And Bruce Robinson has explained the reasoning behind the island’s shutdown. He told&nbsp;Good Morning America, “My uncle wanted to protect the residents here from the epidemic. It was forbidden to come out here unless you had a doctor’s certificate, and there was a two-week quarantine. And it worked. We never got polio out here.” Photo Credit: Baby Wild Films / YouTube

Precautionary

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the western part of Grand Bahama, the northernmost island in the Bahamas, captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 satellite system.&nbsp;



Grand Bahama is known for its beautiful beaches, clear turquoise waters, and vibrant tourism industry. The island is the fourth largest in the Bahamas and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-main-cities-of-grand-bahama-nbsp">Main cities of Grand Bahama&nbsp;</h2>



“Grand Bahama’s two main cities are both visible in the image: West End on the northwestern tip of the island and Freeport on the southern shore,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“West End is the oldest city on the island, and the capital. The runway of West End airport, the smaller of the two airports serving Grand Bahama, can be spotted west of the city.”



Freeport serves as a hub for tourism, trade, and commerce. It was developed as a free trade zone in the 1950s, which has helped drive its growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geography-and-climate">Geography and climate</h2>



Grand Bahama is situated about 55 miles off the coast of Florida, making it one of the closest islands in the Bahamas to the United States.



The island has a tropical climate, with warm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperatures-increase-scientists-plan-slow-down-rising-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> year-round. It experiences a wet season from May to October and a dry season from November to April.



The rainy season is from May to October, with the wettest months being August and September. Thunderstorms are common during this period, and the island can experience heavy rainfall, especially during hurricane season.



The humidity level is consistently high due to the tropical location, often exceeding 70 percent. It peaks during the rainy season, making it feel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-temperature-threshold-can-the-human-body-handle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hotter</a> than the actual temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricanes-on-grand-bahama">Hurricanes on Grand Bahama</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-propose-adding-a-category-6-to-the-current-hurricane-intensity-scale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hurricanes</a> have left a lasting impact on the infrastructure, economy, and environment of Grand Bahama.&nbsp;



Recovery efforts from such destructive storms often take years, and the island's experience with hurricanes has highlighted the vulnerability of coastal communities in the face of increasingly severe weather events.



Dorian was one of the most devastating hurricanes to hit Grand Bahama. It was a Category 5 storm with maximum sustained winds of 185 miles per hour.&nbsp;



The hurricane caused catastrophic damage, including widespread flooding, destruction of homes and infrastructure, and loss of life. Dorian stalled over the island, leading to prolonged and intense damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tourism-nbsp-on-grand-bahama">Tourism&nbsp;on Grand Bahama</h2>



Grand Bahama is known for its stunning beaches, such as Lucaya Beach, Xanadu Beach, and Taino Beach. The island offers various water activities, including snorkeling, scuba diving, and boating.



The Lucayan National Park is a popular natural attraction, featuring one of the world's longest underwater cave systems, as well as beautiful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangroves</a> and wetlands.



Port Lucaya Marketplace is a vibrant area with shops, restaurants, and entertainment, often considered the heart of Grand Bahama’s tourist activity.



Grand Bahama has been working on revitalizing its tourism industry, especially after facing challenges like hurricanes and the Covid-19 pandemic. Efforts include upgrading infrastructure, improving facilities, and promoting sustainable tourism practices. 



The island offers various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/travelers-are-ready-for-more-affordable-eco-friendly-options/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eco-tourism</a> activities, including kayaking through mangroves, bird watching, and exploring its unique ecosystems, which attract visitors interested in environmental conservation and sustainable travel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grand-bahama-folklore">Grand Bahama folklore</h2>



On Grand Bahama Island, folklore and supernatural tales have been passed down through generations.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-chickcharney">The Chickcharney</h3>



The Chickcharney is a legendary creature believed to inhabit the forests of the Bahamas, including Grand Bahama. Described as a large, bird-like creature with red eyes and three-toed feet, it is said to bring good luck to those who encounter it and treat it with respect.&nbsp;



However, those who mock or disrespect it might find themselves cursed with bad luck. The Chickcharney is deeply rooted in Bahamian folklore and is often depicted as a guardian of the forests.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ghost-of-rand-nature-center">The ghost of Rand Nature Center</h3>



The Rand Nature Center in Freeport is rumored to be haunted by the ghost of a former caretaker. Visitors and staff have reported strange occurrences, such as unexplained footsteps, cold spots, and the feeling of being watched.&nbsp;



Some believe the caretaker's spirit lingers to ensure the park is well-maintained and respected by those who visit.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-lost-city-of-atlantis">The lost city of Atlantis</h3>



While not unique to Grand Bahama, the legend of Atlantis has a connection to the Bahamas. Some believe that parts of the lost city lie submerged off the coast of the island.&nbsp;



There are tales of divers encountering mysterious underwater structures and strange phenomena, leading to speculation that these ruins could be remnants of the ancient civilization.



These stories are an integral part of the island's cultural heritage, blending history, myth, and the supernatural. Whether one believes in the supernatural or not, the tales continue to capture the imagination of both locals and visitors to Grand Bahama.



Image Credit: Copernicus Sentinel data (2023), processed by ESA



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Grand Bahama: A blend of beauty and resilience 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an astronaut view of the Aladaghlar Mountains in northwestern Iran.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> are known for their strikingly colorful landscapes, which make them stand out among other mountain ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-of-the-aladaghlar-mountains">Landscape of the Aladaghlar Mountains</h2>



"Ridges cast shadows in the valleys and other low elevation areas, creating a three-dimensional appearance. Human alterations to the landscape are most evident in riverbeds, where the even topography is easier to build on and navigate," said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"Natural processes over millions of years have folded rock layers of various compositions and colors into the curved patterns seen here. These folds are produced by tectonic forces operating along the convergent plate boundary of the Arabia and Eurasia plates." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rainbow-mountains">The Rainbow Mountains</h2>



One of the most remarkable features of the Aladaghlar Mountains is the vivid coloration of their slopes. 



The name "Aladaghlar" translates to "colorful mountains," which is a testament to their unique appearance.&nbsp;They are also known as the Rainbow Mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-of-the-aladaghlar-mountains">Wildlife of the Aladaghlar Mountains </h2>



The Aladaghlar Mountains are part of a larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-ecosystems-are-in-urgent-need-of-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> that includes forests, meadows, and rivers, contributing to a rich biodiversity. 



The region supports a variety of wildlife, including several species that are unique to the area. The diverse wildlife add to the natural beauty and ecological importance of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a>.



Among the larger mammals, the mountains host species such as brown bears, Persian leopards, and wild goats. The Aladaghlar Mountains also support smaller mammals, including foxes, hares, and various rodent species.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mountains-influence-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birdlife</a> is abundant, including eagles, falcons, and a variety of songbirds. Reptiles like lizards and snakes are commonly found in the more humid areas, as well as amphibians.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-the-region">Cultural significance of the region</h2>



In addition to their natural appeal, the Aladaghlar Mountains hold cultural significance. The region has a rich history, with evidence of ancient civilizations and historical sites. 



Local communities have their unique cultures and traditions, which have been influenced by the natural environment of the mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geology-of-the-aladaghlar-mountains-nbsp">Geology of the Aladaghlar Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The geological history of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountains-both-carbon-sinks-and-carbon-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> is a fascinating tale of millions of years of natural processes.



The Aladaghlar Mountains are primarily composed of sedimentary rocks that have accumulated over millions of years. These sediments include sandstones, siltstones, shales, and conglomerates.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mineral-deposition-nbsp">Mineral deposition&nbsp;</h3>



The varying colors of the Aladaghlar Mountains are largely due to the presence of different minerals in the sedimentary layers. For example, red and orange hues are typically due to iron oxides, while greens can result from copper compounds.



These minerals were deposited in the sedimentary rocks through processes such as chemical precipitation, biological activity, and the weathering of parent rocks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-activity">Tectonic activity</h3>



The region has experienced significant tectonic activity due to its location near the convergent boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian plates. This tectonic activity has caused the uplift and folding of the sedimentary layers, creating the mountain range.



