's like trying to read a closed book.



Instruments like the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (<a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/tess/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TESS</a>), which work on the transit method, depend on a clear line of sight to detect planets. 



These telescopes watch for the dip in starlight when a planet crosses the face of its host star. But when there are obstructive debris disks, potentially transiting planets remain hidden.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lucky-discovery-of-a-newborn-planet">Lucky discovery of a newborn planet</h2>



In a fortunate turn of events, the outer debris disk encircling the planet is warped, making the young world visible to TESS.



But why did this warp happen? The planet just may have moved closer to its star, causing it to diverge from the outer disk's orientation.



From Earth, we see an edge-on planet's orbit, while the outer disk appears face-on. But for this to happen, another (quite large) object would be needed in the system, and we haven't detected one yet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stellar-companion-friend-or-foe">Stellar companion: Friend or foe?</h2>



The system's sun has a distant stellar companion, which could be causing the warping. However, the orbit of this companion aligns with the planet and its parent star.



Normally, this alignment should push the disk closer to the system, not away from it. So, this doesn't quite explain the warp.



Another possibility involves no companion star at all. Busy stellar nurseries like the Taurus Molecular Cloud can cause disk warping through "rains" of infalling material. Right now, it's unclear whether such warped or broken disks are common occurrences or not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possibly-a-mini-neptune-or-super-earth">Possibly a mini-Neptune or super-Earth </h2>



By coupling TESS’s transit measurements with the wobble method, the scientists learned more about the newborn planet. This method detects changes in starlight due to the gravitational tug of the planet on its star.



The planet’s mass is about a third of Jupiter's, but it has a similar diameter. This implies a lower density and, likely, an enlarged atmosphere.



It could turn out to be a "mini-Neptune" or a rocky "<a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fsuper-earth-discovered-in-the-habitable-zone-of-its-star%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-Earth</a>'," which are both common in the Milky Way even though they are not found in our solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-planetary-formation">Implications for planetary formation</h2>



The observation of IRAS 04125+2902 b offers invaluable insights into our understanding of planetary formation and migration. 



The unique circumstances surrounding this planet, particularly the potential disk warping and near-proximity transit observability, challenge existing theoretical models. 



Traditional views suggest that planet migration occurs gradually, influenced by the dynamics of the protoplanetary disk. However, the observed warp indicates that external forces or rapid inward migration could play more substantial roles than previously assumed.



This discovery prompts astronomers to re-evaluate how planets can universally evolve within various environmental conditions, pushing forward our comprehension of complex planetary systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-observations-of-the-young-planet">Future observations of the young planet</h2>



The unusual characteristics of IRAS 04125+2902 b make it a top candidate for further investigation. Future missions equipped with advanced telescopic technology could help elucidate the dynamics of its environment and uncover the nature of any potential nearby objects affecting the disk's structure. 



For instance, next-generation telescopes with higher resolution could capture more detailed images, offering a clearer understanding of the disk’s orientation and any perturbing influences. 



Additionally, comparing IRAS 04125+2902 b with other young exoplanets in similar stellar nurseries could help experts determine whether such planet-disk interactions are extraordinary or prevalent in the cosmos.



Continued observation will be crucial in exploring these enigmatic circumstances and advancing our knowledge of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-of-earths-safe-planetary-boundaries-have-been-breached/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary evolution</a>.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41586-024-08123-3&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Hurt, K. Miller (Caltech/IPAC)



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'Newborn' planet is still glowing from the heat of its formation

Astronomers have discovered a planet that is just 3 million...

For decades, scientists have demonstrated that chimpanzees, like humans, pass complex cultural practices, such as tool use, from one generation to the next.&nbsp;



However, while human culture has evolved dramatically - from the Stone Age to the Space Age - chimpanzee cultures appear relatively unchanged.&nbsp;



This gap has long been attributed to humans’ unique ability to refine and build on cultural knowledge over time. Recent research suggests, however, that this distinction may not be as clear-cut as previously thought.&nbsp;



A new interdisciplinary study led by the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> presents evidence that some of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-feel-the-pressure-to-perform-with-an-audience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>’ most complex behaviors may have been passed down and refined over generations, offering an early example of cumulative culture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-history-of-chimpanzee-culture">The history of chimpanzee culture</h2>



Chimpanzees often use tools made of perishable materials like sticks and stems, which leave little evidence for tracing their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural evolution</a>. 



