While this sounds insane, the moon during that time period was about three times closer to Earth than it is now. This explained why the rock collected by the Apollo crew was so clearly formed under terrestrial conditions.

Long Shots

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the colors of fall across the continent of Europe. 



“This compilation of images, captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission, showcases the characteristic hues of autumn in different European countries,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Copernicus/Sentinel-2/Earth_from_Space_Autumn_foliage_across_Europe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“Autumn foliage is one of nature's most stunning displays, turning deciduous forests into landscapes painted with vibrant colors. As temperatures cool and daylight shortens, deciduous trees cease producing chlorophyll so that leaves turn yellow, orange and red – the colors of autumn.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-of-fall-in-europe-nbsp">Colors of fall in Europe&nbsp;</h2>



The colors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fall-will-be-unusually-warm-across-most-us-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fall</a> vary across regions due to the diversity of tree species and the climate.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-europe">Northern Europe</h3>



In countries like Norway, Sweden, and Finland, vibrant yellows and golds dominate, especially in forests of birch and aspen. Deep red hues come from the native rowan and some types of maple.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-western-and-central-europe">Western and Central Europe</h3>



The landscapes of France, Germany, and Switzerland showcase golden and copper tones. Beech, oak, and chestnut trees create waves of yellow and bronze, while occasional maples provide shades of bright red.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eastern-europe">Eastern Europe</h3>



Countries like Poland, Ukraine, and Hungary experience a full mix of autumn colors, with maple and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-oak-trees-isoprene-emissions-air-pollution-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oak forests</a> turning red and orange. The Carpathian Mountains are especially vibrant during this season.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-southern-europe">Southern Europe</h3>



In Mediterranean areas like Italy, Spain, and Greece, fall colors are more subtle but still beautiful. Although many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> are evergreen, higher elevations display patches of golden-yellow and rusty tones from poplars, chestnuts, and maples.



The European fall color season typically peaks in October, depending on altitude and latitude. The dramatic landscapes of Europe - mountains, lakes, and historic villages - further enhance the stunning display of autumn colors across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-the-leaves-change-colors">Why do the leaves change colors?</h2>



Leaves change color in the fall due to changes in daylight, temperature, and the chemical processes within the leaves.&nbsp;



During spring and summer, leaves are green because they contain chlorophyll, a pigment that allows them to absorb sunlight and produce food through photosynthesis.&nbsp;



However, as the days get shorter and temperatures drop in the fall, trees begin preparing for winter by slowing down their food production.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decrease-in-chlorophyll">Decrease in chlorophyll</h3>



With less sunlight, trees stop producing chlorophyll, which is highly sensitive to light and temperature. As chlorophyll breaks down, the green color fades, revealing other pigments in the leaves.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-pigments-emerge-nbsp">Other pigments emerge&nbsp;</h3>



There are always other pigments in the leaves, but they’re hidden by the green chlorophyll during the growing season. In fall, these pigments become visible.



Carotenoids produce yellow and orange hues, which we see in trees like birch, beech, and aspen.



Anthocyanins are pigments that create reds, purples, and deep oranges. They form in the fall when sugars get trapped in the leaves. Trees like maple and sumac are known for their red and purple leaves.



Tannins produce brown colors and are especially visible in oaks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weather-and-climate-influence">Weather and climate influence</h3>



Temperature, sunlight, and soil moisture also affect the intensity and duration of fall colors.&nbsp;



Sunny days and cool nights help produce more vibrant reds and purples. Wet or cloudy weather, on the other hand, can lead to more muted colors.



Ultimately, the color change is a part of the tree’s preparation for winter dormancy. By shedding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-aging-discovered-in-plant-leaves/">leaves</a>, trees conserve water and energy, improving their chances of surviving the winter months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-the-fall-colors-affect-us">How do the fall colors affect us?</h2>



Fall colors can have a significant impact on us emotionally, mentally, and even physically. They provide us with a sense of warmth, nostalgia, and comfort.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-uplift-nbsp">Emotional uplift&nbsp;</h3>



The vibrant colors of fall can evoke positive emotions and improve our mood. Studies show that exposure to natural landscapes with diverse colors can reduce stress, enhance feelings of happiness, and promote a sense of well-being.



Nature’s changing colors have a calming effect on our minds, providing mental clarity and relaxation. The natural beauty of fall landscapes can encourage mindfulness, allowing us to be present and appreciate our surroundings, which is beneficial for mental health and focus.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-to-nature">Connection to nature</h3>



Autumn’s beauty encourages people to go outside, whether it’s hiking through colorful forests, driving along scenic routes, or simply taking a walk in the park.&nbsp;



This connection with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-walking-quantifiably-improves-brain-health-and-functioning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> has benefits for physical health, improving immunity and reducing blood pressure, and it also strengthens our environmental appreciation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-reflection-nbsp">Seasonal reflection&nbsp;</h3>



The cycle of fall reminds us of change, letting go, and renewal. For many, fall is a time for introspection and resetting goals, as the season symbolizes transformation and the approach of a new chapter in life.



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Fall colors transform Europe's landscape 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features Mount Fuji, Japan’s highest peak, where snow has finally returned after a record-breaking absence.



The Japan Meteorological Agency officially confirmed the presence of snow on Mount Fuji's peak on Thursday. The previous day, the snow could not yet be confirmed due to clouds obstructing the view of the summit.



“The Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission captured this image of Mount Fuji's iconic snowcap on November 7, a day after snow was first spotted by the Japan Mereological Agency’s Shizuoka branch,” noted <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esa.int%2FESA_Multimedia%2FImages&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mount-fuji-with-no-snow">Mount Fuji with no snow</h2>



This year, Mount Fuji set a new <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fmount-fujis-snow-is-missing-for-first-time-in-130-years%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> for the latest date without snowfall since records began in 1894. By the end of October, the iconic peak remained bare, surpassing the previous records of October 26, held in 2016 and 1955. 