The compression and folding associated with tectonic movements have also contributed to the exposure of the colorful strata that were originally deposited horizontally.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-erosion-and-weathering">Erosion and weathering</h3>



Over time, erosion and weathering processes have played a crucial role in shaping the Aladaghlar Mountains. 



Wind, water, and temperature variations have eroded the softer rock layers more quickly than the harder ones, creating the distinctive ridges and valleys seen today.



These erosive processes have also helped to expose the underlying layers, revealing the vibrant colors and intricate patterns that attract tourists and geologists alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Tales and legends</h2>



One of the most famous tales associated with the Aladaghlar Mountains is that of a hidden treasure buried deep within the mountains by an ancient Persian king.&nbsp;



According to legend, the treasure is guarded by mystical creatures and can only be found by someone pure of heart and brave enough to face the challenges of the mountain.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">The shepherd and the fairy</h3>



Another local legend tells the story of a young shepherd who fell in love with a fairy he encountered in the Aladaghlar Mountains. The fairy granted the shepherd three wishes, but warned him that the wishes would come with consequences.&nbsp;



Despite the warning, the shepherd made his wishes, which ultimately led to his downfall, serving as a cautionary tale about the dangers of greed.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">The healing springs</h3>



The Aladaghlar Mountains are also said to be home to a spring with magical healing properties. According to folklore, those who bathe in the spring or drink its water are cured of all ailments.&nbsp;



However, the location of the spring is a closely guarded secret, known only to a few wise elders in the nearby villages.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">The spirit of the mountain&nbsp;</h3>



Some locals believe that the Aladaghlar Mountains are inhabited by a protective spirit, who watches over the land and its people.&nbsp;



This spirit is said to bring good fortune to those who respect the mountain and its natural beauty, but misfortune to those who exploit or harm it.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—--



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.

The Aladaghlar Mountains of northwestern Iran

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Corbassière glacier, a high-altitude glacier in Switzerland. The glacier originates on the northern slope of the Grand Combin, which is one of the highest peaks in the Pennine Alps.



Collectively, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-glaciers-will-lose-half-of-their-volume-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpine glaciers</a> of Switzerland have lost more than half of their volume since the 1930s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-archives-of-past-climate">Natural archives of past climate </h2>



"Glaciers are natural archives of past climate. In their frozen layers lies evidence of Earth’s changing temperature and atmospheric composition. But as the climate warms, some of the longest records of our changing planet are melting away," said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"In just over two decades, Corbassière has shrunk in area and surface mass. The glacier was darker in 2023 due to lack of snow, and the glacier’s tongue had retreated."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-cores-from-the-corbassiere-glacier">Ice cores from the Corbassière glacier</h2>



To reconstruct past concentrations of atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-aerosols-impact-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a>, a team of scientists analyzed ice cores that were collected from the Corbassière glacier in 2018 and 2020.&nbsp;



Aerosols are tiny airborne particles that are deposited in the ice. "Such information from glaciers around the world can provide clues about past environmental conditions thousands of years ago," noted NASA.



"Ice cores contain ammonium, nitrate, and sulfate ions - signatures of aerosols lacing the snow that’s deposited on glaciers year after year. Ion concentrations are lower in winter than in summer because less polluted air can rise from the valley when the air is cold."



When the researchers analyzed the ice core from 2018, they found seasonal fluctuations in the amount of ion deposits - which is what they expected to find.&nbsp;



"But when we went to core the glacier in 2020, we noticed melting on the surface right away,” said Margit Schwikowski, an environmental chemist at <a href="https://www.psi.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul Scherrer Institute</a> in Switzerland.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-surface-melting-on-corbassiere-glacier">Rapid surface melting on Corbassière glacier</h2>



The experts determined that melting on the glacier's surface likely penetrated the glacier layers below and carried away the aerosol ions. 



"This melting rendered the core unusable in the team’s research, and other attempts to core the glacier had the same result. The valuable information stored in the ice was destroyed," explained NASA.



Schwikowski has joined a team of other experts in an effort to preserve cores from the last remaining glaciers. Led by the <a href="https://www.ice-memory.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Memory Foundation</a>, the goal of the project is to obtain ice cores from 20 endangered glaciers around the world in 20 years and collect them in a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-ice-has-a-history-of-rapid-and-unexpected-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate archive</a>.



“Glaciers are retreating worldwide, and we may find similar issues at other sites,” said Schwikowski. She added that even at the highest altitudes in the Alps, "glaciers are on the verge of becoming unsuitable as natural paleo-archives."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-features-of-the-corbassiere-glacier">Features of the Corbassière Glacier</h2>



The Corbassière Glacier is a captivating natural feature located in the Swiss Alps, part of the canton of Valais. 



The glacier stretches over approximately 9 kilometers, making it one of the significant glaciers in the region. It originates from the Grand Combin, an imposing mountain massif that reaches heights of over 4,300 meters, contributing greatly to the glacier's nourishment through snow and ice accumulation.



A distinct feature of the Corbassière Glacier is its accessibility and the dramatic scenery it offers, which attracts many hikers and nature enthusiasts. 



One of the most notable attractions near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomsday-glacier-seems-to-have-lost-its-ability-to-recover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> is the Corbassière footbridge, a 210-meter long suspension bridge that provides stunning views of the glacier and the surrounding peaks. 



This bridge not only enhances the experience for visitors but also serves as a crucial observation point for scientists studying glacier dynamics and the effects of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Swiss Alps&nbsp;</h2>



The Swiss <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-cover-in-the-alps-could-soon-be-cut-in-half/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alps</a> are a majestic and expansive mountain range that stretches across the southern part of Switzerland, forming a part of the greater Alpine region that spreads across several countries in Europe.&nbsp;



Renowned for their stunning beauty and formidable peaks, the Swiss Alps are not just a geographical landmark but also a cultural symbol of Switzerland, epitomizing its identity as a nation of scenic landscapes and outdoor adventure.



The region is famous for its dramatic scenery, including towering mountains, pristine lakes, and picturesque valleys. Among these peaks are some of the highest in Europe, such as the Dufourspitze, part of the Monte Rosa massif, which is the highest point in Switzerland. 



The Matterhorn, perhaps the most iconic of all Swiss mountains, is celebrated for its unique, pyramid-like shape and is a magnet for climbers and tourists alike.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The Corbassière glacier in the Swiss Alps

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features thick haze over Thailand during the fire season. The photograph was captured on March 16, 2024 by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the Suomi NPP satellite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waves-of-smoke-and-haze">Waves of smoke and haze</h2>



"Each year in January and February, satellites begin to detect waves of smoke and fire in Southeast Asia, particularly in highland forests in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand. <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-fire-season-in-mexico-is-part-of-a-worldwide-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fire activity</a> continues to increase through March and April, reaches a peak during the height of the dry season, and then fades in May with the start of the rainy season," noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"Individual fires are usually small and short-lived. But they are often so numerous that smoke, along with air pollution from rural and urban areas, mixes to produce thick layers of haze that blanket the landscape." 



According to NASA, the haze contains mixtures of small airborne particles called aerosols and gaseous pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone that degrade air quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-in-thailand-nbsp">Haze in Thailand&nbsp;</h2>



An international field campaign - the Airborne and Satellite Investigation of Asian Air Quality (ASIA-AQ) - was launched to investigate the haze in Thailand.



"During the last two weeks of March 2024, NASA’s DC-8 and Gulfstream III aircraft flew several flights over Chiang Mai, Bangkok, and rural areas surrounding the cities to sample air quality with several sensors. At the same time, satellites observed the haze from above," said NASA.



James Crawford, ASIA-AQ’s principal investigator, said the team is collaborating closely with national and local government entities in Thailand.



“The goal is to take as many simultaneous measurements of pollutants as possible from the ground, air, and space,” said Crawford. The team will use the data to gain a better understanding of how the haze forms, evolves chemically over time, and moves throughout the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-and-public-health-in-thailand">Haze and public health in Thailand </h2>



According to media reports, nearly 200,000 people have been hospitalized this year due to air quality in the region, with over 1.3 million people falling ill since January.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-causes-of-the-haze">Causes of the haze</h3>



The root causes of the haze include agricultural burning, particularly of corn fields, as part of slash-and-burn practices to prepare land for the next planting cycle. This is exacerbated by the dry season when there's little rain to wash the pollutants away. 