“As most chimpanzee tools, such as sticks and stems, are perishable, there are few records of their history to confirm this hypothesis - unlike human cases such as the evolution of the wheel or computer technology,” explained lead author Cassandra Gunasekaram from the University of Zurich.



To overcome this limitation, the research team - comprising anthropologists, primatologists, physicists, and geneticists from universities in Zurich, St. Andrews, Barcelona, Cambridge, Konstanz, and Vienna - used genetic data to uncover historical links between chimpanzee populations.&nbsp;



By combining genetic analysis with field data on foraging behaviors across 35 chimpanzee study sites in Africa, they unearthed clues about how cultural practices were transmitted and evolved over thousands of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-stages-of-cumulative-culture">Early stages of cumulative culture</h2>



The researchers classified chimpanzee foraging behaviors into three categories: those that required no tools, those using simple tools (e.g., leaf sponges to collect water), and the most complex practices that involved toolsets - a series of tools used sequentially to achieve a task.



One such toolset is employed by chimpanzees in the Congo region to extract termites.&nbsp;



“Chimpanzees in the Congo region first use a strong stick to dig a deep tunnel through hard soil to reach an underground termite nest,” Gunasekaram explained.&nbsp;



“Next, they make a 'fishing' probe by pulling a long plant stem through their teeth to form a brush-like tip, pressing it into a point and deftly threading it down the tunnel they’ve made. They then pull it out and nibble off any defending termites that have bitten into it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technologies-transmitted-across-populations">Technologies transmitted across populations</h2>



A key finding of the study was that complex toolsets showed the strongest genetic links across distant populations.&nbsp;



“We made the surprising discovery that it is the most complex chimpanzee technologies - the use of entire ‘toolsets’ - that are most strongly linked across now distant populations,” said corresponding author Andrea Migliano, a professor of evolutionary anthropology at the University of Zurich.&nbsp;



“This is exactly what would be predicted if these more advanced technologies were rarely invented and even less likely to be reinvented, and therefore more likely to have been transmitted between groups.”



This finding supports the idea that complex behaviors were not independently developed in different regions but were instead passed down and spread through interconnected chimpanzee communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-migrations-and-cultural-transmission">Female migrations and cultural transmission</h2>



In chimpanzee societies, females migrate to new communities upon reaching sexual maturity, helping to prevent inbreeding.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, these migrations not only spread genetic diversity but may also have played a critical role in disseminating cultural innovations.



The study revealed that when both complex toolsets and their simpler components were found at different sites, genetic markers suggested that those sites were historically connected through female migrations.&nbsp;



This pattern implies that more sophisticated toolsets were likely built incrementally by modifying simpler practices.&nbsp;



“These groundbreaking discoveries provide a new way to demonstrate that chimpanzees have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-started-cumulative-culture-around-600000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cumulative culture</a>, albeit at an early stage of development,” Migliano said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-chimpanzee-culture">A new perspective on chimpanzee culture</h2>



The study provides compelling evidence that chimpanzees possess a rudimentary form of cumulative culture.&nbsp;



Although far less advanced than human cultural evolution, these findings challenge the assumption that cumulative culture is exclusive to humans.&nbsp;



By tracing the genetic and cultural links between chimpanzee populations, the research highlights how generations of chimpanzees have passed down and refined behaviors, particularly their most complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-humans-used-tools-to-make-timber-for-woodworking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tool-use</a> practices.



This new understanding opens doors to further exploration of how cultural transmission occurs in other non-human species, potentially reshaping how we view the evolutionary origins of human culture.



-----



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Chimpanzee cultures are more complex than we realized

For decades, scientists have demonstrated that chimpanzees, like humans, pass...

The saber-toothed tiger, an iconic predator from the Ice Age, continues to captivate scientists and enthusiasts alike with its mysterious legacy. 