The snow delay is attributed to record-breaking high temperatures in Japan throughout the summer and early fall.&nbsp;



The heat was influenced by factors such as El Niño, unusually warm <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fpacific-ocean-temperatures-highest-in-650-years-greatly-harming-coral-reefs%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea surface temperatures</a>, and shifts in the jet stream - all of which contributed to sustained warmth and hindered the usual cooling needed for snowfall​​​​​​.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-climate-concerns">Broader climate concerns</h2>



This unusual absence of snow on Mount Fuji has raised concerns about broader impacts of climate change. Snow on Mount Fuji contributes to regional freshwater supplies, suggesting potential downstream effects on water availability if these trends continue.&nbsp;



Scientists are closely studying these seasonal shifts to understand their long-term environmental implications​​​​.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-mount-fuji-s-snow">Cultural significance of Mount Fuji's snow</h2>



Snow on Mount Fuji holds deep cultural significance for Japan, symbolizing purity, beauty, and spiritual presence. In Japanese art and literature, the snow-capped Mount Fuji is celebrated as a representation of the changing seasons, serenity, and natural perfection. 



For centuries, it has inspired countless artists, including Edo-period woodblock masters like Hokusai, whose famous series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji highlights the mountain's snowy peak as a central theme.



The snow on Mount Fuji also holds spiritual significance. Many Japanese people view the mountain as sacred and associate its snow-covered peak with divine purity and tranquility. 



Shinto and Buddhist pilgrims have historically considered Fuji’s summit a place of spiritual connection, and its snowy cap enhances this reverence by emphasizing the mountain’s sublime, almost otherworldly beauty​​​​.



Mount Fuji and its snow cap have become a national symbol of resilience and identity, even influencing aspects of Japanese aesthetics. The snow represents harmony with nature and the cyclical beauty of life, which are core themes in Japanese cultural philosophy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasons-are-changing-with-the-climate">Seasons are changing with the climate</h2>



<a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fextreme-ocean-heating-signals-alarm-for-a-3c-warmer-world%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> is shifting the timing and length of seasons worldwide. Rising global temperatures have led to significant changes in seasonal patterns, affecting when plants bloom, animals migrate, and weather patterns stabilize.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-shifts">Temperature shifts</h3>



Warmer global temperatures have contributed to longer and more intense <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fsummers-seasons-warm-faster-than-winters-earths-climate-history%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">summers</a>. For instance, spring arrives earlier in many parts of the world, with evidence showing that plants are budding and blooming sooner than they did several decades ago​​.&nbsp;



This extended warmth shortens winter and affects the typical cycles that ecosystems depend on.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-ecosystems">Impact on ecosystems</h3>



The shift in seasons can disrupt ecosystems that have evolved to rely on consistent seasonal changes.&nbsp;



For example, migratory <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fbirds-produce-fewer-offspring-as-spring-arrives-earlier-across-our-warming-world%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> often time their movements based on day length and food availability. If the seasons shift and food sources appear or disappear earlier than usual, these birds may struggle to adapt. 



Similarly, in agricultural systems, unpredictable frost dates and changing rainy seasons can reduce crop yields and impact food security​​​​.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-cycles-and-weather-patterns">Water cycles and weather patterns</h3>



Seasonal shifts also affect water availability. Warmer winters with less snow impact water supplies, especially in regions dependent on snowpack for spring and summer water flow. This can lead to drier conditions and exacerbate droughts, as seen in many parts of North America and Asia​​.



Ultimately, the seasonal shifts driven by climate change have far-reaching effects on natural ecosystems, agriculture, and human infrastructure - making climate adaptation an urgent priority.



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Snow returns to Mount Fuji after record absence 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features Messier 78 (M78), a reflection nebula located in the constellation Orion about 1,350 light-years away from Earth. 



This image was released as part of the initial series of observations from ESA's <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a>.&nbsp;



All data collected during these early observations, including a series of incredible <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid/Euclid_s_first_images_the_dazzling_edge_of_darkness" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new views</a> of the nearby universe, is available to the public. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-messier-78">Image of Messier 78</h2>



Featured here is a high-resolution, detailed segment of a larger image showcasing Messier 78, a dynamic region of star formation obscured by cosmic dust.&nbsp;



This specific view highlights how young stars generate winds of charged particles, carving out “cavities” in the molecular clouds around them.&nbsp;



The blue hues in the image represent ionized atomic hydrogen, which is a primary component of the cloud, while the red indicates the absorption and scattering of light by dust particles.



The image captures hundreds of stars varying in brightness, illuminating their nebulous, purple surroundings. A dark, arch-like structure stretches from the upper left to the bottom right of the frame, merging into the densest, darkest clouds at the image’s base.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-site-of-star-formation-nbsp">Active site of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



Messier 78 is not just a single nebula but part of a larger complex of stars and nebulous regions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a>, which includes various other objects like dark nebulae that are visible as patches blocking light from behind.



This region is an active site of star formation, featuring many young stars and protostars, which are stars in the early stages of formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-messier-78">Viewing Messier 78</h2>



M78 is easily observable with small telescopes, and it appears as a hazy patch of light with two prominent stars near its center, which illuminate the surrounding dust.&nbsp;



The nebula is also a favorite among amateur astronomers for its beauty and relatively bright appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subject-of-scientific-interest-nbsp">Subject of scientific interest&nbsp;</h2>



Messier 78 is fascinating not only for its visual beauty but also for its scientific interest, particularly in the study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> and interstellar matter.&nbsp;



The nebula consists of dense, cold gas and dust, which are essential ingredients for the birth of new stars.&nbsp;



The intense blue light that characterizes M78 is due to the reflection of starlight off these dust particles, a process known as scattering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-region-surrounding-messier-78-nbsp">Region surrounding Messier 78&nbsp;</h2>



The region surrounding M78 includes several other interesting features. For instance, there are Herbig-Haro objects within it, which are small patches of nebulosity associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">newly born stars</a>.&nbsp;



These objects are formed when gas ejected by young stars collides with clouds of gas and dust at high speeds, creating shock waves that glow brightly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earliest-stages-of-star-development-nbsp">Earliest stages of star development&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, infrared observations of M78 have revealed much about the dust and colder objects in the area, which are not visible in optical light.&nbsp;



The observations have helped astronomers identify numerous young stars and brown dwarfs (objects that are too large to be planets and too small to be stars) within the nebula. 