The situation is worsened by industrial emissions and vehicle fumes, particularly in urban areas like Bangkok​.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-solutions-are-needed">Sustainable solutions are needed</h3>



Efforts to address the crisis have been complex, involving local and transboundary issues. Much of the agricultural burning occurs not only within Thailand but also in neighboring countries like Myanmar and Laos, contributing to the transboundary nature of the haze. 



Activists and local communities have called for sustainable solutions that do not exacerbate the poverty of smallholder farmers, emphasizing the need for affordable and realistic alternatives to burning​.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-measures-nbsp">Mitigation measures&nbsp;</h3>



The Thai government has implemented a no-burning rule until the end of April to combat wildfires and haze, but enforcement and effectiveness remain challenges​​. 



Some measures taken to mitigate the immediate effects of pollution in urban areas include spraying water and seeding clouds to encourage rain, although these have had limited success​​.



This ongoing environmental crisis has sparked widespread concern among citizens, who are increasingly using public interest litigation to hold companies and the government accountable for environmental commitments. 



With recent political changes, there is hope that the new administration will take more decisive action against the haze, possibly through more stringent regulations and international cooperation​​.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-impacts-of-haze">Health impacts of haze</h2>



Haze poses several health hazards for those exposed to it, particularly when it contains fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Here are some of the main health risks associated with exposure to haze:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-respiratory-problems">Respiratory problems</h3>



Haze can aggravate conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, and other chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD). The fine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heatwaves-and-air-pollution-may-double-fatal-heart-attack-risk/">particles</a> can penetrate deep into the lungs, causing inflammation and reducing lung function.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cardiovascular-issues-and-haze">Cardiovascular issues and haze</h3>



Exposure to fine particulate matter can also affect the cardiovascular system, leading to increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, and high blood pressure. Particles can affect blood vessel function and promote the formation of blood clots.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-irritation">Eye irritation</h3>



Haze can cause eye irritation, leading to conditions such as conjunctivitis (pink eye) or exacerbated symptoms in people with existing eye conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-problems">Skin problems</h3>



For some people, exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-will-increase-dramatically-in-a-hotter-climate/">polluted air</a> can cause skin irritation or exacerbate skin conditions like eczema or psoriasis.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-immune-function">Reduced immune function</h3>



There is evidence to suggest that prolonged exposure to polluted air can weaken the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-mental-health">Impact on mental health</h3>



There are growing concerns about the impact of air pollution on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-multiple-chronic-health-conditions/">mental health</a>, with studies suggesting a link between exposure to polluted air and an increased risk of depression and anxiety.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnant-women-and-children">Pregnant women and children</h3>



Pregnant women, children, and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to the effects of haze. There may be increased risks of preterm birth and low birth weight in babies, and children may experience delayed development and reduced lung function.



The health impacts of haze can be mitigated by staying indoors on days when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-of-air-quality-improvement-erased-by-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> is particularly poor, using air purifiers, wearing masks designed to filter out fine particles, and following local health advisories.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nbsp">&nbsp;</h3>

Haze pollution is an environmental crisis in Thailand

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Webb Images features an extraordinary view of Uranus, the seventh planet from the sun in our solar system.&nbsp;



The photo reveals the rings, moons, and extreme seasons of the ice giant Uranus in unprecedented detail.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-north-polar-cap-nbsp">Dynamic north polar cap&nbsp;</h2>



“The Webb image exquisitely captures Uranus’s seasonal north polar cap, including the bright, white, inner cap and the dark lane in the bottom of the polar cap,” noted NASA.



Unlike Earth, where polar ice caps are formed by the freezing of water, Uranus's polar caps are thought to be primarily composed of a dense concentration of haze in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



The polar cap's haze is likely composed of methane particles. Methane in Uranus's atmosphere condenses into ice particles, which then create a thick haze that scatters sunlight, giving the polar cap its distinct bright appearance in visible and infrared light.



The polar cap is dynamic and changes over time. It becomes more prominent during the summer season of each pole. 



As Uranus moves along its orbit, the cap's appearance transforms, with the haze becoming thicker and brighter when the pole is in continuous sunlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-zeta-ring-nbsp">The Zeta ring&nbsp;</h2>



The inner and outer rings of Uranus are visible in the image, including Zeta - the innermost ring which is the faintest and most difficult to observe.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-photo-of-uranus-and-its-rings-and-moons-captured-by-the-webb-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rings of Uranus</a> are primarily composed of narrow bands of particles, likely made of water ice mixed with a dark material. These rings are distinct from those of Saturn in that they are much darker and narrower.



The faintness and characteristics of the Zeta ring make it a subject of interest in studies related to the dynamics and composition of planetary ring systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moons-of-uranus-nbsp">Moons of Uranus&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/multimedia/images/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb</a> photo also features nine of the planet’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-four-uranus-moons-may-have-oceans-that-are-miles-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moons</a>, which appear as blue dots surrounding the rings.&nbsp;



“Clockwise starting at 2 o’clock, they are: Rosalind, Puck, Belinda, Desdemona, Cressida, Bianca, Portia, Juliet, and Perdita. The orbits of these moons share the 98-degree tilt of their parent planet relative to the plane of the solar system,” noted NASA.



Uranus has 27 known moons, and they are divided into three main groups based on their orbits: the inner moons, the major moons, and the irregular moons.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-moon-ariel-may-have-a-hidden-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moons</a> of Uranus are unique because they are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope, rather than being named after figures from classical mythology, as is common for the moons of other planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ice-giant-uranus-nbsp">The ice giant Uranus&nbsp;</h2>



Uranus is classified as an "ice giant" because, unlike the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, which are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, Uranus has a significant proportion of "ices" in its composition.&nbsp;



In astronomical terms, ices refer to volatile substances like water, ammonia, and methane, which exist in solid or liquid forms at the low temperatures found in the outer solar system.



Uranus has a thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium, but beneath that, it contains a large, dense mantle composed of these ices, along with rock and other heavier elements.&nbsp;



The term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diamond-rain-may-be-common-on-giant-icy-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice giant</a> differentiates Uranus (and Neptune, the other ice giant) from the larger gas giants, emphasizing the different chemical compositions and internal structures of these planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-of-uranus-nbsp">Climate of Uranus&nbsp;</h2>



Uranus has a unique and extreme climate, largely influenced by its unusual tilt, which causes the planet to rotate almost on its side. This tilt leads to extreme seasonal variations, with each pole experiencing 42 years of continuous sunlight followed by 42 years of darkness.&nbsp;



Even though it is closer to the sun than Neptune, Uranus is the coldest planet in the solar system, with temperatures plunging to as low as -224°C (-371°F). The reason for this is not fully understood, but it might be due to an internal heat distribution anomaly.



Despite these frigid conditions, Uranus experiences intense weather patterns, including powerful storms and winds that can reach speeds of up to 900 kilometers per hour. These winds blow in the same direction as the planet’s rotation and are some of the fastest in the solar system.



Storms on Uranus are driven by its internal heat and the interaction of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-is-more-gassy-less-icy-than-we-ever-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric gases</a>. Observations have shown that these storms can be quite large, sometimes comparable in size to the Earth, and can last for several years.&nbsp;



The planet’s extreme axial tilt also means that the storms and weather patterns are highly variable, depending on the season. During equinoxes, when the Sun is directly over the equator, Uranus exhibits more storm activity compared to when the poles are pointed towards the Sun or away from it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-uranus">Observations of Uranus</h2>



“One day on Uranus is about 17 hours, so the planet’s rotation is relatively quick. This makes it supremely difficult for observatories with a sharp eye like Webb to capture one simple image of the entire planet - storms and other atmospheric features, and the planet’s moons, move visibly within minutes,” explained NASA.



“This image combines several longer and shorter exposures of this dynamic system to correct for those slight changes throughout the observing time.”