Now, scientists have discovered a mummified baby saber-toothed tiger, a cub, in Siberia.



The discovery, which boasts an extraordinary level of preservation, offers a rare and intimate glimpse into the anatomy and lifestyle of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predator-was-king-prior-to-the-great-dying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-extinct predator</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-saber-toothed-tigers">What are saber-toothed tigers?</h2>



Saber-toothed tigers, also called saber-toothed cats, were some of the most impressive predators to roam the Earth during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">last Ice Age</a>, even though they are not related to today's tigers.



They sported incredibly long, curved canine teeth that could reach up to seven inches, perfect for delivering powerful, precise bites to their prey. 



These big cats had strong, muscular bodies and relatively short legs, making them agile hunters capable of taking down large animals like mammoths and bison. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-kitten_frozen_fur_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-kitten_frozen_fur_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1s.webp" alt="Shown here at left is the frozen Homotherium latidens specimen, the first known mummy of a saber-toothed cat. On the right is a CT-scan of its skeleton. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin" class="wp-image-1951073"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Shown here at left is the frozen Homotherium latidens specimen, the first known mummy of a saber-toothed cat. On the right is a CT-scan of its skeleton. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin</figcaption></figure>



Their unique features and hunting strategies made them top predators in their ecosystems. Despite their fearsome reputation, saber-toothed tigers went extinct around 10,000 years ago. 



Researchers believe a combination of climate change, habitat loss, and the decline of their primary prey contributed to their disappearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mummified-saber-toothed-tiger-cub">Mummified saber-toothed tiger cub</h2>



The Siberian Ice Age cub is the first recorded mummified saber-toothed tiger -- a discovery that is setting off waves of excitement among paleontologists worldwide.



It allows us a sneak-peek into the past, and a fascinating and rare opportunity to see exactly what an ancient predator looked like.



The mummy offers precious insights into the cat's muscle structure and how it might have impacted its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smilodon-fatalis-young-saber-toothed-cats-had-double-fangs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting methods</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-kitten_frozen_fur_profile_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-kitten_frozen_fur_profile_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1s.webp" alt="Images highlight the differences in external appearance of the heads of two 3-week-old cub specimens — the mummified Homotherium latidens (saber-toothed cat) at the top and Panthera leo (modern lion) below. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin" class="wp-image-1951075"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Images highlight the differences in external appearance of the heads of two 3-week-old cub specimens — the mummified Homotherium latidens (saber-toothed cat) at the top and Panthera leo (modern lion) below. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin</figcaption></figure>



The mummy's face, forelimbs, torso, and part of its body were remarkably intact and generously covered with thick, soft fur that was between 0.8 and 1.2 inches (20 to 30 millimeters) in length.



Alexey V. Lopatin is a full member of the <a href="https://new.ras.ru/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Russian Academy of Sciences</a> in Moscow, director of the academy’s Borissiak Paleontological Institute, and the lead author of the study.



"It’s a fantastic feeling to see with your own eyes the life appearance of a long-extinct animal. Especially when it comes to such an interesting predator as the sabre-toothed cat," said Lopatin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



The mummy is the first Asian record of the saber-toothed tiger species Homotherium latidens.



Other Ice Age mummies, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-hunted-woolly-rhinoceros-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">woolly rhinos</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mammoths-survived-longer-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammoths</a>, have been found fairly commonly in the Siberian region. However, mummified cats are an extraordinary rarity.



"Before this discovery, there were just two known cat mummies, both cubs of the cave lion Panthera spelaea from Yakutia’s Uyandina River basin. Now, we have added the Homotherium cub to this list", explained Lopatin.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-cub-skull_lion-skull_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-cub-skull_lion-skull_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1s.webp" alt="The new mummy findings reveal that saber-toothed cubs differed dramatically from modern lion cubs of a similar age. The image above highlights differences in the skulls of the mummifed Homotherium latidens (A, B) and Panthera leo (C, D) at 3 weeks old. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin" class="wp-image-1951071"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The new mummy findings reveal that saber-toothed cubs differed dramatically from modern lion cubs of a similar age. The image above highlights differences in the skulls of the mummifed Homotherium latidens (A, B) and Panthera leo (C, D) at 3 weeks old. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin</figcaption></figure>



The next steps in learning about this extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-sabertooth-cat-discovered-in-south-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> involved the analysis of extracted DNA, and detailed examination of the cub's skeleton, muscles, and hair.