This makes M78 a critical area for studying the earliest stages of star development and the properties of the interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp-0">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-batch-of-brilliant-images-from-the-euclid-mission-live-up-to-the-hype/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a> is a European Space Agency (ESA) mission designed to study the dark universe, particularly focusing on dark energy and dark matter, which are fundamental components that are believed to drive the accelerating expansion of the universe and shape its large-scale structure.&nbsp;



The mission aims to map the geometry of the dark universe and better understand the physics of the cosmos.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-billions-of-galaxies-nbsp">Observing billions of galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Euclid uses two primary scientific instruments: a visible light camera (VIS) and a near-infrared spectrometer and photometer (NISP).&nbsp;



These instruments will allow Euclid to measure the shapes and redshifts of galaxies at distances of up to 10 billion light-years. By surveying more than a third of the sky, the mission is expected to observe several billion galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-dark-universe-nbsp">Studying the dark universe&nbsp;</h3>



The data collected will help astronomers in studying the effects of dark matter and dark energy in depth, testing cosmological models, and exploring new theories about the nature of the universe.&nbsp;



The mission, named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, seeks to address key questions related to the structure of the universe and the fundamental laws of physics governing its evolution and expansion.



Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Messier 78: Young stars shine through dense dust

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Cat's Eye Nebula (NGC 6543), located about 3,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Draco.&nbsp;



The nebula's name comes from its eye-like appearance when viewed through a telescope. This particular image, which reveals the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horsehead-nebula-webb-telescope-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> in stunning detail, was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae-nbsp">Planetary nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, the Cat's Eye Nebula is one of the most complex planetary nebulae that has ever been discovered.



“A planetary nebula forms when Sun-like stars gently eject their outer gaseous layers to form bright nebulae with amazing twisted shapes," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Until recently, it was thought that shells around planetary nebulae were a rare phenomenon. However, astronomers have instead shown that these rings are likely to be the rule rather than the exception."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-of-the-cat-s-eye-nebula-nbsp">Appearance of the Cat's Eye Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The central focus of the Cat's Eye is a hot, dying star that has shed its outer layers to form the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragons-egg-nebula-is-a-truly-stunning-sight-to-behold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a>. It is surrounded by concentric gas shells, jets of high-speed gas, and unusual shock-induced knots of gas.



“Although the rings may be the key to explaining the final ‘gasp’ of the dying central star, the mystery behind the Cat’s Eye Nebula’s nested ‘Russian doll’ structure remains largely unsolved,” noted ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rings-around-the-cat-s-eye">Rings around the Cat’s Eye</h2>



“This image, taken with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), reveals the full pattern of eleven or more concentric rings, or shells, around the Cat’s Eye. Each ‘ring’ is actually the edge of a spherical bubble seen projected onto the sky - which is why it appears bright along its outer edge.”



According to ESA, observations suggest that the star ejected its mass in a series of pulses at 1,500-year intervals. “These convulsions created dust shells that each contains as much mass as all of the planets in our solar system combined.”



Several explanations have been proposed for this phenomenon, including cycles of magnetic activity similar to our Sun's sunspot cycle, the influence of companion stars orbiting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dying-stars-may-be-a-source-of-gravitational-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dying star</a>, or stellar pulsations.&nbsp;



Another theory suggests that the material is ejected smoothly from the star, with the rings forming later due to the creation of waves in the outflowing material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-draco-nbsp">The constellation Draco&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extrasolar-ocean-planet-discovered-in-the-draco-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Draco</a> is a constellation in the northern sky that represents a dragon. It's one of the largest constellations, winding between the Big and Little Dippers.&nbsp;



In Greek mythology, Draco is often identified as the dragon Ladon, who guarded the golden apples in the garden of the Hesperides.



Draco is a circumpolar constellation for most northern hemisphere observers, meaning it never sets below the horizon and can be seen all year round.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-famous-planetary-nebulae">Famous planetary nebulae </h2>



Planetary nebulae are some of the most beautiful and intriguing objects in the universe.&nbsp;



One of the most famous is the Ring Nebula, or M57, located in the constellation Lyra. This nebula is renowned for its nearly perfect ring shape, which is the result of a dying star shedding its outer layers.&nbsp;



Another well-known planetary nebula is the Helix Nebula, or NGC 7293, often referred to as the "Eye of God" due to its eye-like appearance. The Helix Nebula is one of the closest planetary nebulae to Earth, making it a popular target for amateur astronomers.&nbsp;



The Dumbbell Nebula, or M27, in the constellation Vulpecula, is another striking example. It is named for its resemblance to a dumbbell and is notable for being the first planetary nebula ever discovered, by Charles Messier in 1764.&nbsp;



The Butterfly Nebula, or NGC 6302, is located in the constellation Scorpius. Its name comes from its distinctive bipolar structure, resembling the wings of a butterfly. The nebula's central star is one of the hottest known, with a surface temperature of around 250,000 degrees Celsius.&nbsp;



The Eskimo Nebula, or NGC 2392, in the constellation Gemini, is known for its resemblance to a face surrounded by a fur parka, which gives it its name. Its intricate structure, including filaments and bubble-like shapes, makes it a fascinating object of study. 



These nebulae not only captivate us with their beauty but also provide valuable insights into the life cycles of stars and the processes that shape our galaxy.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope



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Cat's Eye Nebula in the constellation Draco

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 3783, which is located about 130 million light-years away in the constellation Centaurus. NGC 3783 is also the most prominent of a galaxy group (by the same name) that contains 47 galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-groups">Galaxy groups</h2>



“Like galaxy clusters, galaxy groups are aggregates of gravitationally bound galaxies. Galaxy groups, however, are less massive and contain fewer members than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy clusters</a> do: where galaxy clusters can contain hundreds or even thousands of constituent galaxies, galaxy groups do not typically include more than 50,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The Milky Way is actually part of a galaxy group, known as the Local Group, which contains two other large galaxies (Andromeda and the Triangulum galaxy), as well as several dozen satellite and dwarf galaxies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hd-101274-a-blue-giant-star">HD 101274: A blue giant star</h2>



The bright object that appears to the right of the galaxy is the star HD 101274. “The perspective in this image makes the star and the galaxy look like close companions, but this is an illusion. HD 101274 lies only about 1,530 light-years from Earth, meaning it is about 85 thousand times closer than NGC 3783,” explained ESA.&nbsp;



The star is part of the NGC 3766 cluster, which is sometimes referred to as the Pearl Cluster, an open cluster known for its richness in bright stars and its relatively young age.



HD 101274 is categorized as a blue giant star, characterized by its high temperature and luminosity. 



Blue giants are massive stars that have left the main sequence phase of stellar evolution and are burning helium or heavier elements in their cores. These stars are known for their short lifespans relative to smaller stars due to their rapid consumption of nuclear fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-blue-giants">Significance of blue giants</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-stars-scientists-discover-a-new-type-of-star-powered-by-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stars</a> like HD 101274 are important for astronomers because they help in studying the properties of stellar populations in clusters and the dynamics of stellar evolution in different environments. 