The first recorded observations of Uranus were made by John Flamsteed on December 13, 1690. However, Flamsteed mistakenly identified the planet as a star, which he named “34 Tauri."&nbsp;



It wasn't until March 13, 1781, that Uranus was officially identified as a planet by William Herschel. He initially thought he had discovered a comet, but further observations and calculations by other astronomers confirmed that it was a new planet, making Uranus the first planet discovered in modern history with the aid of a telescope.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The ice giant Uranus in stunning detail

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Webb Images features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a strong extratropical cyclone, which struck the Pacific Northwest on November 19, 2024.



“The storm knocked over trees and left nearly 600,000 people without power in Washington state on November 20, according to news reports,” noted <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2Fimages%2F153605%2Fextratropical-cyclone-whips-over-the-pacific-northwest&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “This image shows the storm system at 1:50 p.m. Pacific Time on November 19.” 



According to NASA, mature extratropical cyclones like this often feature comma-shaped cloud patterns that are the product of ‘conveyor belt’ circulation. “Heavy precipitation is often present near the low-pressure head of the comma.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-the-extratropical-cyclone-nbsp">Impacts of the extratropical cyclone&nbsp;</h2>



The “bomb cyclone” brought <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fhow-much-does-climate-change-influence-extreme-weather-events%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">severe weather</a>, including strong winds exceeding 70 mph, heavy rainfall, and snow in higher elevations. These conditions led to significant disruptions, including downed trees and hazardous travel conditions.



In urban and rural areas, damage to infrastructure and properties was substantial, with emergency responders and utility crews working around the clock to restore services.&nbsp;



Additionally, mountain passes faced dangerous blizzard conditions, with up to 20 inches of snow accumulating in some areas, severely affecting travel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-pace-of-acceleration">Rapid pace of acceleration</h2>



Chris Dolce is a meteorologist at The Weather Channel. He noted that on the evening of November 19, the storm’s central pressure dropped to levels on par with a storm in October 2021, which saw the lowest pressure in about 50 years of records for that region.



“The pace of the storm’s intensification was more than double the criteria for bombogenesis - a popular term that describes a midlatitude cyclone that rapidly intensifies into a ‘bomb cyclone,’” said NASA.



The rapidly dropping atmospheric pressure at the center of the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fcoastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm</a> caused winds to intensify quickly. According to the National Weather Service in Seattle, wind gusts reached up to 77 miles per hour in the mountains southeast of the city.



“The cyclone kicked off a long-duration atmospheric river that forecasters expect will park over Northern California and southern Oregon through November 22. The National Weather Service estimates that these areas could see rainfall totals of 12 to 16 inches over the duration of the storm,” noted NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-an-extratropical-cyclone">What is an extratropical cyclone?</h2>



An extratropical cyclone is a large-scale weather system that forms outside the tropics, typically between 30° and 60° latitude, and is associated with areas of low pressure.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-source">Energy source</h3>



These cyclones obtain their energy from the contrast in temperature between air masses, such as cold polar air and warm subtropical air. This contrast creates instability and drives atmospheric circulation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-extratropical-cyclones-nbsp">Development of extratropical cyclones&nbsp;</h3>



Extratropical cyclones usually have well-defined warm and cold fronts. They often develop along the polar front, where cold and warm air masses meet.



A common area for their development is the mid-latitudes, particularly in regions like the North Atlantic and North Pacific.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weather-conditions">Weather conditions</h3>



Extratropical cyclones can bring a variety of <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fhuman-activity-is-rapidly-changing-weather-in-north-america%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather conditions</a>, including heavy rain, snow, strong winds, and severe storms. They are responsible for much of the day-to-day weather in mid-latitude regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-vs-extratropical-cyclones-nbsp">Tropical vs. extratropical cyclones&nbsp;</h3>



While <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Ffast-moving-tropical-cyclones-are-becoming-more-powerful%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical cyclones</a> derive energy from warm ocean waters and have a warm core, extratropical cyclones gain energy from temperature contrasts and have a cold core.



Tropical cyclones typically lack fronts, whereas extratropical cyclones are defined by them.



These systems are essential in distributing heat and energy across the planet, playing a critical role in the Earth's climate system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caught-off-guard-by-the-weather">Caught off guard by the weather</h2>



The bomb cyclone in the Pacific Northwest highlights the importance of <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fnew-era-in-forecasting-ai-will-improve-extreme-weather-warnings%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparedness</a>, as residents were urged to secure loose outdoor items, stock emergency supplies, and avoid unnecessary travel.



The fire department in Bellevue, east of Seattle, posted a Severe Weather Safety alert on Facebook: “It’s severe out there. Trees are coming down all over the city, with multiple falling onto homes. If you are able, head to the lowest floor you can and stay away from windows. Do not go outside if you can avoid it.”



The image was captured by the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on NOAA’s JPSS-1 (Joint Polar Satellite System-1).



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bomb cyclone rapidly intensified in the Pacific Northwest

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the little-observed southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-star-formation">Fuel for star formation </h2>



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionised nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers studying stellar evolution and the lifecycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that are rich in young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



The galaxy’s central bar is believed to play a role in driving gas towards the core, fueling both the star formation and the activity around its nucleus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Spiral galaxy NGC 1559 is a loner in outer space

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba, about 43 million light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.



“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. “Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;



“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;



“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”



Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-evolution">Galaxy evolution</h2>



Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



These early galaxies were small and irregular, composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space.&nbsp;



These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



As galaxies evolve, their morphology - their shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. 



The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;



In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;



Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.



Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

NGC 1792: A galactic powerhouse 

The MODIS instrument, short for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, is a key instrument aboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. MODIS is playing a vital role in the development of Earth ecosystem models, able to predict global changes, which then assist policy makers in making informed decisions about the protection of the global environment.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps are seen in this Image of the day&nbsp;from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at heavy snow and low clouds in the Alps. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps

Monitoring Earth Changes with MODIS

Aqua is a NASA scientific research satellite that studies precipitation, evaporation, and water cycles. Terra and Aura make up the Earth Observing System. It's the second component of the system.

A frozen Lake Erie in February Today’s Image of the Day comes from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at a frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/icy-lake-erie/">Lake Erie</a>, which is currently 93.3 percent iced over. A frozen Lake Erie in February
This false-color image was created using data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Aqua satellite to differentiate between snow, ice, and clouds.
Lake Erie /ˈɪəri/ (French: Lac Érié) is the fourth-largest lake (by surface area) of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the eleventh-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area.It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet (64 metres) deep. 
Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie&#8217;s northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, specifically the Ontario Peninsula, with the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern, and eastern shores. These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries. 
The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native American people who lived along its southern shore. The tribal name &#8220;erie&#8221; is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word erielhonan, meaning long tail
&#8212;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

A frozen Lake Erie in February

Aqua Earth Observing Satellite

This beautiful photo gallery contains 50 incredible images of Earth from Space. These images were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station, as well as by a multitude of NASA satellites orbiting the earth.

Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean just south of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-blue-chrysanthemums-created/">Japan</a>.
This image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on July 31, 2017. 
At the time the photo was taken, Typhoon Noru was located just 250 kilometers south of Iwo Jima. Maximum sustained winds hit 150 miles per hour.
The storm briefly became a category 5 on July 30, before being downgraded to a category 4 one day later.
&#8211;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Source: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean

Incredible Images of Earth from Space

Photos from the International Space Station are found in this awesome Earth.com image gallery. Flat-earthers won't agree, but these incredible photos of the Earth were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station. The International Space Station is a modular space station in low Earth orbit.

Northern Italy from the space station is seen here in this Image of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). The view includes the top half of the Italian Peninsula, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/wildfires-burn-northern-corsica/">Corsica</a> and Sardinia off the coast. This image was captured by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on his third and final mission to the Space Station.

Northern Italy from the Space Station

Photos from the International Space Station

Have you ever thought about the long-term effects of smoking trendy e-cigarettes? Are they better in terms of health effects than traditional tobacco cigarettes?



The sweeping wave of smoke-free e-cigarettes, also known as vapes, has seemingly sanitized the tobacco-polluted air with their battery-powered, vapor-producing devices.