Paleontologist Jack Tseng, an associate professor in the Integrative Biology Department at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, who was not involved in the discovery, expressed his astonishment at the find.



"It’s rare to find bones of this lineage in the first place, let alone soft tissue associated with it," said Tseng.



Speaking to CNN, Tseng shared that he was at a loss for words when considering "the treasure trove of information that could come out of this singular discovery."



"I don’t know if other paleontologists’ minds are as blown as mine, but it’s like reality changes now that we’ve seen this."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-the-past">Clues from the past</h2>



Preserved in permafrost, the cub was discovered near the Badyarikha River in northeast Yakutia by local diggers in 2020. 



Radiocarbon dating estimates the cub to be at least 35,000 years old, making its lifetime coincide with the latter part of the Pleistocene epoch (roughly 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago).



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-cub-paw_lion-paw_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-cub-paw_lion-paw_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1s.webp" alt="Pictured here are the forepaws of 3-week-old large cubs. A, B and C reveal views of the mummified Homotherium latidens specimen: A is a thumb claw; B a second digit claw; and С a plantar view. D shows the plantar view of the right forepaw of a Panthera leo specimen. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin" class="wp-image-1951069"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Pictured here are the forepaws of 3-week-old large cubs. A, B and C reveal views of the mummified Homotherium latidens specimen: A is a thumb claw; B a second digit claw; and С a plantar view. D shows the plantar view of the right forepaw of a Panthera leo specimen. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin</figcaption></figure>



The preservation of the cub's forelimbs was exceptional, with claws and the fleshy pads or "beans" (as modern cat admirers like to call them) still intact. 



The cubs of this ancient and long-extinct species varied significantly from modern lion cubs. 



The saber-toothed cub seemed to have longer forelimbs, a bigger mouth opening, a more solid neck, darker coat, and smaller ears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saber-toothed-tiger-fascination">Saber-toothed tiger fascination</h2>



The cub's forearms and paw resembled a bear's, which are known for their strength in collecting food.



This similarity suggests that adult Homotherium may have depended on their forearms, possibly using them to stabilize their prey.



Until now, 3D digital modeling of scanned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ugly-fossil-unveils-secrets-of-extinct-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> was used to hypothesize saber-toothed cat anatomy. However, nothing compares to witnessing these limbs "in the flesh." 



This find is not just about the Homotherium mummy; it offers a unique insight into the entire evolutionary history of the feline group.



This saber-toothed tiger cub mummy is an invaluable find, adding another vivid glimpse into our planet's fascinating history.



The research paper is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-79546-1#citeas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Mummified baby saber-toothed tiger found with fur and toes intact

The saber-toothed tiger, an iconic predator from the Ice Age,...

An international team of scientists has successfully sequenced the genome of the legendary composer, Ludwig van Beethoven, for the first time ever. 



The scientists examined Beethoven's genes to understand his health and genetic makeup.



The researchers used five <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-genome-size-impact-evolutionary-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetically matching</a> locks of hair from the legendary composer for their analysis.



The findings reveal some interesting facts about Beethoven and open a whole new set of questions about his life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sounds-of-illness-beethoven-s-health">Sounds of illness: Beethoven's health</h2>



Beethoven's health has been the subject of debate ever since he asked his doctor to publicly document his illness way back in 1802.



This new research, however, brings a fresh perspective, revealing previously unknown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-transposons-control-early-human-development-not-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic risk</a> factors for the liver disease that likely contributed to Beethoven's death.



Ever wondered why Beethoven had progressive hearing loss, which made him almost deaf by 1818? Or why he had chronic gastrointestinal complaints and a severe liver disease that ultimately led to his death in 1827?



So have many others, and the experts set out to find answers to these questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ailments-with-mysterious-causes">Ailments with mysterious causes</h2>



Interestingly, the research team could not pinpoint a definite cause for Beethoven's hearing loss or gastrointestinal problems. 



