Thinning glaciers in Asia are seen here in this beautiful image from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a>. This study found that the movement of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-speed-up-plant-decomposition-carbon-emissions/">glaciers</a> actually slows down as they melt.  The purpose of the study by <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA&#8217;s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> was to gain a better understanding of what regulates the speed of glacial motion.

Thinning Glaciers in Asia

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the little-observed southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-star-formation">Fuel for star formation </h2>



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionised nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers studying stellar evolution and the lifecycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that are rich in young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



The galaxy’s central bar is believed to play a role in driving gas towards the core, fueling both the star formation and the activity around its nucleus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



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Spiral galaxy NGC 1559 is a loner in outer space

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba, about 43 million light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.



“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. “Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;



“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;



“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”



Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-evolution">Galaxy evolution</h2>



Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



These early galaxies were small and irregular, composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space.&nbsp;



These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



As galaxies evolve, their morphology - their shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. 



The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;



In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;



Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.



Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee



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NGC 1792: A galactic powerhouse 

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko Glacier lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall.&nbsp;



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting. 



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the spiral galaxy IC 5332, which is located over 29 million light-years away from Earth.



The galaxy spans approximately 66,000 light-years in diameter. This makes it notably smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is just over 100,000 light-years in diameter. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-look-at-ic-5332">Unprecedented look at IC 5332</h2>



In a stunning photo release by NASA and ESA in 2022, the spiral galaxy IC 5332 was presented in an unprecedented level of detail. The images were captured by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-incredible-new-image-of-uranus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>.



This feat was made possible through the use of the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI), which captures images in the mid-infrared spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-perspective-from-earth">Unique perspective from Earth</h2>



One of the most striking features of IC 5332, as revealed by these observations, is its almost perfect face-on orientation relative to Earth.&nbsp;



This unique perspective allows astronomers to clearly observe and admire the symmetrical arrangement of its spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-unveils-ic-5332-in-new-light">Webb unveils IC 5332 in new light</h2>



The clarity of these images represents a significant advancement over previous observations made by the Hubble Space Telescope, which imaged IC 5332 in ultraviolet and visible light.&nbsp;



While Hubble’s images revealed the galaxy’s symmetrical spiral arms, James Webb’s MIRI has unveiled these structures as a complex web of gas that emits infrared light at various temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-miri-instrument-on-james-webb-nbsp">The MIRI instrument on James Webb&nbsp;</h2>



Capturing this range of infrared light is no simple task. It requires highly specialized instruments that must be maintained at extremely cold temperatures.&nbsp;



The MIRI instrument on the James Webb Space Telescope is specifically designed for this purpose and performs exceptionally well. Its capabilities allow astronomers to see aspects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> that are otherwise hidden in other wavelengths.



The detailed images provided by MIRI offer more than just a visual spectacle; they provide valuable data about the composition and temperature of the gases that make up the spiral arms of IC 5332. 



This can help scientists understand the processes of star formation within the galaxy and how these processes compare to those in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-finds-hidden-features-of-the-universe-nbsp">Webb finds hidden features of the universe&nbsp;</h2>



The images of IC 5332 served as a critical test of the James Webb Space Telescope’s capabilities in observing the universe in infrared light. 



As astronomers continue to explore with Webb’s full suite of instruments, many more hidden features of the universe will be revealed.



The information provided by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-second-most-distant-galaxy-in-pandoras-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> not only expands our understanding of the cosmos but also enhances our appreciation for the complex and beautiful structures that exist in our universe.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-galaxies-like-ic-5332">Spiral galaxies like IC 5332</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most visually striking objects in the universe, characterized by their rotating arms that extend from a central nucleus, giving them a distinct spiral appearance.&nbsp;



These galaxies are primarily made up of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. These are often surrounded by a much fainter halo of stars, many of which reside in globular clusters.



Spiral galaxies differ from other galaxy types, such as elliptical and irregular galaxies, in their structure and content. 



The spiral arms are sites of ongoing star formation and are brighter than the rest of the disk because of the young, hot stars that are typically found there. The arms appear distinct because of their density waves, which compress the gas and dust, leading to star formation.



The rotation of the spiral arms also contributes to the galaxy's flat shape due to the centrifugal forces acting on the disk. The central bulge can vary in size and often contains older, red stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Barred spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Some spiral galaxies have a bar-shaped structure that extends from the central bulge, making them barred spirals. This bar affects the motion of stars and gas within the galaxy and can influence star formation activity.



Spiral galaxies are an important focus of study because they contain a significant amount of visible matter and play a crucial role in understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies.&nbsp;



Their distinct features also make them particularly useful for studying the laws of physics under extreme conditions, such as high densities and velocities.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, J. Lee and the PHANGS-JWST and PHANGS-HST Teams



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Spiral galaxy IC 5332: A complex web of gas and light

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Ruki River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is a tributary of the Congo River, one of the largest rivers in the world by discharge and depth.&nbsp;



The Ruki River, previously known as the Busira, merges with the Momboyo River near the town of Basankusu to become the Lulonga River, which eventually flows into the Congo River at the town of Lisala.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-waters-of-the-ruki-river">Dark waters of the Ruki River</h2>



"If the appearance of the muddy Amazon River evokes a coffee cut with cream, the Ruki River, coursing gently through the Congo Basin, is like a dark tea," said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"On its slow path through mostly untouched lowland rainforest in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the water leaches organic material from vegetation, prompting some researchers to think it is one of the darkest blackwater rivers on Earth."



According to NASA, scientists are finding that the dissolved material in this distinctive water offers clues about the carbon cycle of tropical forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-compounds-in-the-ruki-river">Organic compounds in the Ruki River</h2>



In a recent study, researchers measured the chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warmer-rivers-keep-antimicrobial-resistant-genes-at-bay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">composition</a> and flow of the Ruki for the first time.&nbsp;



"The study reported that, as the water color suggests, the Ruki is rich in dissolved organic carbon compounds," said NASA.



"It contains four times as much organic carbon as the Congo River and 1.5 times as much as the Rio Negro, the world’s largest blackwater river and a major tributary of the Amazon."



Due to this heavy carbon load, the researchers concluded that tropical forests like those around the Ruki might not accumulate quite as much carbon as we once thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-river">Significance of the river </h2>



The river is vital for the livelihoods of local communities. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fishing-communities-cooperate-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fishing</a> is a crucial activity, with many people depending on it for sustenance and income. The river also supports agriculture along its banks, where communities grow crops.