The spectral and photometric observations of such stars can provide valuable insights into the characteristics of their atmospheres, internal structures, and the processes occurring within and around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bright-central-region-of-ngc-3783">Bright central region of NGC 3783</h2>



One of the most interesting aspects of NGC 3783 is that it harbors an active galactic nucleus, meaning its central region is exceptionally luminous, likely due to the presence of a supermassive black hole. This black hole is actively accreting material, which emits a substantial amount of radiation as it spirals inward and heats up.



The galaxy is particularly known for its bright central region and has been studied extensively in the ultraviolet and X-ray light spectra to understand better the properties of the accretion disk around the black hole and the complex dynamics of the material surrounding it. These studies are crucial for understanding the physics of active galactic nuclei and the role they play in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>.



According to ESA, NGC 3783 is a&nbsp;Type I Seyfert galaxy. “In this image it is recorded by Hubble in incredible detail, from its glowing central bar to its narrow, winding arms and the dust threaded through them, thanks to five separate images taken in different wavelengths of light," noted ESA.



“In fact, the galactic center is bright enough to Hubble that it exhibits diffraction spikes, normally only seen on stars such as HD 101274.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-ngc-3783-galaxy-group">More about the NGC 3783 galaxy group</h2>



The NGC 3783 group is part of the larger Hydra-Centaurus Supercluster, which itself is a massive collection of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and galaxy clusters located primarily in the constellations of Hydra and Centaurus.



The NGC 3783 group consists of several galaxies that are gravitationally bound and interact with each other. These interactions can influence the galaxies' evolution through mechanisms like tidal forces and merger events, which can trigger star formation, fuel central black holes, and reshape the galaxies' structures.



Studying groups like the NGC 3783 group helps astronomers understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> evolve together in a common gravitational environment, offering insights into the dynamics and evolution of structures on cosmic scales. 



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Luminous galaxy NGC 3783 and a blue giant star

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a 9.5-mile section of Pangong Lake on the western end of the Tibetan Plateau. The image was captured on by a crew member onboard the International Space Station.&nbsp;



“In this winter scene, a sheet of cracked ice tops part of the lake,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “On the left side, open water appears blue. Shallow water offshore of a delta, formed by a small, winding river, appears green."



"Parallel lines along the coastlines of bays are visible in the high-resolution version of this image. These lines indicate raised beaches, which formed in the past when lake levels were higher.”



NASA pointed out that several roads cut across the landscape, including one with switchbacks that ascends a steep slope. "These roads facilitate tourist travel from both India and China.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-birds-at-pangong-lake-nbsp">Migratory birds at Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake and its surroundings are home to numerous bird species, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-burn-unexpected-amounts-of-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>. Visitors can spot various waterfowl and waders that are rarely seen elsewhere.



“During the summer, species such as bar-headed geese and Brahminy ducks attract bird watchers to the lake, which is a major breeding ground for migrating birds,” said NASA.



Pangong Lake is one of the few places in India where the endangered black-necked crane is found during its breeding season. 



Ruddy shelduck and brown-headed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gulls-are-shifting-their-habitats-to-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gulls</a> are also frequently spotted around the lake. The ruddy shelduck is known for its striking orange-brown body and creamy white head, while the brown-headed gulls are often seen flying or swimming in the lake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangong-lake-nbsp">Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake is a stunning high-altitude lake situated in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-are-rising-unexpectedly-fast-on-the-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, extending from India to the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. It is renowned for its mesmerizing beauty and dramatic setting, with the lake lying at an elevation of about 4,350 meters.



One of the most distinctive features of Pangong Lake is its changing colors, ranging from shades of blue to green and even red, influenced by the sky's reflection and the lake's mineral content.



This saline water lake is approximately 134 kilometers long and 5 kilometers wide at its broadest point. Despite its considerable size, Pangong Lake is relatively shallow. 



The lake gained additional popularity after being featured in several Indian films - most notably the Bollywood hit "3 Idiots." Its remote location requires a permit for visitors, especially due to its proximity to the Line of Actual Control between India and China.



Despite the geopolitical sensitivities surrounding its location, Pangong Lake remains a favorite among tourists for its unparalleled natural beauty and serene environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-altitude-lakes">High-altitude lakes</h2>



High-altitude lakes are unique bodies of water found at elevations typically above 3,000 meters (about 10,000 feet) in mountain ranges like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-glaciers-retreating-threat-is-much-worse-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, Andes, and Rockies. 



These lakes are formed either by glacial activity, where glaciers erode the earth to create depressions that fill with melted snow and rainwater, or when natural dams created by landslides or moraines trap water in valleys.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-environments">Extreme environments</h3>



The conditions at high altitudes make these lakes distinct in several ways. The climate is typically colder and harsher, with significant temperature variations between day and night. 



This extreme environment affects both the physical characteristics of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> and the types of ecosystems they support. For example, due to lower atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is reduced, which can affect the type of life that can survive in these regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-habitats">Critical habitats</h3>



Biologically, high-altitude lakes often have limited biodiversity because only certain types of plants and animals can tolerate the cold temperatures and lower oxygen levels in the water. 



Despite this, these lakes are crucial habitats for some unique species of fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also serve as important indicators of climate change, as variations in their water levels and temperatures can reflect environmental shifts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-high-altitude-lakes">Significance of high-altitude lakes </h3>



Lakes at high altitudes are often clear and pristine, due to the low density of human populations in these areas and minimal industrial activity, making them significant for ecological studies and attractive for tourism. 



However, they are sensitive ecosystems, and increased tourist activity brings challenges like pollution and habitat disruption.



High-altitude lakes are not only beautiful and scientifically significant but also hold cultural importance for local communities, often considered sacred and associated with historical and spiritual significance.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Pangong Lake on the Tibetan Plateau

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the aftermath of devastating floods in the Valencia region of Eastern Spain.&nbsp;



On October 29, 2024, torrential rainfall unleashed nearly a year’s worth of precipitation in just eight hours, leading to catastrophic flash floods that affected a vast area from Málaga to Valencia. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flash-floods-in-valencia">Flash floods in Valencia </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-floods-are-set-to-become-much-more-common-in-the-u-s/">Floodwaters</a> submerged entire neighborhoods and agricultural lands. Many roads and infrastructure were overwhelmed almost instantly, stranding vehicles and prompting widespread evacuations. Water levels rose faster than emergency services could respond.