However, they discovered several genetic risk factors for liver disease and found evidence that Beethoven was infected with the hepatitis B virus. Coupled with his alcohol consumption, this condition may have resulted in severe liver disease.



According to Tristan Begg, the study's lead author from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, Beethoven drank alcohol regularly as documented in his "conversation books."



"If his alcohol consumption was sufficiently heavy over a long enough period, the interaction with his genetic risk factors presents one possible explanation for his cirrhosis," said Begg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-remain-about-genetic-causes">Questions remain about genetic causes</h2>



Furthermore, the researchers did not find a straightforward genetic cause for Beethoven's hearing loss. 



"Although a clear genetic underpinning for Beethoven’s hearing loss could not be identified, the scientists caution that such a scenario cannot be strictly ruled out," explained Dr. Axel Schmidt from the Institute of Human Genetics at the <a href="https://www.ukbonn.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University Hospital of Bonn</a>.



In regards to Beethoven's gastrointestinal complaints, no genetic explanation was pinpointed. The researchers argue that diseases like coeliac disease and lactose intolerance are unlikely causes, based on the genomic data.



Beethoven was also found to have some degree of genetic protection against the risk of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), a commonly suspected cause, making this less likely.



"We cannot say definitely what killed Beethoven, but we can now at least confirm the presence of significant heritable risk, and an infection with hepatitis B virus," said Johannes Krause, from the Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology. 



"We can also eliminate several other less plausible genetic causes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-for-authenticity">Testing for authenticity</h2>



To ensure authenticity, the team conducted tests on eight hair samples acquired from public and private collections across the UK, Europe, and the United States.



In the process, they discovered that at least two of the locks did not originate from Beethoven, including a famous lock once believed to have been cut from the recently deceased composer's head by the 15-year-old musician Ferdinand Hiller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analysis-of-beethoven-s-living-relatives">Analysis of Beethoven's living relatives</h2>



A particularly interesting aspect of this study involves the genetics of Beethoven’s living relatives. 



Some of the relatives were found to share a paternal ancestor with Beethoven in the late 1500s and early 1600s based on genealogical studies, but they did not match the Y-Chromosome found in the authentic hair samples.&nbsp;



The team concluded that this was due to the occurrence of at least one “extra-pair paternity event” - a child conceived from an extramarital relationship - in Beethoven’s direct paternal line.



“Through the combination of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-secret-code-called-spatial-grammar-may-rewrite-genetics-textbooks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> data and archival documents, we were able to observe a discrepancy between Ludwig van Beethoven’s legal and biological genealogy,” said genealogist Maarten Larmuseau from the KU Leuven.



The team hopes that by making Beethoven’s genome publicly available, further research will be encouraged, and remaining questions about his health and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-evidence-reveals-new-clues-about-pompeiis-eruption-victims/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genealogy</a> could be answered.



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The research team included experts from the University of Cambridge, the Beethoven Center San Jose, American Beethoven Society, KU Leuven, FamilyTreeDNA, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, Beethoven-Haus Bonn, and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(23)00181-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Beethoven’s DNA recently found in his hair reveals surprising new details

An international team of scientists has successfully sequenced the genome...

Have you ever laid awake in bed, glancing at your peacefully sleeping partner, and wondered why sleep seems to elude you despite your best efforts? It turns out this is a common experience for women. 



A recent study conducted by researchers at CU Boulder indicates that women tend to sleep less, wake up more frequently, and enjoy less restorative sleep than men.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-gaps-in-sleep-research">Bridging gaps in sleep research</h2>



Interestingly, these latest insights shed new light on what might be responsible for variations between men and women's sleep patterns. The implications are quite broad and potentially game-changing for biomedical research, which has been primarily centric to the male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-more-on-weekends-can-reduce-heart-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> pattern for many years.



“In humans, men and women exhibit distinct sleep patterns, often attributed to lifestyle factors and caregiving roles,” said senior author Rachel Rowe, assistant professor of integrative physiology. 