Some e-cigarettes even come in a variety of flavors, making them especially appealing to the younger generation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-e-cigarettes-as-a-smoking-alternative">E-cigarettes as a smoking alternative</h2>



In a novel study led by Dr. Marianne Nabbout at the <a href="https://www.uams.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences</a>, shocking revelations about smoking and vaping have emerged.



Contrary to popular belief and crafty marketing strategies, the health implications of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaping-linked-to-lower-sperm-counts-and-testicular-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaping</a> may not be as innocent as many perceive.



"E-cigarettes have long been marketed as a safer alternative to regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-bans-could-help-prevent-1-2-million-lung-cancer-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco</a> smoking. Some believe that e-cigarettes don't contain any of the harmful products, such as free radicals, found in regular tobacco cigarettes, because no combustion is involved," explained Dr. Nabbout.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-e-cigarettes-and-smoking">Comparing e-cigarettes and smoking</h2>



The&nbsp;study,&nbsp;conducted with&nbsp;the help of&nbsp;researchers&nbsp;at&nbsp;the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a>,&nbsp;aimed to&nbsp;look&nbsp;into the immediate effects of both&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quitting-smoking-at-any-age-brings-big-and-immediate-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoking</a> and vaping on the body's vascular functions .



The&nbsp;study&nbsp;participants&nbsp;consisted&nbsp;of&nbsp;31 healthy&nbsp;smokers&nbsp;or&nbsp;vapers between&nbsp;the&nbsp;ages&nbsp;of&nbsp;21 and 49 years.



In&nbsp;three&nbsp;different&nbsp;sessions,&nbsp;each&nbsp;participant&nbsp;underwent two MRI scans -&nbsp;before&nbsp;and after a smoking/vaping episode.



They&nbsp;used&nbsp;a cuff to&nbsp;restrict&nbsp;blood flow in the thigh. Following&nbsp;the&nbsp;deflation of&nbsp;the cuff, they&nbsp;assessed&nbsp;the&nbsp;vital metrics&nbsp;including femoral artery blood flow velocity and venous oxygen saturation.&nbsp;



For&nbsp;the&nbsp;assessment of&nbsp;cerebrovascular reactivity,&nbsp;they used&nbsp;a&nbsp;type of MRI&nbsp;known as phase-contrast MRI.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-apples-to-apples">Comparing apples to apples</h2>



Then, the gathered data from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marijuana-smokers-may-have-more-lung-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smokers</a> and vapers was compared to the baseline scans of ten non-smoking and non-vaping individuals, ranging in age from 21 to 33 years. The results were eye-opening.



There was an alarming decrease in resting blood flow velocity in the superficial femoral artery after inhaling both smoke and vapors from e-cigarettes.



This artery runs along the upper legs and supplies oxygen-enriched blood to the thighs, knees and lower legs. 



Interestingly, the reduction was more pronounced following the inhalation of e-cigarettes containing nicotine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-e-cigarettes-and-smoking-reduce-oxygen">E-cigarettes and smoking reduce oxygen</h2>



And it's not just about blood flow. The researchers also discovered a decrease in venous oxygen saturation in the vapers, whether or not the e-cigarettes contained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-and-nicotine-use-during-pregnancy-linked-to-infant-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nicotine</a>.



This implies a possible immediate decrease in the lungs' uptake of oxygen after vaping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-public-awareness">Need for public awareness</h2>



"This study serves to highlight the acute effects smoking and vaping can have on a multitude of vascular beds in the human body," noted Dr. Nabbout.



"If the acute consumption of an e-cigarette can have an effect that is immediately manifested at the level of the vessels, it is conceivable that the chronic use can cause vascular disease."



These results indicate that, contrary to widespread belief, vaping may not be entirely risk-free.



The research serves to remind us that the path to a healthier lifestyle involves abstaining from smoking and vaping entirely.



Regulatory bodies should lean on science to guide the regulation of such products for the benefit of public health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-this-mean-for-public-health">What does this mean for public health?</h2>



Although&nbsp;the&nbsp;current&nbsp;study&nbsp;only&nbsp;compares the acute effects of using e-cigarettes and tobacco cigarettes, the findings lead to questions about the chronic, long-term effects of this behavior. 



In the long run, there is an increased risk that the condition of reduced blood flow and oxygen saturation can lead to peripheral artery disease, heart disease, or even strokes.



E-cigarette users will also mislead their perceptions on smoking as a "safe alternative" for long periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increase-in-e-cigarette-use">Increase in e-cigarette use</h2>



Experts&nbsp;note&nbsp;that the&nbsp;fast-emerging&nbsp;popularity of e-cigarettes&nbsp;among&nbsp;the&nbsp;younger&nbsp;populace&nbsp;will introduce new public health concerns. 



The flavors, slick advertisements, and appearance of e-cigarettes have proved quite alluring to the generations who might never have thought about smoking.



That&nbsp;alone&nbsp;indicates&nbsp;that&nbsp;the&nbsp;public&nbsp;has&nbsp;a&nbsp;right&nbsp;to&nbsp;raise further questions&nbsp;and&nbsp;to&nbsp;bring the practice of vaping under intense regulatory scrutiny&nbsp;to&nbsp;discuss the&nbsp;potential long-term&nbsp;hazards&nbsp;posed&nbsp;by these devices.



As researchers like Dr. Marianne Nabbout continue to uncover the truth about e-cigarettes, the public must be informed of the risks so that the allure of the product does not overshadow its potential dangers.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Vaping causes extreme health issues even without using tobacco

Have you ever thought about the long-term effects of smoking...

A,Sea,Crab,And,The,Ingredients,For,Crab,Hotpot.,This

Have you ever wondered if crabs and lobsters felt pain or fear as they were being boiled alive before making it onto your dinner plate? 



Recent studies suggest that these creatures experience discomfort in ways we hadn't fully understood before.



Dr. Lynne Sneddon, a zoophysiologist at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a>, believes it's time we reconsider how we treat these animals. 



"We need to find less painful ways to kill shellfish if we are to continue eating them. Because now we have scientific evidence that they both experience and react to pain," she says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-crustaceans-the-basics">Understanding crustaceans -- the basics</h2>



Crustaceans have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-coloration-in-crayfish-does-not-serve-an-evolutionary-purpose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roaming the Earth</a> for an impressive span of over 500 million years. 



They first appeared during the Cambrian period, a time known for the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grand-canyon-fossils-reveal-secrets-of-the-cambrian-explosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian Explosion</a>" when many major animal groups emerged. 



Early crustaceans already showcased the key features we recognize today, such as their hard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shellfish-consumed-by-humans-are-ironically-more-resistant-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoskeletons</a>, segmented bodies, and jointed limbs. 



This long evolutionary history has allowed them to diversify into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-melita-panda-the-black-and-white-crustacean-shrimp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thousands of species</a>, adapting to a wide range of environments from the deepest parts of the oceans to freshwater rivers and even some terrestrial areas.



Crustaceans, such as crabs and lobsters, are more than just seafood delicacies. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-crabs-and-lobsters-have-emotions-and-feelings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">These fascinating creatures</a> boast a hard exoskeleton made of chitin, providing them with protection and support. 



With ten legs -- often featuring claws or pincers -- they navigate their environments with ease. 



Their bodies are segmented into the head, thorax, and abdomen, and they have specialized appendages for swimming, walking, or digging.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptable animals</a> can be found almost everywhere: from the deepest ocean trenches to freshwater rivers and even damp terrestrial spots. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crabs-pain-and-perception">Crabs, pain, and perception</h2>



Until now, the idea that crustaceans feel pain was mostly based on observational studies. 



Researchers noticed that when crabs and lobsters were exposed to potentially harmful stimuli -- like electric shocks or acids -- they would touch the affected area or try to avoid the danger in subsequent encounters. 



This behavior led many to believe they might be experiencing pain.