In many parts of the DRC, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-are-warming-up-and-losing-oxygen-faster-than-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> like the Ruki are crucial transportation corridors due to the challenging and often nonexistent road infrastructure. 



The river enables the movement of people and goods, facilitating trade and access to markets, health care, and education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-of-the-ruki-river">Wildlife of the Ruki River </h2>



The region around the Ruki River is home to diverse wildlife. It is part of the Congo Basin, the second-largest tropical rainforest area in the world, which is a critical habitat for endangered species.



Among the most notable species are elephants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-mean-chimpanzees-fare-better-in-life-than-nice-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>, whose populations thrive in the surrounding forests. Other primates such as bonobos also live in this region, making it a critical area for primate conservation.



The river itself is home to various species of fish that are crucial to local livelihoods. Hippopotamuses and crocodiles are often found in the water.



Birds like kingfishers, herons, and egrets frequent the riverbanks - making it a haven for birdwatchers.



The Ruki River also supports several species of reptiles and amphibians - some of which are unique to the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-the-river-s-resources">Managing the river's resources </h2>



The region faces several challenges, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-directly-linked-to-atmospheric-mercury-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>, overfishing, and environmental degradation, which threaten its ecological balance and the livelihoods of people who depend on it. 



Efforts to manage and conserve the river's resources are vital for sustainable development.



Understanding and protecting the Ruki River and its surroundings are crucial for the DRC's environmental sustainability, economic development, and the well-being of its communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscapes-of-the-drc">Landscapes of the DRC</h2>



The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) boasts some of the most diverse and breathtaking landscapes in Africa, reflecting its vast size and ecological richness. Dominated by the Congo Basin, the country is a haven for biodiversity.



Beyond its rainforests, the DRC's landscapes shift dramatically. In the east, the terrain rises into rugged mountains, including the Virunga and Rwenzori ranges, where snow-capped peaks like Mount Stanley pierce the sky. 



This region is also marked by active volcanoes such as Mount Nyiragongo, which harbors one of the world’s largest lava lakes, creating a dramatic and otherworldly spectacle.



To the south and west, the country transitions to expansive savannas with rolling grasslands and scattered trees. These areas contrast sharply with the lushness of the forests, providing vital habitats for species like lions and antelope. 



Rivers like the Ruki are a dominant feature, with the mighty Congo River coursing through the heart of the country. Its tributaries shape the lives of millions.



The image was captured by the OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Ruki River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a brilliant stellar nursery located about 163,000 light-years away.



According to ESA, the image is one of the most photogenic examples of the many stellar nurseries observed by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope during its 30-year lifetime. 



“The portrait features the giant nebula NGC 2014 and its neighbor NGC 2020 which together form part of a vast star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-stellar-nursery">What is a stellar nursery?</h2>



Stellar nurseries are regions in space where new stars are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">born</a> - often within vast clouds of gas and dust called molecular clouds.&nbsp;



These areas are fascinating because they are cradles of stellar evolution, where gravity causes clumps of gas to collapse, eventually forming protostars.&nbsp;



Over time, the protostars will heat up and start the nuclear fusion process that powers a star.



One of the most well-known stellar nurseries is the Orion Nebula, which is visible to the naked eye and located about 1,350 light-years from Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-a-stellar-nursery-nbsp">Dynamic nature of a stellar nursery&nbsp;</h2>



Within these nurseries, the balance between gravity and pressure determines the types of stars that form, from massive, luminous stars to smaller, cooler ones like our Sun.&nbsp;



The environment is incredibly dynamic, with powerful winds from young stars shaping the clouds and triggering the birth of even more stars.



These regions are often illuminated by the light from massive newborn stars - creating stunning, colorful displays. The light reveals the intricate structure of the dust and gas, sculpted by the energy of young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-stellar-nurseries-nbsp">Significance of stellar nurseries&nbsp;</h2>



Stellar nurseries are essential for understanding the early stages of planetary formation, as protoplanetary disks (the material from which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets form</a>) are often found around young stars in these regions.



Stellar nurseries play a crucial role in the ongoing evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>. They are responsible for the continuous birth of new stars that enrich the interstellar medium with heavier elements. This constant recycling of material is key to the development of future generations of stars and planets.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the study of these regions helps astronomers understand the fundamental processes that govern the life cycles of stars and the overall dynamics of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-local-group">The Local Group</h2>



The Local Group is a collection of over 80 galaxies that includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and the Triangulum Galaxy, along with numerous smaller dwarf galaxies. These galaxies are bound together by gravity and span a region roughly 10 million light-years across.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> and Andromeda are the dominant members, with their respective satellite galaxies orbiting them.&nbsp;



The Local Group is part of a larger structure known as the Virgo Supercluster, and its galaxies are moving toward the gravitational center of the Local Group, contributing to its dynamic nature.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-magellanic-cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</h2>



The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is the fourth largest galaxy in the Local Group and can be seen with the naked eye from the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



This irregular dwarf galaxy is home to the Tarantula Nebula, one of the most active star-forming regions in our cosmic neighborhood.&nbsp;



The Large Magellanic Cloud played a key role in astronomical history, particularly when the supernova SN 1987A was observed, providing valuable insights into stellar evolution.&nbsp;



The LMC's interaction with the Milky Way, along with its own companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud, is believed to influence its shape and star formation activity. Its proximity and unique properties make it a crucial object of study for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>, star formation, and the dynamics of interacting galaxies.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and STScI



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Hubble captures a stunning stellar nursery

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Southern Ring Nebula, also known as NGC 3132.



The nebula is located about 2,000 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Vela. This remarkably detailed image was created using data from Webb’s Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam).



The Southern Ring Nebula is one of the more famous examples of planetary nebulae. It is often studied for its beauty and valuable insights into the end stages of stellar evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-power-the-southern-ring-nebula-nbsp">Stars power the Southern Ring Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragons-egg-nebula-is-a-truly-stunning-sight-to-behold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> is powered by two central stars in a binary system. The brighter star is actually a less massive companion. The fainter, dimmer star is the dying, hot central star that has shed its outer layers to form the nebula. 



The dimmer star is a white dwarf and is responsible for the ionization of the gas in the nebula, causing it to glow.



“The bright star at the center of NGC 3132, while prominent when viewed by NASA’s Webb Telescope in near-infrared light, plays a supporting role in sculpting the surrounding nebula," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"A second star, barely visible at lower left along one of the bright star’s diffraction spikes, is the nebula’s source. It has ejected at least eight layers of gas and dust over thousands of years.” 



“But the bright central star visible here has helped ‘stir’ the pot, changing the shape of this planetary nebula’s highly intricate rings by creating turbulence." 