One resident of Paiporta, near Valencia, told the BBC that when the water started to rise it was "like a tsunami wave."



“In a matter of minutes, flash floods caused by heavy downpours in eastern Spain swept away everything in their path. With no time to react, people were trapped in vehicles, homes and businesses,” reported the Associated Press.



More than 200 people were killed and thousands of people were rescued. According to SOS Desaparecidos, as many as 1,300 people remained unaccounted for on Friday, three days after the floods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnitude-of-the-tragedy-nbsp">Magnitude of the tragedy&nbsp;</h2>



Ángel Víctor Torres, the Minister for Territorial Policy and Democratic Memory, said: “The fact that we can’t give a number of the missing persons indicates the magnitude of the tragedy.”&nbsp;



Some areas, including the Spanish town of Alfafar, are completely cut off from communication.&nbsp;



Juan Ramón Adsuara, the mayor of Alfafar, said the aid isn't nearly enough for residents trapped in an "extreme situation."



"There are people living with corpses at home. It's very sad. We are organizing ourselves, but we are running out of everything," Adsuara told reporters. "We go with vans to Valencia, we buy and we come back, but here we are totally forgotten."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-government-warning-was-not-issued-in-time">Government warning was not issued in time</h2>



On Tuesday morning, Spain's meteorological agency Aemet warned that torrential rains were forecast for the region of Valencia, before issuing a&nbsp; "maximum red alert.”



Carlos Mazon, Valencia’s regional president, said the government sent out an SMS alert reserved for the “worst possible scenario.” But according to a report from CNN, that alert was sent hours too late.



“By 5 p.m., Valencia’s emergency services were swamped by hundreds of pleas for help throughout the region,” wrote Atika Shubert, a CNN Senior International Correspondent.



“It was at 8 p.m. that cell phones finally buzzed with the public alert telling residents to stay indoors. Much too little, much too late, even for those downstream of the raging water who might otherwise have had time to prepare.”



The BBC also noted that many people have questioned the timing of the government's warning, which arrived more than 12 hours after Aemet issued its first red alert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-in-a-warming-climate">Extreme weather in a warming climate</h2>



The deadly floods in Valencia were primarily caused by an extreme weather event that brought record-breaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-events-are-interconnected-around-the-globe/">rainfall</a>. The intense downpour was fueled by unusually warm Mediterranean Sea temperatures, which increased moisture in the atmosphere and intensified the rainfall.&nbsp;



Climate experts link this phenomenon to climate change, as warmer seas lead to more frequent, severe storms. The combination of heavy rain and the region's limited drainage capacity led to flash flooding, overwhelming local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-floods-its-not-just-about-rainfall/">infrastructure</a>.



Rising ocean temperatures are largely driven by increased greenhouse gases that trap more heat in the atmosphere. Oceans absorb about 90% of this excess heat, leading to warmer waters, especially near the surface.&nbsp;



This warming disrupts marine ecosystems, contributing to coral bleaching and altering habitats for species like fish and marine mammals.



With the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/">climate crisis</a> intensifying, experts warn that warmer ocean temperatures will heighten the risk of rapid, destructive rainfall events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-second-deadliest-flood-in-europe-this-century-nbsp">Second-deadliest flood in Europe this century&nbsp;</h2>



Prime Minister Pedro Sanchez said the disaster was the second-deadliest flood in Europe this century and that Spain was carrying out its largest deployment of army and security force personnel in peacetime. The country was sending 5,000 soldiers and 5,000 police officers to the eastern region of Valencia on Saturday.



Four days after the devastating floods, rescuers are still searching for bodies. Thousands of volunteers are helping to clean up the thick mud that covers streets, homes, and businesses in the hardest-hit towns.&nbsp;



Prime Minister Sanchez responded to people who expressed they feel abandoned with no help or communication in the days following the tragic flooding.



“I am aware the response is not enough, there are problems and severe shortages… towns buried by mud, desperate people searching for their relatives.”



"For those who at this moment are still looking for their loved ones, the whole of Spain weeps with you."



According to <a href="https://www.esa.int/">ESA</a>, the Copernicus Emergency Rapid Mapping Service has been activated to provide satellite imagery that can support rescue and recovery efforts.



Image Credit: USGS, processed by ESA&nbsp;



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Valencia floods: A tragedy fueled by extreme weather

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a brilliant stellar nursery located about 163,000 light-years away.



According to ESA, the image is one of the most photogenic examples of the many stellar nurseries observed by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope during its 30-year lifetime. 



“The portrait features the giant nebula NGC 2014 and its neighbor NGC 2020 which together form part of a vast star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-stellar-nursery">What is a stellar nursery?</h2>



Stellar nurseries are regions in space where new stars are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">born</a> - often within vast clouds of gas and dust called molecular clouds.&nbsp;



These areas are fascinating because they are cradles of stellar evolution, where gravity causes clumps of gas to collapse, eventually forming protostars.&nbsp;



Over time, the protostars will heat up and start the nuclear fusion process that powers a star.



One of the most well-known stellar nurseries is the Orion Nebula, which is visible to the naked eye and located about 1,350 light-years from Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-a-stellar-nursery-nbsp">Dynamic nature of a stellar nursery&nbsp;</h2>



Within these nurseries, the balance between gravity and pressure determines the types of stars that form, from massive, luminous stars to smaller, cooler ones like our Sun.&nbsp;



The environment is incredibly dynamic, with powerful winds from young stars shaping the clouds and triggering the birth of even more stars.



These regions are often illuminated by the light from massive newborn stars - creating stunning, colorful displays. The light reveals the intricate structure of the dust and gas, sculpted by the energy of young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-stellar-nurseries-nbsp">Significance of stellar nurseries&nbsp;</h2>



Stellar nurseries are essential for understanding the early stages of planetary formation, as protoplanetary disks (the material from which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets form</a>) are often found around young stars in these regions.