But the team at the University of Gothenburg took it a step further. PhD student Eleftherios Kasiouras led a study where they measured the activity in a shore crab's brain using EEG-style recordings. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/crabs_feel-pain_electrodes_shore-crab_Eleftherios-Kasiouras_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/crabs_feel-pain_electrodes_shore-crab_Eleftherios-Kasiouras_1s.webp" alt="Electrodes measuring brain activity were attached to a shore crab, which was then subjected to mechanical and chemical stimuli. Credit: Eleftherios Kasiouras" class="wp-image-1951623"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Electrodes measuring brain activity were attached to a shore crab, which was then subjected to mechanical and chemical stimuli. Credit: Eleftherios Kasiouras</figcaption></figure>



"We could see that the crab has some kind of pain receptors in its soft tissues, because we recorded an increase in brain activity when we applied a potentially painful chemical, a form of vinegar, to the crab's soft tissues. The same happened when we applied external pressure to several of the crab's body parts," he explains.



These findings suggest that shore crabs have a pain signaling system that sends messages to their brains when they experience harmful stimuli. 



Interestingly, the pain response was shorter and more intense with physical stress, while chemical stress produced a longer-lasting effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-if-crabs-feel-pain-what-about-lobsters">If crabs feel pain, what about lobsters?</h2>



Given that many crustaceans share similar structures and nervous systems, these results could extend beyond shore crabs. 



"It is a given that all animals need some kind of pain system to cope by avoiding danger. I don't think we need to test all species of crustaceans, as they have a similar structure and therefore similar nervous systems," Kasiouras explains.



"We can assume that shrimps, crayfish, and lobsters can also send external signals about painful stimuli to their brain which will process this information."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-crustaceans">Importance of crustaceans</h2>



Crustaceans play <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-did-billions-of-crabs-vanish-from-the-bering-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vital roles in their ecosystems</a>. Acting as both predators and prey, they help maintain the balance of marine and freshwater food webs.



For humans, they are a significant food source, contributing to economies worldwide. They're also valuable in scientific research, aiding studies on regeneration, development, and environmental health.



However, challenges like overfishing and habitat destruction <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crabs-are-losing-their-sense-of-smell-and-vanishing-due-to-ocean-acidification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">threaten their populations</a>. This raises concerns about sustainability and the need for better practices to ensure these creatures thrive for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconsidering-how-we-handle-seafood">Reconsidering how we handle seafood</h2>



Currently, shellfish like prawns, lobsters, crabs, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-crayfish-atlas-offers-new-tools-for-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crayfish aren't covered</a> by animal welfare legislation in the European Union. 



This means practices that might cause them pain are still legally acceptable. But with new evidence pointing to their ability to feel pain, there's a growing call to change how we treat these animals.



Dr. Sneddon emphasizes the need for change: "We need more research to find less painful ways to kill shellfish." 



If we continue to consume these creatures, it's crucial to ensure we're not causing unnecessary suffering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-is-awful-but-what-can-we-do">This is awful, but what can we do?</h2>



The first step is acknowledging that these animals might experience pain similarly to how we do. 



With that understanding, industries and regulators can work towards implementing more humane methods of handling and killing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strawberry-claws-the-hermit-crab-that-sings-underwater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crustaceans</a>. 



This could involve developing new technologies or techniques that minimize pain or distress.



Consumers also play a role. By supporting businesses that prioritize humane practices and advocating for better regulations, we can encourage a shift towards more ethical treatment of these animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crabs-pain-and-human-compassion">Crabs, pain, and human compassion</h2>



As we learn more about the creatures we share our planet with, it's essential to adapt our behaviors accordingly. 



Knowing that crabs, lobsters, and other crustaceans can feel pain changes the game on how we should treat them, especially when it comes to cooking and handling. 



It's not just about following laws or guidelines -- it's about being mindful and compassionate in our everyday choices, treating sentient creatures with respect. 



By supporting humane practices and staying informed, we can help ensure that all crustaceans are treated with the respect they've earned by inhabiting our planet for over 500 million years.



As we move forward, both industries and individuals have a part to play. After all, how we treat the smallest of creatures often reflects our values as a society.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-7737/13/11/851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



----

Disturbing study calls for immediate ban on boiling crabs and lobsters alive

Have you ever wondered if crabs and lobsters felt pain...

If you were to rewind the clock to the 1980s and tune your ear to the deep-sea waters off the coast of New Zealand, a peculiar sound might have caught your attention. 



This sound, reminiscent of a "quack," echoed through the South Fiji Basin's underwater soundscape in July 1982, presenting a unique mystery for researchers investigating marine acoustics at the time.



This strange, quack-like sound quickly became a topic of widespread interest, and its continuous repetition earned it the nickname "Bio-Duck."



Initially recorded during an experiment designed to characterize the marine audio environment of the region, the sound's repetitive and patterned nature left researchers astonished and intrigued at the possibility that it was biological in origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-source-of-the-quack-still-unknown">The source of the quack still unknown</h2>



One of the pivotal contributors to this research was Ross Chapman who, at the time, was associated with the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Victoria</a>. He reflects about how the sound generated heated discussions among scientists who were perplexed about its source.



"The sound was so repeatable, we couldn't believe at first that it was biological. But in talking to other colleagues in Australia about the data, we discovered that a similar sound was heard quite often in other regions around New Zealand and Australia."



The mysterious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-cannot-escape-human-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater communications</a> became a major point of discussion at the 187th Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America in November, 2024, where Chapman and his team presented their findings. They have yet to identify the makers of these enigmatic sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unchartered-territory-of-ocean-noise-exploration">Unchartered territory of ocean noise exploration</h2>



Chapman’s journey into deciphering the mystery began in 1986 with the analysis of the data from the experiment. 



"We discovered that the data contained a gold mine of new information about many kinds of sound in the ocean, including sounds from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine mammals</a>," he recalled. 



The field of marine acoustics was in its fledgling stages in the '80s, and every day was an opportunity for a new discovery. 



Despite the thrill and excitement, the source of the Bio-Duck sounds remained an enigma, with some theories suggesting that the sounds could be originating from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-may-have-ultrasonic-hearing-as-a-form-of-defense/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic minke whales</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engaging-in-a-deep-sea-dialogue">Engaging in a deep-sea dialogue</h2>



Chapman, however, had a different hypothesis. He believed these sounds were something more than just random noises - they could be a conversation. 



This hypothesis was supported by the pattern of the sounds recorded by an acoustic antenna, an array of hydrophones towed behind a ship. 



The acoustic array's unique design allowed the researchers to identify the direction the sounds were originating from and revealed that they came from different directions all around the ship.



"The most amazing thing was that when one speaker was talking, the others were quiet, as though they were listening. Then the first speaker would stop talking and listen to responses from others," Chapman noted.



This observation hinted at an organized communication pattern among the unseen marine speakers. He likened this to a conversation where one individual speaks while the others wait to respond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-story-unfolds-in-the-deep-sea">A story unfolds in the deep sea</h2>



"Maybe they were talking about dinner, maybe it was parents talking to children, or maybe they were simply commenting on that crazy ship that kept going back and forth towing that long string behind it," said Chapman.



While the mystery of the Bio-Duck is yet to be conclusively solved, the intriguing possibility of a deep-sea dialogue continues to fascinate us. 



It offers a reminder that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monitoring-ocean-life-through-underwater-soundscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater</a> universe is rich with life and communication, and humbles us with the realization that there is so much more left for us to understand about the world beneath the waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-legacy-of-the-bio-duck-mystery">The legacy of the Bio-Duck mystery</h2>



The quack-like sounds of the Bio-Duck are not just a relic of past research; they’ve become a cornerstone for understanding the complexity of deep-sea ecosystems. 



These sounds have inspired decades of study into marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/language-like-patterns-decoded-in-sperm-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal communication</a>, particularly among whales and other cetaceans. 



Today, advancements in acoustic technology allow scientists to revisit these historical recordings with modern tools, uncovering new layers of information that were previously inaccessible.



In recent years, the Bio-Duck has been referenced in studies seeking to map marine animal behaviors and migration patterns. 



These efforts emphasize the importance of long-term data collection, proving that even recordings from the 1980s can yield fresh insights when paired with today’s computational power.



The continued analysis of sounds like the Bio-Duck serves as a reminder of the mysteries still hidden in the deep sea. 



They highlight the need for sustainable marine exploration to protect these habitats and preserve the uncharted conversations of the underwater world.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Unknown origin: 'Quack-like' sounds heard in the deep ocean remain a mystery

If you were to rewind the clock to the 1980s...