ESA explained that the pair of stars are locked in a tight orbit, which leads the dimmer star to spray ejected material in a range of directions as they orbit one another, resulting in these jagged rings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-characteristics-of-the-southern-ring-nebula-nbsp">Key characteristics of the Southern Ring Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Southern Ring Nebula displays a complex structure with multiple layers of gas and dust. 



The outer shells of the nebula consist of hydrogen and other elements that were ejected from the dying star in previous stages of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-stellar-objects-observing-the-early-lives-of-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>. These layers are illuminated by ultraviolet radiation from the central white dwarf.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coloration">Coloration</h3>



The colors seen in the Southern Ring Nebula come from the different gases present. For example, hydrogen emits red light, while oxygen emits blue-green light. 



These colors help astronomers study the composition and dynamics of the nebula.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-and-shape">Size and shape</h3>



The nebula spans about half a light-year in diameter. Its intricate, symmetrical structure provides valuable insights into the late stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-collapse-black-hole-instead-of-supernova-vanish-from-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a>, especially the processes involved in the shedding of outer layers by dying stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotlights-from-the-bright-star">Spotlights from the bright star</h2>



ESA noted that hundreds of straight, brightly-lit lines pierce through the rings of gas and dust. “These ‘spotlights’ emanate from the bright star and stream through holes in the nebula like sunlight through gaps in a cloud."



“But not all of the starlight can escape. The density of the central region, set off in teal, is reflected by how transparent or opaque it is. Areas that are a deeper teal indicate that the gas and dust are denser - and light is unable to break free.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-image">More about the image</h2>



According to ESA, this is not only a crisp image of a planetary nebula - it also shows us objects in the vast distances of space behind it. The transparent red sections of the nebula are filled with distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-have-hearts-and-lungs-that-help-them-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>.



“Look for the bright angled line at the upper left. It is not starlight - it is a faraway galaxy seen edge-on. Distant spirals, of many shapes and colors, also dot the scene. Those that are farthest away - or very dusty - are small and red,” said ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-vela-nbsp">The constellation Vela&nbsp;</h2>



Vela is a southern constellation that represents the sails of a ship. It was once part of a larger constellation called Argo Navis, which depicted the ship of the mythological hero Jason and the Argonauts. 



In the 18th century, Argo Navis was divided into three separate constellations: Vela (the sails), Carina (the keel), and Puppis (the stern).



Vela is notable for containing several interesting astronomical features. One of its most prominent stars is Gamma Velorum, also known as Suhail or Regor, which is a bright, massive star system consisting of multiple stars.&nbsp;



The constellation also hosts the Vela Supernova Remnant, the remains of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> explosion that occurred about 11,000 years ago. 



This remnant is associated with the Vela Pulsar, a neutron star that formed during the supernova explosion, which is one of the brightest pulsars in the sky.



Vela is best observed in the Southern Hemisphere, where it can be seen in the summer months. Its position along the Milky Way makes it a popular region for both amateur and professional astronomers to explore.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI



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Southern Ring Nebula in the constellation Vela 

The MODIS instrument, short for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, is a key instrument aboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. MODIS is playing a vital role in the development of Earth ecosystem models, able to predict global changes, which then assist policy makers in making informed decisions about the protection of the global environment.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps are seen in this Image of the day&nbsp;from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at heavy snow and low clouds in the Alps. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps

Monitoring Earth Changes with MODIS

Aqua is a NASA scientific research satellite that studies precipitation, evaporation, and water cycles. Terra and Aura make up the Earth Observing System. It's the second component of the system.

A frozen Lake Erie in February Today’s Image of the Day comes from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at a frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/icy-lake-erie/">Lake Erie</a>, which is currently 93.3 percent iced over. A frozen Lake Erie in February
This false-color image was created using data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Aqua satellite to differentiate between snow, ice, and clouds.
Lake Erie /ˈɪəri/ (French: Lac Érié) is the fourth-largest lake (by surface area) of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the eleventh-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area.It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet (64 metres) deep. 
Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie&#8217;s northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, specifically the Ontario Peninsula, with the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern, and eastern shores. These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries. 
The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native American people who lived along its southern shore. The tribal name &#8220;erie&#8221; is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word erielhonan, meaning long tail
&#8212;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

A frozen Lake Erie in February

Aqua Earth Observing Satellite

This beautiful photo gallery contains 50 incredible images of Earth from Space. These images were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station, as well as by a multitude of NASA satellites orbiting the earth.

Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean just south of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-blue-chrysanthemums-created/">Japan</a>.
This image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on July 31, 2017. 
At the time the photo was taken, Typhoon Noru was located just 250 kilometers south of Iwo Jima. Maximum sustained winds hit 150 miles per hour.
The storm briefly became a category 5 on July 30, before being downgraded to a category 4 one day later.
&#8211;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Source: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean

Incredible Images of Earth from Space

Photos from the International Space Station are found in this awesome Earth.com image gallery. Flat-earthers won't agree, but these incredible photos of the Earth were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station. The International Space Station is a modular space station in low Earth orbit.

Northern Italy from the space station is seen here in this Image of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). The view includes the top half of the Italian Peninsula, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/wildfires-burn-northern-corsica/">Corsica</a> and Sardinia off the coast. This image was captured by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on his third and final mission to the Space Station.

Northern Italy from the Space Station

Photos from the International Space Station

An asteroid impact on Mars about 11 million years ago, sending fragments of the Red Planet hurtling through space. One of these pieces eventually crashed into Earth and somehow made its way into a drawer of an old desk at Purdue University. 



This rare find, now known as the Lafayette Meteorite, has been instrumental in unlocking secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manganese-discovery-ancient-mars-earth-like-water-lake-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ watery past, with new research recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7185/geochemlet.2443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemical Perspective Letters</a> that provides insight into the timing and nature of Mars’ ancient water activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-mars-watery-past">Tracing Mars’ watery past</h2>



Scientists have long known that the Lafayette Meteorite interacted with liquid water on Mars, but the exact timing of this event was uncertain.&nbsp;



Dr. Marissa Tremblay, an assistant professor at Purdue University’s <a href="https://www.eaps.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences</a> (EAPS), led an international research team to determine the age of the water-altered minerals in the meteorite, pinpointing it to 742 million years ago.