Stellar nurseries play a crucial role in the ongoing evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>. They are responsible for the continuous birth of new stars that enrich the interstellar medium with heavier elements. This constant recycling of material is key to the development of future generations of stars and planets.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the study of these regions helps astronomers understand the fundamental processes that govern the life cycles of stars and the overall dynamics of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-local-group">The Local Group</h2>



The Local Group is a collection of over 80 galaxies that includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and the Triangulum Galaxy, along with numerous smaller dwarf galaxies. These galaxies are bound together by gravity and span a region roughly 10 million light-years across.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> and Andromeda are the dominant members, with their respective satellite galaxies orbiting them.&nbsp;



The Local Group is part of a larger structure known as the Virgo Supercluster, and its galaxies are moving toward the gravitational center of the Local Group, contributing to its dynamic nature.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-magellanic-cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</h2>



The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is the fourth largest galaxy in the Local Group and can be seen with the naked eye from the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



This irregular dwarf galaxy is home to the Tarantula Nebula, one of the most active star-forming regions in our cosmic neighborhood.&nbsp;



The Large Magellanic Cloud played a key role in astronomical history, particularly when the supernova SN 1987A was observed, providing valuable insights into stellar evolution.&nbsp;



The LMC's interaction with the Milky Way, along with its own companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud, is believed to influence its shape and star formation activity. Its proximity and unique properties make it a crucial object of study for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>, star formation, and the dynamics of interacting galaxies.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and STScI



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Hubble captures a stunning stellar nursery

The MODIS instrument, short for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, is a key instrument aboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. MODIS is playing a vital role in the development of Earth ecosystem models, able to predict global changes, which then assist policy makers in making informed decisions about the protection of the global environment.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps are seen in this Image of the day&nbsp;from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at heavy snow and low clouds in the Alps. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps

Monitoring Earth Changes with MODIS

Aqua is a NASA scientific research satellite that studies precipitation, evaporation, and water cycles. Terra and Aura make up the Earth Observing System. It's the second component of the system.

A frozen Lake Erie in February Today’s Image of the Day comes from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at a frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/icy-lake-erie/">Lake Erie</a>, which is currently 93.3 percent iced over. A frozen Lake Erie in February
This false-color image was created using data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Aqua satellite to differentiate between snow, ice, and clouds.
Lake Erie /ˈɪəri/ (French: Lac Érié) is the fourth-largest lake (by surface area) of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the eleventh-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area.It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet (64 metres) deep. 
Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie&#8217;s northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, specifically the Ontario Peninsula, with the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern, and eastern shores. These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries. 
The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native American people who lived along its southern shore. The tribal name &#8220;erie&#8221; is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word erielhonan, meaning long tail
&#8212;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

A frozen Lake Erie in February

Aqua Earth Observing Satellite

This beautiful photo gallery contains 50 incredible images of Earth from Space. These images were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station, as well as by a multitude of NASA satellites orbiting the earth.

Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean just south of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-blue-chrysanthemums-created/">Japan</a>.
This image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on July 31, 2017. 
At the time the photo was taken, Typhoon Noru was located just 250 kilometers south of Iwo Jima. Maximum sustained winds hit 150 miles per hour.
The storm briefly became a category 5 on July 30, before being downgraded to a category 4 one day later.
&#8211;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Source: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean

Incredible Images of Earth from Space

Photos from the International Space Station are found in this awesome Earth.com image gallery. Flat-earthers won't agree, but these incredible photos of the Earth were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station. The International Space Station is a modular space station in low Earth orbit.

Northern Italy from the space station is seen here in this Image of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). The view includes the top half of the Italian Peninsula, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/wildfires-burn-northern-corsica/">Corsica</a> and Sardinia off the coast. This image was captured by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on his third and final mission to the Space Station.

Northern Italy from the Space Station

Photos from the International Space Station

A new study sheds light on a not-so-pleasant truth: the smallest countries in the world, which contribute the least to climate change, face its most dire consequences. And it's only set to get worse for these small island nations.



According to research led by the University of Bristol, on average, one in five people in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) is now exposed to both coastal and inland flooding.



That's about 8.5 million people living in these countries that are toe-to-toe with possible disaster. 



In the Bahamas, Guyana, and Tuvalu, this percentage triples, with over 60% of their populations exposed to the risks of flooding. The threats extend from the Pacific and the Caribbean to the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea.



To put things in perspective, think of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/valencia-floods-a-tragedy-fueled-by-extreme-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">catastrophic scenes in Valencia</a>, Spain, due to record-breaking rainfall. Now, imagine this as a regular occurrence, not just for Spain, but for people across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flood-exposure-of-small-islands">Flood exposure of small islands</h2>



Study lead author&nbsp;Leanne Archer is a research associate at the University’s Cabot Institute for the Environment.



“Flooding is now an alarming real-world threat for so many people globally. This study demonstrates that the often-overlooked Small Island Developing States are already subject to a disproportionate level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floods-are-becoming-more-deadly-in-the-desert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flood exposure</a>, despite contributing the least to climate change,” said Archer. 



But, why these islands? The United Nations (UN) recognizes these nations as being especially exposed to the effects of climate change. With populations ranging from around 1,000 to 7,000,000 people, inhabitants of the small island nations are often most concentrated along coastlines.



Indeed, the risk of coastal flooding is a significant concern. But it's the inland flooding that's the silent enemy. It accounts for the vast majority of overall population exposure at 81 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-climate-adaptation-on-small-islands">Supporting climate adaptation on small islands</h2>



Projections show that even in the best-case scenario, where global warming is kept at a minimum, significant growth in the number of people affected by rising sea levels, storm surge, and extreme rainfall events is expected.



The reach of these weather anomalies even overshadows the level of flooding exposure in developed nations like the US and UK, where around 13% and 8% of the populations are impacted, respectively.



"The findings should be a call to action to support these nations in adapting to and mitigating against these extreme repercussions, even under the lowest emissions scenario, which put life and livelihoods in peril," notedLeanne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flood-projections-for-small-islands">Flood projections for small islands</h2>



Depending on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> levels, more than a fifth (21%) of SIDS populations can expect to face flooding if we manage to restrict the increase to 1.5°C by 2100. 



In the worst-case scenario, where the world warms by more than 4°C, this figure could rise to nearly a quarter (23%), the study suggests.



Globally, we're not doing enough. A UN report last month warned that we're staring at a possible 3.1°C warming if governments do not take more action to reduce carbon emissions. 



Even with these stark warnings, the countries most at risk remain the same, including Belize, Turks and Caicos Islands, and the Maldives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-action-is-needed">Urgent action is needed</h2>



This research was conducted in partnership with the University of Southampton and used data from water risk intelligence firm Fathom's Global Flood Map. 



A high-resolution global hydrodynamic flood model combined with worldwide population datasets was used to paint a comprehensive picture of flood risk across all 57 Small Island Developing States.