If you're a crayfish, location can make all the difference. In North America, these small crustaceans are facing tough times due to habitat destruction, damming, and pollution, leading many species to require urgent help.&nbsp;



Conversely, some of these same species, when introduced to Europe, have found the environment so favorable that they've become invasive, outcompeting local crayfish and spreading diseases that push native species toward extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searchable-atlas-the-world-of-crayfish">Searchable atlas: The World of Crayfish </h2>



Previously, researchers and conservation planners had to sift through multiple data sources to determine where specific crayfish species had been documented.&nbsp;



Now, a new mapping project led by the <a href="https://www.uvt.ro/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West University of Timișoara, Romania</a> (WUT) and the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> has compiled information on 427 crayfish taxa and over 100,000 observation records into the first searchable global atlas, named the World of Crayfish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance-of-crayfish">Ecological importance of crayfish</h2>



“One of the most basic pieces of information to know about a species is where it lives: its distribution and its range size. But we just don’t have that information for a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-coloration-in-crayfish-does-not-serve-an-evolutionary-purpose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crayfish</a> species,” said Bloomer.&nbsp;



“About a third of crayfish are thought to be threatened or endangered, but for another 20-ish percent, we don't have the data available to even assess what their conservation status should be.”



Bloomer acknowledges that most people outside her field may not notice or appreciate crayfish, but she emphasizes their importance. 



Crayfish are considered “keystone species” in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-quarter-of-freshwater-fish-species-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater ecosystems</a>, playing significant roles as food sources for other animals and as ecosystem engineers. They create burrows that provide habitats for many species in semi-terrestrial environments. Unfortunately, their impact as invaders is equally significant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-unified-action">Urgent need for unified action</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Invasive species</a> are one of the gravest challenges to biodiversity in Europe, with profound ecological, economic, and societal consequences," said atlas co-creator Mihaela Ion, researcher at the <a href="https://www.ibiol.ro/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Biology Bucharest, Romanian Academy</a>.



"They disrupt ecosystems, outcompete native species, and impose significant costs on sectors like agriculture and fisheries. In some cases, they even threaten public health. A unified, science-driven approach is essential to mitigate their impact.”



These ecological changes occur locally but require global collaboration for effective conservation and invasion mitigation. That's why Ion, Bloomer, and their collaborators believe the new global crayfish atlas will make a significant difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-the-crayfish-atlas">Building the crayfish atlas</h2>



“We're looking at climate change, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a>, and international spread of invasive species and disease,” Bloomer said. “These global issues require global collaborations to move forward and make an impact.”



“The World of Crayfish™ (WoC) platform is designed to become a transformative tool in biodiversity research and management,” added Lucian Pârvulescu, a professor at WUT and project coordinator for the atlas.&nbsp;



“It serves as a foundation for integrating expert-validated datasets and applying advanced analysis techniques to address pressing ecological challenges like invasive species management." 



'WoC exemplifies the future of biodiversity data infrastructure - accessible, integrative, and purpose-driven. By focusing on freshwater ecosystems, particularly crayfish species, it addresses an urgent need for tools that do more than collect data - they provide solutions.”



Creating the atlas involved extracting GPS coordinates from every modern crayfish occurrence record in scientific literature, as well as museum and agency collections. 



Several thousand records were sourced from the <a href="https://crustacean.inhs.illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crustacean Collection of the Illinois Natural History Survey</a>, part of the Prairie Research Institute at Illinois. Atlas co-creator and emeritus curator Christopher Taylor has collected and curated the collection for nearly 30 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empowering-conservation-efforts">Empowering conservation efforts</h2>



The more than 100,000 data points can be visualized on a world map scalable to 20-kilometer hexagons, including an address lookup tool. 



Bloomer notes that this spatial scale is meaningful for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> planning but masks the exact locations where sensitive or imperiled species were found. 



Researchers and resource managers can register for an account on the website to access more detailed location data. Future updates to the atlas aim to enhance its capabilities.



“Through collaboration with international experts and leveraging scientific advancements, WoC aims to combine ecological data with geospatial and predictive tools. These tools will support tailored analyses, such as mapping invasive species dynamics, evaluating habitat suitability, and predicting population trends,” Pârvulescu said. 



“The platform’s strength lies in its ability to merge diverse data streams into a cohesive system that generates actionable insights.”



Ultimately, the team hopes the atlas will empower researchers, policymakers, and agencies to develop conservation assessments and policies to protect these important animals with precision and urgency. Bloomer also hopes the atlas will inspire public interest in crayfish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-awareness-and-appreciation-for-crayfish">Raising awareness and appreciation for crayfish</h2>



“The unfortunate reality in conservation biology is that a lot of the species that get attention and funding are charismatic megafauna that people see on TV or in zoos," said Bloomer.



"This website gives the public better access to information on what lives near them, and could get them more interested in their local landscape. Hopefully, they’ll see that crayfish are just as cool as lions and rhinos."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.18229" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Global crayfish atlas offers new tools for conservation 

If you're a crayfish, location can make all the difference....

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires...

Filter feeders are widespread across the animal kingdom, from krill and coral to baleen whales and basking sharks.&nbsp;



Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> have uncovered a unique filter-feeding mechanism in mobula <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-rays-were-more-diverse-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rays</a> - a group that includes manta and devil rays - that could inspire breakthroughs in industrial water filtration.



The study reveals how the mobula ray’s adaptations balance feeding efficiency with breathing. The findings offer insights into optimizing industrial cross-flow filters, crucial in water treatment and other industries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-manta-ray-s-ingenious-filter-design">The manta ray’s ingenious filter design</h2>



Mobula rays feed by swimming open-mouthed through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a>-rich waters, directing water into their mouths and out through their gills. Parallel, comb-like plates line the floor of their mouths, directing water flow while filtering out plankton particles.



The MIT researchers found that these plates are specifically sized to ensure that plankton particles bounce across the plates into the ray’s cavity rather than escaping through its gills. Simultaneously, the outflowing water allows the ray to breathe by oxygenating its gills.



“We show that the mobula ray has evolved the geometry of these plates to be the perfect size to balance feeding and breathing,” said senior author Anette “Peko” Hosoi, a professor of mechanical engineering at MIT.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-nature-a-new-approach-to-water-filters">Learning from nature: A new approach to water filters</h2>



Inspired by the mobula ray, the researchers designed a simple water filter that mimics the ray’s feeding features. They tested the filter with 3D-printed plates modeled after the ray’s structures and found it could provide a blueprint for improving industrial cross-flow filters.



Cross-flow filters are used in water treatment plants and other industries to separate particles from fluids. These filters work by allowing fluid to flow across a permeable membrane, with clean fluid passing through while particles are carried away into waste reservoirs.



“We want to expand the design space of traditional crossflow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-filtration-system-removes-forever-chemicals-from-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">filtration</a> with new knowledge from the manta ray,” explained lead author Xinyu Mao, an MIT postdoc.



By examining the ray’s filtration mechanism, the team identified new parameters for optimizing filter performance, particularly regarding the trade-off between permeability and selectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-manta-ray-inspiration-for-water-filters">Manta ray inspiration for water filters</h2>



Industrial filters often face a balancing act: filters with larger pores are highly permeable, allowing fluid to flow through easily but letting small particles escape. Filters with smaller pores, on the other hand, are more selective but require more energy to push fluid through.



The mobula ray’s feeding system offers a natural solution to this dilemma. The ray allows water to flow freely enough to breathe while retaining the plankton particles it feeds on.



“We asked ourselves, how do we do better with this trade-off between permeability and selectivity?” Hosoi said.



By studying the ray’s adaptations, the researchers discovered that vortices - tiny swirling flows of water - play a critical role in its feeding efficiency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-key-to-efficient-filtering">The key to efficient filtering</h2>



The team’s experiments showed that when water flows through the ray-inspired filter, it creates small vortices at the grooves of the plates. These vortices trap particles while allowing water to flow through unimpeded.