“Dating these minerals can therefore tell us when there was liquid water at or near the surface of Mars in the planet's geologic past,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that while liquid water wasn’t abundant on the surface at this time, it likely came from melting subsurface ice, or permafrost, caused by intermittent volcanic activity -- a phenomenon still observed on Mars today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-a-moment-in-mars-geological-timeline">Preserving a moment in Mars’ geological timeline</h2>



The study not only identified when water interacted with the meteorite but also established that the dating was unaffected by events after the meteorite left Mars.&nbsp;



“The age could have been affected by the impact that ejected the Lafayette Meteorite from Mars, the heating it experienced during the 11 million years it was floating in space, or the heating when it fell to Earth,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



However, the team confirmed that none of these factors altered the age, validating the timeline of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-lost-most-of-its-water-but-where-did-it-go/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> interaction.



Study co-author and Purdue EAPS researcher Ryan Ickert applied heavy isotope analysis to further verify that previous data on the meteorite’s water-rock interaction had likely been skewed by other geological processes.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This meteorite uniquely has evidence that it has reacted with water. The exact date of this was controversial, and our publication dates when water was present,” said Ickert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-journey-of-the-meteorite">Mysterious journey of the meteorite </h2>



The Lafayette Meteorite’s journey to Purdue is something of a mystery. It was found in a university drawer in 1931, though how it got there remains unknown.&nbsp;



In previous research, Tremblay and her team used crop disease markers from organic contaminants found on the meteorite to narrow down when it might have fallen to Earth.



Once the meteorite was ejected from Mars, it endured constant cosmic ray bombardment in space, which produced certain isotopes, offering clues to its time of impact on Earth.&nbsp;



“Many meteoroids are produced by impacts on Mars and other planetary bodies, but only a handful will eventually fall to Earth,” Tremblay said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-time-capsules">Planetary time capsules</h2>



Meteorites like Lafayette serve as planetary time capsules, offering invaluable data on the geological and environmental history of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">home worlds</a>. With their dense structure, metallic content, and magnetic properties, meteorites are often distinguishable from Earth rocks.&nbsp;



“We can identify meteorites by studying what minerals are present in them, their mineral relationships, and by checking for a fusion crust formed during entry into Earth’s atmosphere,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



By analyzing these traits and their chemical signatures, scientists can often determine a meteorite’s planetary origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-history-of-meteorites">Complex history of meteorites</h2>



This research marks a significant milestone for the team, which included scientists from institutions across the globe, such as the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Center (SUERC), the University of St. Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Bristol, and London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>.&nbsp;



“Before moving to Purdue, Ryan and I were both based at SUERC, where the argon-argon isotopic analyses of the alteration minerals in Lafayette took place,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



Their partners at SUERC and the Natural History Museum have long contributed to studying Lafayette’s complex history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dating-minerals-in-meteorites">Dating minerals in meteorites</h2>



Dating the water-altered minerals in Lafayette, and others in its class of Martian meteorites called nakhlites, has been a central focus in planetary science, as they uniquely capture moments when liquid water was present on Mars.&nbsp;



Due to complex alterations over time, previous attempts to date these minerals were plagued with uncertainties.&nbsp;



However, the team has now developed a robust dating method that could be applied to other meteorites, enhancing our understanding of when water might have been present on Mars and other planetary bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-planetary-science">The future of planetary science</h2>



Thanks to the Stahura Undergraduate Meteorite Fund, Tremblay and Ickert’s research on the Lafayette Meteorite will continue, with the involvement of undergraduate students in Purdue EAPS.&nbsp;



This opportunity allows students to engage in real-world planetary science, helping to reveal the intricate histories of meteoritic samples.



Tremblay and her team’s work on the Lafayette Meteorite highlights its scientific significance, revealing a complex history that ties it to Mars’ geological past.&nbsp;



Their findings not only deepen our understanding of Mars but also set a precedent for future studies that might unveil even more about the red planet’s climate history, water activity, and potential for supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-mars-rocks-contain-signs-of-life-scientists-call-to-bring-them-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



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Meteorite found in an old desk shows Mars had water about 700 million years ago

An asteroid impact on Mars about 11 million years ago,...

Have you ever wondered how your internet and browsing habits impact your mental health? The relationship between internet use and happiness, it turns out, isn't as simple as you might think. 



For those crossing the 50-year mark, the internet could be a portal to a more contented life. However, for the younger crowd, losing themselves in the world of online activities might not be so rosy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-and-internet-use">Mental health and internet use</h2>



An intriguing new study reveals that people over 50 who regularly navigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital landscape</a> of emails, online shopping, or information seeking tend to feel happier and less blue. Eugenia Cheng of the <a href="https://www.hku.hk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hong Kong</a> led the team behind this research.



The experts classified 87,000 people aged 50 and older from 23 countries into four groups based on their internet usage: non-users, sporadic users (those using the internet less than once a week), weekly users, and daily users.



Over six years, these "silver surfers" painted a picture showing that more internet use correlated with more life satisfaction and improved health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-side-of-the-internet">Dark side of the internet</h2>



Before anyone decides to glue themselves to their screens, it's important to remember that the internet can be a source of poor mental health and distress for our younger counterparts.



Earlier research suggested that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-shocking-reality-of-website-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">internet</a> use among those under 50 could exacerbate anxiety, self-esteem issues, eating disorders, and exposure to online harassment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geography-and-age">Geography and age</h2>



Turning to England, the researchers discovered that only daily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-the-internet-is-not-bad-for-your-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">internet</a> users reported fewer depressive symptoms compared to the other groups.



The difference in happiness seems more pronounced for those aged 65 and above - especially for those who were unmarried, physically inactive, and not as financially comfortable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sociability-and-support">Sociability and support</h2>



Cheng's team believes that for those aged 50 and above, the internet could promote social interaction and help combat loneliness.



Beyond the social aspect, it lends a helping hand in accessing valuable information and services that offer emotional support and medical advice. But while the internet may be a tool for boosting mental health, it's not without its perils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internet-and-mental-health-connection">Internet and mental health connection</h2>



Remember that old saying about having too much of a good thing? It perfectly applies to the internet, especially for older populations. 



Excessive internet use could cut into time for sleep, physical activity, and face-to-face socializing - the very factors important for good mental health. Moreover, there's the tricky business of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online</a> fraud and misinformation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internet-boosts-mental-health">Internet boosts mental health</h2>



According to the researchers, their study highlights the potential of internet use as an effective strategy to bolster overall mental health in middle-aged and older populations.



After all, the internet serves as a lifeline for people in their twilight years, allowing them to access health-related information, build social connections, and find entertainment - all contributing positively to their mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-little-internet-goes-a-long-way">Little internet goes a long way</h2>



Let's not forget another noteworthy finding. "Silver surfers" who keep using the internet cut their risk of developing dementia in half compared to their less digital savvy peers.