Study co-author Paul Bates is a professor of hydrology at the University of Bristol and co-founder of Fathom.



""The results are a timely warning to the world’s political leaders and policy makers that global commitments to significantly reduce carbon emissions must be backed up by action, in order to reduce potential loss and damage from flooding in Small Island Developing States, which contribute least to harmful carbon emissions,” said Bates. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fundamental-threat-to-humanity">Fundamental threat to humanity</h2>



As we discuss these grave realities, the research echoes the essence of the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>’s mission - finding bold answers to big questions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distress-signals-earths-water-cycle-is-becoming-more-erratic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">concerning global challenges</a>.



The Cabot Institute has a strong focus on tackling pressing environmental change, natural hazards, and disaster risk.



In conclusion, climate change remains a fundamental threat to humanity, and no one bears its brunt more than the inhabitants of Small Island Developing States. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ad78eb" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Small countries that play no role in climate change will be hardest hit

A new study sheds light on a not-so-pleasant truth: the...

Microplastics have been found in some of the world’s most remote environments, from the snow-capped peaks of Mount Everest to the ocean depths of the Mariana Trench, infiltrating ecosystems and even human bodies.&nbsp;



Now, new research led by scientists at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a> (Penn State) reveals that these tiny plastic particles may also be affecting the atmosphere and climate.&nbsp;



The study shows that microplastics can act as ice nucleating particles, potentially altering cloud formation, precipitation, and even global climate patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-as-ice-nucleators">Microplastics as ice nucleators</h2>



Microplastics - tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-steadily-increasing-in-freshwater-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic particles</a> less than 5 millimeters in size - were found to act as ice nucleating particles, which are microscopic aerosols that allow ice crystals to form in clouds.&nbsp;



“Throughout the past two decades of research into microplastics, scientists have been finding that they're everywhere, so this is another piece of that puzzle,” said Miriam Freedman, a professor of chemistry at Penn State and senior author of the study.&nbsp;



“It’s now clear that we need to have a better understanding of how they're interacting with our climate system, because we’ve been able to show that the process of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-small-aerosols-influence-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cloud formation</a> can be triggered by microplastics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



In their experiments, the researchers examined four types of microplastics: low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET).&nbsp;



By suspending each plastic in small water droplets and slowly cooling them, the team observed how these particles influenced ice formation.&nbsp;



They found that droplets containing microplastics froze at temperatures between -22 and -28 degrees Celsius, much warmer than the typical -38 degrees Celsius required for droplets without defects to freeze.



“Any kind of defect in the water droplet, whether that’s dust, bacteria, or microplastics, can give ice something to form - or nucleate - around,” said study lead author Heidi Busse, a graduate student at Penn State.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-and-weather-patterns">Microplastics and weather patterns </h2>



The ability of microplastics to initiate ice formation in clouds could have widespread consequences for weather and climate. When clouds contain more ice, it can affect precipitation patterns, often leading to heavier rainfall events as water droplets are delayed in their descent until they reach a larger size.&nbsp;



“In a polluted environment with many more aerosol particles, like microplastics, you are distributing the available water among many more aerosol particles, forming smaller droplets around each of those particles,” said Busse.&nbsp;



“When you have more droplets, you get less rain, but because droplets only rain once they get large enough, you collect more total water in the cloud before the droplets are large enough to fall and, as a result, you get heavier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-changing-rainfall-patterns-impact-plants-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> when it comes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-and-cloud-structure">Microplastics and cloud structure </h2>



The influence of microplastics on cloud structure may also affect how much solar radiation is reflected back into space or retained in Earth’s atmosphere.&nbsp;



Clouds at higher altitudes can help trap heat emitted from the Earth, which in some cases can contribute to warming. Freedman emphasized that the ratio of liquid water to ice within clouds plays a crucial role in determining whether clouds have a net cooling or warming effect.&nbsp;



As microplastics accumulate in the atmosphere, their potential influence on mixed-phase clouds may mean they are already impacting global climate in ways that are not yet fully understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-behavior-of-aging-microplastics">Changing behavior of aging microplastics</h2>



The researchers also investigated how “environmental aging” -the natural processes that particles undergo when exposed to sunlight, ozone, and other elements in the atmosphere - affects the ice-nucleating properties of microplastics.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that aging generally reduced the ice-forming ability of LDPE, PP, and PET, while PVC’s ice-forming potential actually increased due to changes on its surface caused by environmental aging.&nbsp;



This variation suggests that over time, as microplastics are exposed to the atmosphere, their impact on cloud formation may change.



“We know that the fact that microplastics can nucleate ice has far-reaching effects; we’re just not quite sure yet what those are,” Busse said.&nbsp;



“We can think about this on many different levels, not just in terms of more powerful storms but also through changes in light scattering, which could have a much larger impact on our climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-microplastic-additives">Future research on microplastic additives</h2>



Next, the team plans to study common additives found in plastics, such as plasticizers, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of how these substances might further influence atmospheric behavior.&nbsp;



Many plastics contain a variety of additives that can affect their physical and chemical interactions within the environment. Analyzing these additional factors may reveal more about how microplastics in the atmosphere could influence weather and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> dynamics.



“We know the full lifecycle of these plastic items we use every day could be changing the physical and optical properties of the Earth’s clouds and, therefore, changing the climate in some way, but we still have a lot to learn about exactly what they are doing,” Busse said.&nbsp;



As scientists continue to unravel the atmospheric behavior of microplastics, new findings may add to the growing list of impacts these particles have on global systems - from terrestrial and marine ecosystems to human health and now, potentially, the climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-growing-area-of-concern-nbsp">A growing area of concern&nbsp;</h2>



Microplastics are a relatively new area of concern within atmospheric and climate science, and researchers like Freedman are now beginning to connect their widespread presence in the atmosphere to possible impacts on large-scale weather patterns and climate systems.&nbsp;



The study highlights the importance of understanding the full life cycle and environmental behavior of plastics, especially as evidence mounts that microplastics influence processes fundamental to Earth’s climate.&nbsp;



While much is still unknown, Freedman’s team hopes to advance climate models that incorporate microplastics, allowing scientists to better predict how these particles could alter the planet’s delicate atmospheric balance.



As studies like this continue, microplastics might not only reshape our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-deadly-and-widespread-environmental-pollutants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental pollutants</a> but also inform future regulations aimed at reducing their release and mitigating their long-term impacts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsestair.4c00146" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science and Technology: Air</a>.