“This vortex is not blocking water, but it is blocking particles,” Hosoi explained. “At higher flow rates, particles try to get through the filter but are blocked by this vortex and are shot down the channel instead.”



The vortices even capture particles smaller than the spacing between the plates, forcing them to bounce across the plates into the ray’s cavity. This mechanism prevents particles from escaping while maintaining high water flow, a feature industrial filters could replicate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research</h2>



Using the mobula ray as a model, the researchers developed guidelines for designing cross-flow filters. Their blueprint specifies how factors like pore size, spacing, and flow rate can be adjusted to create vortices for optimal filtration.



“You want to design a filter such that you’re in the regime where you generate vortices,” Hosoi said. “Our guidelines tell you: If you want your plant to pump at a certain rate, then your filter has to have a particular pore diameter and spacing to generate vortices that will filter out particles of this size.”



The findings are particularly relevant to industries like water treatment, where filters must balance efficiency and sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-nature-and-technology">Bridging nature and technology</h2>



During the COVID-19 pandemic, the team initially focused on designing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-masks-may-expose-users-to-harmful-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">face masks</a> capable of filtering viruses. This work eventually shifted to studying natural filtration systems, leading them to the mobula ray.



The ray’s evolved mechanism provides a clear example of how nature can solve engineering challenges. By mimicking this system, industries can create more efficient filters that require less energy while maintaining high selectivity.



“The mobula ray is giving us a really nice rule of thumb for rational design,” Hosoi noted.



The study highlights the potential of biomimicry, where insights from the natural world inspire innovative technological solutions. With the mobula ray as a guide, engineers can refine filtration systems to meet modern demands for cleaner, more sustainable processes.



This research not only advances our understanding of filter-feeding animals but also paves the way for practical applications in technology and industry, demonstrating the profound value of learning from nature.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2410018121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Manta rays inspire a new design for water filters

Filter feeders are widespread across the animal kingdom, from krill...

Plant reproduction is fundamental to our food systems and ecological balance, yet it remains a complex and diverse process.&nbsp;



Some plants are male or female, others are hermaphroditic, and some even change sex over their lifetime.&nbsp;



Understanding the mechanisms that determine plant sex is crucial for advancing modern agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-strategies-of-flowering-plants">Reproductive strategies of flowering plants</h2>



A study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-024-01858-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a> has unveiled new perspectives on the intricate reproductive strategies of flowering plants. 



Led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.hudsonalpha.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology</a> and the University of Georgia, the study was focused on the genetics of Amborella trichopoda. This unique species offers a rare glimpse into the early evolution of flowering plants. 



By producing a much-improved assembly of the Amborella genome and its sex chromosomes, the researchers have gained valuable insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fibonacci-spirals-an-unexpected-twist-in-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant evolution</a> and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-the-amborella-genome">Evolution of the Amborella genome</h2>



Amborella trichopoda is the sole surviving member of a lineage that branched off early from all other flowering plants. Its genome provides essential information about the genetic foundations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-diversity-can-help-combat-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diversity</a>.



Eleven years ago, an international team of researchers co-led by Jim Leebens-Mack, a professor of plant biology at the University of Georgia, completed the first Amborella genome. The results, published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1241089?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D90780648708216300104417575982572668868%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1732616953">Science</a> in 2013, have been cited over 575 times.



“The evolutionary lineage leading to Amborella diverged from all other flowering plant lineages approximately 150 million years ago, so our draft genome published in 2013 has been a foundation for comparative analyses of genes tracing back to the origin of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> and earlier,” Leebens-Mack said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-the-evolution-of-flowers">New insights into the evolution of flowers</h2>



The new insights from the improved genome assembly are particularly exciting for HudsonAlpha Faculty Investigator Alex Harkess, who was a PhD student in Leebens-Mack's lab during the original Amborella genome project.&nbsp;



Now leading his own lab at HudsonAlpha, Harkess and his mentee, senior scientist Sarah Carey, collaborated with Leebens-Mack and HudsonAlphafFaculty investigators Jeremy Schmutz and Jane Grimwood, on the new genome analyses.



“Working on the original Amborella genome in Jim's lab was transformative because it allowed me as a first-year PhD student to be on the very edge of newly developing technologies and software that was coming out to help handle all of this massive genomic data we were creating,” Harkess reflected.&nbsp;



“This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-genome-size-impact-evolutionary-success/">genome</a> reveals so much about the evolution of flowers, but also about the evolution of my own research career and the way I, and now my entire laboratory, view reproduction through the lens of diversity.”



Carey, who was a postdoctoral fellow in the Harkess lab when the new genome assembly was completed, led much of the genome analysis, including the study of the Amborella sex chromosomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-technology-and-plant-reproduction">Advanced technology and plant reproduction </h2>



Thanks to advanced sequencing and assembly technology, as well as emerging computational tools, Carey and the team at the HudsonAlpha Genome Sequencing Center were able to assemble a significantly improved Amborella genome.&nbsp;



The new, highly contiguous genome reference made it easier to search for the Amborella <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sex chromosomes</a>, which are Z and W chromosomes, unlike the familiar human X and Y chromosomes.



“The first Amborella genome was a mixture of short segments of DNA from different sequencing types and technologies,” Carey explained.&nbsp;



“Advancements in long-read sequencing and access to other pieces of information, like Hi-C data, allowed us to assemble larger pieces that made it easier to search for the ZW chromosomes than if it were in lots of smaller pieces.”



In addition to the improved sequencing tools, the team stayed at the forefront of new computational methods.&nbsp;



They developed a pipeline called cytogenetics-by-sequencing to more easily and cost-effectively identify and characterize sex chromosomes in plants, successfully applying it to nearly 30 dioecious plant and animal species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mechanisms-of-sex-determination">The mechanisms of sex determination</h2>



Through their analysis of the Amborella sex chromosomes, the researchers discovered intriguing aspects of the plant's sex-determination system.&nbsp;



Notably, the Z and W chromosomes are relatively young, having emerged more than 100 million years after Amborella diverged from other flowering plant lineages.



In many sex-determination systems, such as the human Y chromosome, the sex chromosomes stop exchanging genetic material with their partner chromosome - a phenomenon known as recombination suppression.&nbsp;



This allows the two sex chromosomes to diverge over time due to different rearrangements, deletions, and insertions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-associated-with-flower-evolution">Genes associated with flower evolution</h2>



While the team found evidence of suppressed recombination in Amborella, the Z and W chromosomes appear very similar, making their assembly more challenging.



“The cytogenetics-by-sequencing pipeline helped us to identify a difficult border on the Amborella sex chromosomes: where they no longer recombine,” Carey noted.&nbsp;



“This is an important task because within this region of non-recombination are expected to be the carpel and stamen sterility genes associated with the evolution of separate female and male plants.”



By carefully analyzing the sex chromosomes, Carey and the team identified two genes hypothesized to be responsible for sex determination in Amborella.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agriculture-and-plant-breeding">Implications for agriculture and plant breeding</h2>



“The big picture takeaway from this study is that we're learning another exception for how you can maintain separate sexes in plants,” Harkess said.&nbsp;



“That gives us another tool in our toolkit for engineering new ways to do plant breeding, creating separate sexes, preventing plants from self-pollinating, and enforcing outcrossing in a way that is controllable and predictable.”



The new Amborella genome project was part of the <a href="https://jgi.doe.gov/csp-2018-leebens-mack-open-green-genomes-initiative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Open Green Genomes Initiative</a>, a Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute Community Science Program.



“The Open Green Genomes initiative is filling phylogenetic gaps in the availability of reference-quality genomes for land plants,” said Leebens-Mack, lead principal investigator for the initiative.&nbsp;



“Our haplotype-resolved chromosomal assembly of the Amborella genome has enabled us to better understand aspects of the ancestral angiosperm genome and the derived characteristics of Amborella's sex chromosomes."



This research not only advances our understanding of plant reproduction but also offers practical applications for agriculture and plant breeding.&nbsp;



By unraveling the genetic mechanisms behind sex determination in plants, scientists can develop new strategies to improve crop yields, enhance biodiversity, and ensure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

A new window into the early evolution of flowering plants

Plant reproduction is fundamental to our food systems and ecological...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...