"Online engagement may help to develop and maintain cognitive reserve, which can in turn compensate for brain aging and reduce the risk of dementia," explained Dr. Virginia Chang, a professor at NYU School of Global Public Health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-informed-decisions-about-our-digital-habits">Informed decisions about our digital habits</h2>



The internet, like many things in life, can be a boon or a bane for mental health, depending on how we use it and, interestingly, how old we are. 



While older adults surf their way towards a healthier and happier life, our younger generations might need to tread the online waters more carefully. Either way, it seems clear that the world wide web continues to weave its complex threads into the fabric of our lives.



Within this digital maze we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigate</a> daily, let's continue to explore and learn the best ways to use it for our advantage.



As our lives become increasingly entwined with technology, studies like these offer valuable insights. They help us to question, reflect, and make informed decisions about our digital habits. In what ways can we all strike a balance in our internet use to improve our quality of life?



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Mental health and the internet: Who benefits and who suffers?

Have you ever wondered how your internet and browsing habits...

The Northern Lights have been visible much farther south than usual this year, filing social media with stunning images of colorful skies. Now, imagine an aurora so intense that it would instantly render smartphones useless as particles from the sun overwhelm electronic devices.&nbsp;



Such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-tree-rings-help-predict-extreme-solar-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme solar storms</a> are incredibly rare - only six have left their traces on Earth in the past 14,500 years, and none have been observed since the height of the Assyrian Empire nearly 2,700 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-event-from-664-b-c">A cosmic event from 664 B.C.</h2>



A research team led by Irina Panyushkina of the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>'s Laboratory for Tree-Ring Research and Timothy Jull from the Department of Geosciences has identified the last time Earth experienced such a powerful burst of cosmic radiation.&nbsp;



Their findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01618-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>, reveal a spike in carbon-14 dating to the year 664 B.C., pinpointing the timing of this elusive extreme solar storm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-solar-storms">What are solar storms?</h2>



Solar storms occur when the Sun releases massive amounts of energy in the form of solar flares or coronal mass ejections (CMEs). These events send high-energy particles and magnetic fields hurtling toward Earth at incredible speeds.



When these charged particles interact with Earth's magnetic field, they can create dramatic and far-reaching effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-solar-storms-through-carbon-14">Tracing solar storms through carbon-14</h2>



“After a few months, carbon-14 will have traveled from the stratosphere to the lower atmosphere, where it is taken up by trees and becomes part of the wood as they grow,” Panyushkina said.&nbsp;



By analyzing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> for carbon-14, a naturally occurring radioactive variant of carbon, the team detected this ancient solar storm.&nbsp;



Determining the precise timing of such massive solar eruptions provides important data for scientists who study and develop models of the sun's activity over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signature-of-extreme-solar-storms">Signature of extreme solar storms</h2>



It wasn't until 2012 that scientists recognized extreme solar storms known as Miyake events. 



That year, Fusa Miyake, a Japanese physicist and collaborator with Panyushkina's team, published a paper reporting the storms' telltale signature: spikes in radioactive carbon isotopes in the growth rings of trees. 



Miyake events occur when the sun's electromagnetic field weakens, allowing plasma from the sun's surface to escape into space.&nbsp;



Increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunspot-sketches-from-1607-unlock-secrets-of-solar-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar activity</a> leads to protons bombarding Earth's atmosphere, triggering chemical reactions that result in spikes of radioactive isotopes.



“Thanks to radiocarbon in tree-rings, we now know that six Miyake events happened over the last 14,500 years,” Panyushkina said. “If they happened today, they would have cataclysmic effects on communication technology.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methodology-tree-rings-and-ice-cores">Methodology: Tree rings and ice cores</h2>



The research team used surgical knives to dissect individual tree rings from ancient wood samples, including those from dead trees buried in riverbanks and timbers excavated during archaeological digs.&nbsp;



Next, the researchers burned the cellulose - the main component of wood - to determine the radiocarbon content.&nbsp;



To confirm whether solar storms caused the radiocarbon spikes, the researchers compared their tree ring data to spikes found in a different isotope, beryllium-10, locked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-cores-from-highest-tropical-peak-reveal-new-climate-clues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice cores</a> from glaciers and ice sheets.&nbsp;



Like carbon-14, beryllium-10 forms in the atmosphere due to solar particles and becomes trapped in ice through rain and snow.



“If ice cores from both the North Pole and South Pole show a spike in the isotope beryllium-10 for a particular year corresponding to increased radiocarbon in tree rings, we know there was a solar storm,” Panyushkina said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-we-predict-extreme-solar-storms">Can we predict extreme solar storms?</h2>



Although tree rings act as “archivists” recording Miyake events, researchers have not yet found evidence of a pattern in these occurrences.&nbsp;



According to Panyushkina, tree rings give us an idea of the magnitude of these massive storms, but we can't detect any type of pattern, so it is unlikely we will ever be able to predict when such an event is going to happen.



“Still, we believe our paper will transform how we search and understand the carbon-14 spike signal of extreme solar proton events in tree rings,” said Panyushkina.



“The energy from this type of event not only changes the atmosphere's radiocarbon content but also the atmosphere's chemistry. We are trying to figure out how those short-lived and powerful events affect the Earth system as a whole.”



Image Credit: NASA/SDO and the AIA, EVE, and HMI science teams



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Trees hold evidence of one of Earth's most extreme solar storms

The Northern Lights have been visible much farther south than...

Rivers and streams act as vital lifelines, weaving through diverse landscapes, from secluded headwaters to vast oceans.&nbsp;



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-amount-of-water-do-earths-rivers-hold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waterways</a> play an essential role in human and environmental health, agriculture, and energy production, providing two-thirds of the United States’ drinking water.&nbsp;



Yet, compared to larger water bodies like oceans and lakes, the microbiology of rivers has remained largely underexplored.



A team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> (CSU) has changed that. For the first time, they have cataloged the microorganisms present in rivers spanning 90% of the watersheds in the continental U.S., detailing their roles and functions.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08240-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, highlight how river microbes influence nutrient flow, water quality, and even environmental health, opening a new frontier in microbiome research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-essential-role-of-river-microbes">The essential role of river microbes</h2>



The study underscores the critical role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> in maintaining river health. According to the research, these microorganisms act as “master orchestrators of nutrient and energy flows,” playing a significant role in determining water quality under current and future conditions.&nbsp;



The study also revealed how river microbes interact with contaminants like antibiotics, fertilizers, microplastics, and disinfection byproducts.