“Our results suggest that biological factors may play a more substantial role in driving these sleep differences than previously recognized.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-revolution-and-its-gender-gap">Sleep revolution and its gender gap</h2>



In recent years, sleep research has truly experienced a boom. Thousands of animal-based studies are now exploring how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sleep-day-2024-the-quest-for-a-well-rested-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> deprivation can increase the risk of a host of health conditions - from diabetes and obesity to Alzheimer's and immune disorders.



Yet, an interesting aspect that might have gone unnoticed for a while is the potential skewness of these results due to a significant underrepresentation of females in these studies.



Study first author Grant Mannino graduated with degrees in psychology and neuroscience and was named&nbsp;outstanding undergraduate of the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/asmagazine/2024/05/07/standout-grad-eyes-career-nexus-biomedical-preclinical-research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Arts and Sciences</a>.



“Essentially, we found that the most commonly used mouse strain in biomedical research has sex-specific sleep behavior and that a failure to properly account for these sex differences can easily lead to flawed interpretations of data,” said Mannino.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-sleep-patterns-in-mice">Studying sleep patterns in mice</h2>



In their non-invasive study, the research team utilized specially-created movement-sensitive cages to understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-habits-may-age-the-brain-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> patterns of 267 "C57BL/6J" mice. The results were fascinating.



Male mice slept approximately 670 minutes within a 24-hour period, around an hour longer than their female counterparts. This extra snoozing can be attributed to non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep, a crucial restorative sleep phase when the body repairs itself.



Notably, mice are "polyphasic sleepers," taking short naps, waking for brief periods to check their surroundings, and then returning to their slumber. The researchers discovered that female mice have even smaller sleep durations with their sleep being more fragmented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-differences-in-men-and-women">Sleep differences in men and women</h2>



This sex-biased sleep occurrence isn't unique to mice. It has been observed in various species from fruit flies and rats to zebrafish and birds. This pattern might seem bewildering, but it makes perfect evolutionary sense.



“From a biological standpoint, it could be that females are designed to be more sensitive to their environment and be aroused when they need to be because they are typically the one who is caring for the young,” Rowe said. 



“If we slept as hard as males sleep, we would not move forward as a species, right?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-women-sleep-less">Why do women sleep less?</h2>



But what's the culprit behind these differences? 



It seems that stress hormones, such as cortisol, and sex hormones may be major influencers. Women often report worse sleep during their menstrual cycles when estrogen and progesterone levels are lowest.



There are hypotheses suggesting women may inherently require less sleep. However, Rowe poses an intriguing question: "Are we inducing undue stress on ourselves thinking we sleep inadequately because we compare ourselves to our male partners?"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calls-for-equitable-research">Calls for equitable research</h2>



The authors from <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a> hope that their findings will prompt a greater focus on understanding the biological variances in sleep patterns between the sexes. More importantly, they also hope it leads to a reevaluation of research methodology.



In 2016, the National Institutes of Health required scientists to consider "sex as a biological variable" when applying for funding for animal studies. Although progress has been made, recent research indicates that a bias towards males still exists.



This bias can have serious implications. For instance, if female representation is low in clinical trials, drugs that are more effective for women may appear ineffective, or severe side effects might be overlooked.



Finally, the research team urges fellow scientists to consider equal representation of both sexes in their studies, analyze data separately for men and women, and reevaluate past research on sleep where female representation was insufficient.



“The most surprising finding here isn’t that male and female mice <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> differently. It’s that no one has thoroughly shown this until now,” said Rowe. “We should have known this long before 2024.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-70996-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Men and women sleep differently, and we finally know why

Have you ever laid awake in bed, glancing at your...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

But as the geyser erupted in its most violent explosion for more than 60 years, something unexpected occurred. And before long, the area around Ear Spring was littered with strange relics. Lost at Yellowstone over the decades, they reappeared in dramatic fashion, revealing a fascinating glimpse into years gone by.

A Glimpse At The Past

In some parts of the park, geysers erupt multiple times a day while delighted tourists look on. But in others, these volatile vents lie dormant, waiting for their time to explode. And it was one such sleeping giant, known as Ear Spring, which boiled over in September 2018, sending a jet of water and debris high up into the air.