Notably, river microbes can degrade <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-plastic-pollution-lurks-beneath-the-surface-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> into smaller carbon compounds. However, near wastewater treatment plants, they exhibit high levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-plastics-may-harbor-antimicrobial-resistance-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic resistance genes</a>, pointing to human impacts on these ecosystems.&nbsp;



“People used to think of rivers almost just as pipes, a way to move water from one place to another,” said CSU research professor Mikayla Borton, the study’s lead author.&nbsp;



“But rivers are much more than that - they’re performing all kinds of activities. And there’s a pattern to it; those activities can be predicted. Now, we know what microbes are performing some of those activities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rivers-as-integrated-systems-nbsp">Rivers as integrated systems&nbsp;</h2>



The research also lends new support to the River Continuum Concept, a decades-old theory that views rivers as integrated systems where changes upstream directly affect downstream ecosystems.&nbsp;



For instance, the health of a fish population at one point in a river depends on what happens upstream. The researchers found this interconnectedness also applies to microorganisms.



“One of the key ideas from the paper was that this tied back to river theory - how rivers change from small creeks to really large rivers. This work aligns quite well with these old theories," said co-author Matt Ross, an associate professor at CSU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-river-microbiomes-across-the-u-s">Mapping river microbiomes across the U.S.</h2>



To catalog river microorganisms, the researchers analyzed over 2,000 microbial genomes from about 100 rivers across North America.&nbsp;



The project relied heavily on community participation, with local volunteers collecting water samples through a program run by the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a> (PNNL). These samples were then analyzed for microbial content.



Kelly Wrighton is a professor in CSU’s College of Agricultural Sciences and a co-author of the study. 



“When we look at how the land around a river is managed, we can see the processing of certain kinds of anthropogenic contaminants or chemicals through the microbes in their DNA,” said Professor Wrighton.



“There’s a very strong relationship - it suggests there’s a signal in the microbiome of how we’re living on and managing the land that is perpetuated into the river system and then downstream.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-as-indicators-of-river-health">Microbes as indicators of river health</h2>



Microbiome science is an emerging field with promising implications for environmental health. River microbes could serve as early-warning indicators of ecosystem changes, much like a canary in a coal mine.&nbsp;



“Our hope is that this information can eventually be used to develop new diagnostics that are indicators of a healthy river versus an unhealthy river,” Wrighton explained.&nbsp;



These insights could help scientists and policymakers better manage river systems and the landscapes surrounding them.



The research also uncovered six core microorganisms present in all rivers studied. These microbes, which use light as an energy source, were found to be active and predictable across the continental U.S.&nbsp;



“Microbes are active in these systems in such a way that is predictable across the continental U.S.,” said Borton. “That’s very cool, and I think it says a lot about the robustness of the science that was done prior to our work.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-the-world-s-biggest-problems">Tackling the world's biggest problems</h2>



The study not only revealed new insights into river microbes but also showcased the potential of large-scale participatory science.&nbsp;



The project began in 2018 when Wrighton met James Stegen, a PNNL earth scientist, who was already leading a global river sampling initiative.&nbsp;



Wrighton realized that the samples collected for chemical analysis could also be studied for microbial data, launching a groundbreaking collaboration.



“There’s a lot of interest in mapping microbiomes, and there was this huge absence of microbial river data,” Wrighton said.&nbsp;



“But I was also thinking, ‘Can we do this science at scale?’ Because if we can do science like this, if we can demonstrate that it works, we can tackle the world’s big problems like climate change. We could take this and apply it everywhere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-user-friendly-database-of-river-microbiomes">User-friendly database of river microbiomes</h2>



One of the project’s key achievements was creating a searchable, user-friendly database of river microbiome data.&nbsp;



Ross, an ecosystem scientist specializing in data analytics, helped build this platform and contextualize the findings for the study’s final analysis. “I’m really proud of the data accessibility part of this project,” Borton noted.



Borton hopes that the data infrastructure will inspire non-microbiome scientists to incorporate microbial processes into broader ecosystem models. “We need to be better at studying across landscapes, and better understanding rivers can help us do that,” Borton said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-frontier-for-environmental-science">New frontier for environmental science</h2>



This study opens the door to new research and practical applications. From tackling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-at-risk-climate-change-is-diminishing-global-water-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> to improving ecosystem modeling, the insights gained from river microbiomes could inform solutions to some of the world’s most pressing challenges.&nbsp;



“This is new frontier kind of stuff; we’re really opening the doors to a deeply under-characterized part of the Earth,” Stegen said. “It is extremely gratifying to have built something that will benefit a lot of folks beyond our team.”



By revealing the hidden dynamics of river microbes, this research redefines how we understand rivers - not as mere conduits for water but as vibrant, interconnected ecosystems shaped by the smallest forms of life.



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Microbes play a big role in shaping the health of rivers

Rivers and streams act as vital lifelines, weaving through diverse...

Uranus has long captivated scientists with its mysteries, particularly those that remain hidden within our solar system. 



Decades-old data from Voyager 2, a NASA spacecraft, has now breathed new life into our understanding of this distant, enigmatic planet, settling age-old questions that have puzzled researchers for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basics-of-planet-uranus">Basics of planet Uranus</h2>



Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun, and it has this wild tilt -- it's basically spinning on its side with an axis tilt of about 98 degrees. 



This unique tilt leads to some extreme seasons that last over 20 Earth years each. The planet's blue-green hue comes from methane in its atmosphere, which absorbs red light and reflects blue, giving it that cool color.



Uranus has a set of rings and 27 known moons, most of which are named after characters from Shakespeare's plays. While its rings aren't as flashy as Saturn's, they're still pretty interesting.



 And talk about cold -- Uranus has the coldest planetary atmosphere in the solar system, dipping down to -224 degrees Celsius (-371 Fahrenheit). 



Finally, it takes about 84 Earth years to complete one orbit around the Sun, so a single year on Uranus is basically a lifetime for the average human.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-voyager-2-meets-uranus">Voyager 2 meets Uranus</h2>



In 1986, Voyager 2 embarked on a momentous journey that brought it into close proximity with Uranus, providing the first -- and so far, only -- detailed examination of this unique, sideways-rotating planet.



This flyby not only unveiled new moons and rings but also introduced perplexing enigmas that challenged the scientific community. 



Solving these mysteries and understanding their broader implications is akin to piecing together a cosmic puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexplained-oddities-of-uranus">Unexplained oddities of Uranus</h2>



The presence of energized particles around Uranus was a conundrum. Here was a planet, rotating on its side and challenging the established understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> trap particle radiation. 



Uranus, known for its unusual properties, was once again surprising the experts.



Scientists re-analyzed data from the notable flyby a few decades ago and, in an exciting twist, identified that an unexpected, cosmic occurrence had thrown this distant planet a curveball.



The experts discovered that, just before the spacecraft’s flyby, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-weather-poses-significant-risks-to-railway-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather</a> had peculiarly squashed the planet’s magnetic field, leading to a dramatic compression of Uranus' magnetosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-timing">The importance of timing</h2>



“The spacecraft saw Uranus in conditions that only occur about 4% of the time,” stated Jamie Jasinski, a scientist based at <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California and the lead author of a new study published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02389-3">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Imagine the odds. Had Voyager 2 arrived just a few days earlier, it would have recorded a completely different magnetosphere around Uranus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-the-magnetosphere">Mysteries of the magnetosphere</h2>



Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-solar-shockwave-has-cracked-earths-magnetosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetosphere</a> plays a crucial role in maintaining life on our planet by protecting us from the ionized gas jets that the Sun releases.



Comprehending how magnetospheres operate carries immense significance not just for us, but for understanding the distant, less-explored planets in our solar system.



In their quest to understand Uranus' magnetosphere, scientists were confused by what they witnessed in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-lost-contact-with-voyager-2-spacecraft-12-billion-miles-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Voyager 2</a> data. 



Despite a marked absence of plasma, the planet's magnetosphere boasted electron radiation belts with an intensity second only to the notorious radiation belts of Jupiter. 



This posed an enigma, as the Uranian moons, which should have been a significant source of water ions, were believed to be inactive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-solar-wind-event">Unexpected solar wind event</h2>



The latest data analysis suggests that the solar wind, a flow of charged particles released from the Sun's upper atmosphere, could be the key to solving this puzzle.



It is possible that, as the solar wind compressed the planet's magnetosphere, it also drove the plasma out of the system.



The intensity of the solar wind event could have increased the magnetosphere's dynamics, thereby providing a source for the radiation belts.



This discovery has led researchers to speculate that the five major moons of Uranus might be geologically active, contradicting previous beliefs. 



They suggest that these moons could have been continually spewing ions into the surrounding magnetosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-renewed-focus-on-uranus-and-future-exploration">Renewed focus on Uranus and future exploration</h2>



The National Academies’ 2023 Planetary Science and Astrobiology Decadal Survey has highlighted the study of Uranus as a key objective for future NASA missions.



Linda Spilker from the JPL, who was involved in the Voyager 2 mission, elaborated on the findings.



“The flyby was packed with surprises, and we were searching for an explanation of its unusual behavior. The magnetosphere Voyager 2 measured was only a snapshot in time," said Spilker.



"This new work explains some of the apparent contradictions and will once again change our view of Uranus." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-legacy-of-voyager-2">The legacy of Voyager 2</h2>



Despite being billions of miles away, Voyager 2 continues to communicate with Earth using NASA's Deep Space Network, specifically via the antenna in Canberra, Australia. 



It is still operational, collecting data on the interstellar medium and is expected to continue transmitting data until at least 2025​​​​​​.



Decades after it was launched, Voyager 2 continues to serve as a cornerstone for scientific discovery, offering invaluable insights into the mysteries of our solar system.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02389-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



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Uranus mystery finally solved almost 40 years after flyby from Voyager 2 spacecraft

Uranus has long captivated scientists with its mysteries, particularly those...

We all know that the winds bring in rain, but have you ever heard of them bringing in microbes? In a significant scientific discovery, a team of atmospheric, health, and climate specialists from Spain and Japan have found a diverse range of fungi, bacteria, and viruses riding on the winds high up in Earth's atmosphere.



By collecting and testing air samples from 1,000 to 3,000 meters up in the sky, these researchers have assessed the possibility of these microorganisms surviving in extreme atmospheric conditions and hitching a ride on winds across continents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-winds-dust-and-microbes">Journey of winds, dust and microbes</h2>



Dust, as we know, isn't a homebody. It loves to travel. Scientists have known for a while that dust can journey thousands of miles in the atmosphere. 



Dust from Africa finds its way to both North and South America. But what's new and even more intriguing is the fuller picture of what this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust</a> carries with it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-airborne-microbial-world">Inside the airborne microbial world</h2>



Researchers took to the skies over Japan in a small charter plane to collect wind samples, hoping to discover the heights at which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-have-emerged-as-major-source-of-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> could survive.



The samples were then brought down to Earth for some lab-based sleuthing. A detailed DNA analysis of the samples revealed that these high-altitude hitchhikers were quite diverse, including a range of fungi, bacteria, and viruses.



And the little creatures weren't just surviving; they were thriving. In lab dishes, many of the microbes were still viable, which means that they could reproduce and continue to grow.



In total, the air samples contained 266 different types of fungi and 305 types of bacteria. Many of these microorganisms are commonly found in soil or plants, which clearly indicates their likely origins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmospheric-pathways-the-invisible-highways">Atmospheric pathways: The invisible highways</h2>



Now, where did these microbes come from? The researchers believe that most of them came from China, which means they had traveled at least 2,000 kilometers.



The high-altitude winds, it seems, can carry these microbes over significant distances.



This has fascinating implications because, if microorganisms can travel thousands of kilometers and survive high up in the atmosphere, they could potentially spread diseases worldwide. This is exactly what the current research proposes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pathogens-high-in-the-sky">Pathogens high in the sky</h2>



The thought of airborne pathogens crossing continents is quite unsettling. While we knew that winds and dust particles could carry microbes over long distances, this study takes things up a notch.



The researchers found many airborne microbes that are known to inhabit the human body, particularly in the mouth and intestines.



While they caution that this doesn't necessarily prove a direct link between these microbes and health effects, it does open up the possibility of a new route for disease transmission.



Intriguingly, some of these sky-high microbes could be linked to soil or plants, suggesting that they might have been swept up into the atmosphere from land sources. Does this mean that poor sewage or waste disposal could supply pathogens for such a skyward journey?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blowing-microbes-in-the-wind">Blowing microbes in the wind</h2>



The study shows that microbes can be lifted by pressure systems, such as the Siberian High, and transported from agricultural regions in northeast China to other parts of the world. This also highlights the potential for insects to spread over large areas through these atmospheric conveyer belts.



But it's not just about human health. Think about the potential impact on ecosystems worldwide. Pathogens that are known to us, like E. coli and various Staphylococcus species, could be floating up there in the sky, ready to descend on unsuspecting habitats.



So where do we go from here?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-on-wind-and-microbes">Future directions on wind and microbes</h2>



Understanding how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-walking-ecosystems-and-microbes-rule-their-evolution/">microorganisms</a> endure and prosper in such harsh conditions could help scientists develop better strategies for mitigating disease spread.



There's a whole new field of research now focusing on the upper atmosphere and how it might harbor and transport microbes across different regions and seasons.



"This study confirms the long-distance transport of microbial pathogens, which has important implications for public health, and environmental protection," said study co-author Xavier Rodó.



So, the next time you look up at the sky, just remember - there is more up there than meets the eye. And while this reality might seem a little unsettling, it also represents a vast new field of scientific discovery.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2404191121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Microbes hitch rides on winds across continents

We all know that the winds bring in rain, but...

Front,View,Of,The,Terminus,Of,Hisinger,Glacier,,Dickson,Fiord,

Tsunamis are powerful natural phenomena capable of reshaping entire coastlines. Modern technology is now capable of helping scientists to study them in remarkable detail. 



The ability to monitor and analyze these massive waves in real-time has revolutionized our understanding of their behavior and impact, providing invaluable data that can inform safety protocols and predictive models.



This technological prowess recently helped unravel the nine-day-old reverberations of a tsunami in Greenland, a rare and complex event captured by the International SWOT Satellite. 



The satellite's advanced imaging capabilities revealed unprecedented insights into how the tsunami waves moved and persisted within the steep walls of Dickson Fjord, thereby contributing significantly to the field of oceanography.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-things-first-what-s-a-tsunami">First things first -- what's a tsunami?</h2>



Tsunamis are a massive series of ocean waves that can cause a whole lot of trouble when they hit land. 



These waves aren't like the regular ones you surf on -- they're much bigger and can travel very fast across the ocean. 



When they reach the shore, they can flood coastal areas and cause serious damage.



Now, what causes tsunamis? Well, they're usually triggered by underwater disturbances like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or even landslides. 



When the ocean floor suddenly moves, it displaces a huge amount of water, and that energy creates waves that spread out in all directions. Essentially, it's the sudden movement under the sea that sets off these giant waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swot-satellite-tsunami-discovery">SWOT satellite tsunami discovery</h2>



At the core of this investigation were scientists from <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California and France’s CNES (Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales).



These dedicated professionals collaborated on the international Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite mission. 



Their joint efforts led to the discovery of unique shapes formed by tsunamis trapped within the steep walls of Greenland's Dickson Fjord.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-picture-paints-a-thousand-words">A picture paints a thousand words</h2>



On September 17, 2023, the day following a massive rockslide, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-launches-revolutionary-satellite-to-monitor-earths-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SWOT satellite</a> was at the right place at the right time, collecting water elevation measurements in the Dickson Fjord. 



By comparing these measurements with those recorded a few weeks prior, the scientists got a clear image of the aftermath of the tsunami.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/greenland-tsunami_SWOT-satellite_NASA_1m.webp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/greenland-tsunami_SWOT-satellite_NASA_1s.webp" alt="A SWOT data visualization shows water on the northern side of Greenland’s Dickson Fjord at higher levels than on the southern side on Sept. 17, 2023. A huge rockslide into the fjord the previous day led to a tsunami lasting nine days that caused seismic rumbling around the world. Credit: NASA Earth Observatory" class="wp-image-1950872"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A SWOT data visualization shows water on the northern side of Greenland’s Dickson Fjord at higher levels than on the southern side on Sept. 17, 2023. A huge rockslide into the fjord the previous day led to a tsunami lasting nine days that caused seismic rumbling around the world. Credit: NASA Earth Observatory</figcaption></figure>



The SWOT satellite captured a colored data visualization, indicating higher water levels with lighter colors and lower levels with darker tones. 



The findings suggested that the northern side of the fjord reached certain points where water levels were almost 4 feet (1.2 meters) higher than on the southern side.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milestone-in-the-field-of-research">Milestone in the field of research</h2>



Astoundingly, this was the first instance where the SWOT satellite had the opportunity to examine the shape of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tsunami-wave-from-tonga-eruption-was-90-meters-tall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tsunami wave</a>. 



“SWOT happened to fly over at a time when the water had piled up pretty high against the north wall of the fjord,” said Josh Willis, a sea level researcher at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. 



“Seeing the shape of the wave - that’s something we could never do before SWOT."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-origins-of-the-tsunami">Tracing the origins of the tsunami</h2>



A paper published recently in Science traced the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic</a> signals of the tsunami back to its roots.



More than 880 million cubic feet of rock and ice, equivalent to 25 million cubic meters, had plummeted into Dickson Fjord, triggering the tsunami that sloshed around within the fjord.



The fjord is a part of a network of channels on Greenland's eastern coast, with the depth of about 1,772 feet (540 meters) and width of 1.7 miles (2.7 kilometers), while its walls tower over 6,000 feet (1,830 meters) high.



Interestingly, because the fjord is far from the open ocean and confined, the energy from the tsunami's motion had limited opportunities to dissipate. 



This resulted in the wave moving back and forth approximately every 90 seconds for a surprising duration of nine days.



These findings demonstrate how modern technology can help us unravel nature’s mysteries. The international SWOT satellite, through its unique capabilities, has managed to provide us with a fresh understanding of tsunamis and their prolonged effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-technology-and-monitoring-tsunamis">Satellite technology and monitoring tsunamis</h2>



The SWOT satellite's ability to capture and analyze detailed water elevation data showcases the immense potential of satellite technology in monitoring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-disasters-are-on-the-rise-but-hazard-plans-are-inadequate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural disasters</a>.



Unlike traditional, on-ground sensors, satellites offer a comprehensive view of remote locations, like Greenland’s fjords. This capability is crucial for capturing disaster impacts and building predictive models for better preparedness.



The September 2023 event in Dickson Fjord demonstrated how satellite imaging has evolved to reveal the movement of tsunami waves over nine days, offering insights that were previously unattainable.



Such data enhance our understanding of energy dynamics within confined areas, informing disaster response and risk mitigation efforts.



Beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-may-help-with-earlier-tsunami-detection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tsunami monitoring</a>, satellites like SWOT play a vital role in observing storm surges, flooding, and sea-level rise. 



Integrating satellite data with real-time analytics paves the way for quicker, more effective responses to natural disasters, thereby contributing to safer and more resilient communities.



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NASA records a 650-foot tsunami in Greenland that shook the Earth for 9 days

Tsunamis are powerful natural phenomena capable of reshaping entire coastlines....

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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