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Microplastics trigger cloud formation and alter weather patterns 

Microplastics have been found in some of the world’s most...

Tree planting has often been seen as an affordable, effective way to combat global warming due to trees' ability to capture large amounts of carbon from the atmosphere. 



Yet, a new study warns that large-scale tree planting at high latitudes may actually worsen global warming rather than mitigate it.&nbsp;



 As climate change enables the planting of trees further north, initiatives to establish forests in Arctic regions have gained support. 



But according to a team of international scientists, led by assistant professor Jeppe Kristensen from <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, this approach could have unintended climate consequences in sensitive northern ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-in-arctic-soils">Carbon storage in Arctic soils </h2>



The Arctic and sub-Arctic regions are unique in their ecological characteristics, and Kristensen emphasizes that these areas are unsuited to afforestation as a climate mitigation strategy.&nbsp;



“Soils in the Arctic store more carbon than all vegetation on Earth,” said Kristensen. “These soils are vulnerable to disturbances, such as cultivation for forestry or agriculture, but also the penetration of tree roots."&nbsp;



"The semi-continuous daylight during the spring and early summer, when snow is still on the ground, also makes the energy balance in this region extremely sensitive to surface darkening, since green and brown trees will soak up more heat from the sun than white snow.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-disturbances-are-intensifying-nbsp">Natural disturbances are intensifying&nbsp;</h2>



Regions around the North Pole, including parts of North America, Asia, and Scandinavia, are already prone to natural disturbances, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-wildfires-are-gaining-even-more-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> and droughts, which can kill vegetation. Climate change has only intensified these threats. 



Kristensen warns that northern forests are at particular risk: “This is a risky place to be a tree, particularly as part of a homogeneous plantation that is more vulnerable to such disturbances.”&nbsp;



If these trees burn, the stored carbon is likely to be released into the atmosphere within decades, reversing any intended climate benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-solar-reflection-and-carbon-storage">Balancing solar reflection and carbon storage</h2>



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a> is a common focus in climate solutions, the researchers argue that at high latitudes, managing solar reflection (albedo) is even more crucial. 



“Climate change results from the balance between solar energy entering the atmosphere and how much leaves again,” Kristensen said.&nbsp;



The albedo effect is essential in polar and subpolar regions because light-colored snow and ice naturally reflect solar energy. Dark tree canopies, however, absorb it, converting sunlight into heat, which impacts the energy balance more than carbon storage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-holistic-approach-to-climate-solutions">A holistic approach to climate solutions</h2>



Rather than solely emphasizing carbon storage, the study calls for a more comprehensive understanding of ecosystem dynamics.&nbsp;



“A holistic approach is imperative if we’re going to make a difference in the real world,” said co-author Marc Macias-Fauria, a researcher at the University of Cambridge’s Scott Polar Research Institute.&nbsp;



Macias-Fauria adds that while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree planting</a> may be valuable for timber production or self-sufficiency, it should not be marketed as a climate mitigation strategy without accounting for its environmental impact.



“Forestry in the far North should be viewed like any other production system and compensate for its negative impact on climate and biodiversity,” he said. “By selling northern afforestation as a climate solution, we’re only fooling ourselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-populations-of-large-herbivores">Sustainable populations of large herbivores</h2>



If tree planting is not ideal for high latitudes like the Arctic, what nature-based strategies could help mitigate climate change in these areas? 



The researchers suggest an alternative: supporting sustainable populations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a>, like caribou, which could offer a more viable climate solution. 



“There is ample evidence that large herbivores affect plant communities and snow conditions in ways that result in net cooling,” Macias-Fauria said.&nbsp;



Large herbivores keep tundra landscapes open and prevent excess snow buildup, which insulates the soil and accelerates permafrost thaw.&nbsp;



Their activity, including winter grazing, helps lower soil temperatures and preserve the permafrost layer, which plays a crucial role in regulating global temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prioritizing-biodiversity-and-local-communities">Prioritizing biodiversity and local communities</h2>



Finally, the study underscores the importance of considering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-tracking-is-crucial-for-preserving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and the needs of local communities when developing climate solutions. 



Large herbivores not only aid in reducing climate-driven biodiversity loss in Arctic ecosystems but are also a key food source for Indigenous and local communities.&nbsp;



“Biodiversity and local communities are not an added benefit to nature-based solutions: they are fundamental,” said Macias-Fauria, emphasizing that these efforts must be community-led, particularly by those directly affected by climate change.



In sum, while tree planting remains valuable in many contexts, implementing it in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions could inadvertently increase warming.&nbsp;



Instead, focusing on nature-based solutions that respect and work with local ecosystems and communities offers a more balanced and effective path to mitigating climate impacts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01573-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Why planting trees in the Arctic is not a good climate solution

Tree planting has often been seen as an affordable, effective...

Air pollution involves more than just a mix of gases; it's a complex interplay between these gases and the surface of liquid droplets in the atmosphere. 



At this interface, that is one hundred thousand times narrower than a human hair, gases and liquids move and interact in mind-blowing ways. And these tiny transitions between the media shape our air quality and, ultimately, our climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-nitty-gritty-of-air-pollution">The nitty-gritty of air pollution</h2>



Deep within the intricate world of air pollution, researchers armed with cutting-edge analytical tools have been exploring the microscopic boundary where liquids meet gases.



Complex chemical transformations take place in this nearly invisible domain that are critical to our understanding of air pollution and climate change.



In an international collaboration, scientists have been studying these reactions, known as acid-base equilibria, both within the heart of the liquid (in this case, an aqueous solution) and right at the point where the liquid meets the surrounding gas.



The goal? To gain crucial insights that would allow for the development of more accurate models predicting the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-small-aerosols-influence-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a> and their impact on climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecular-dynamics-of-air-pollution">Molecular dynamics of air pollution </h2>



Much of this study focused on the transformation of sulfur dioxide (SO2), a common pollutant that is produced when fuels containing sulfur are burned.



The researchers used a combination of spectroscopic methods to dissect the complex chemical changes that occur when sulfur dioxide dissolves in water.



Under acidic conditions, the balance or "tautomeric equilibrium" between the two resulting chemicals - bisulfite and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-found-in-tap-and-bottled-water-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sulfonate</a> - is heavily tilted in favor of sulfonate. 



Molecular dynamic simulations also showed that both the sulfonate ion and its acid (sulfonic acid) are more stable at the interface due to ion pairing and higher dehydration barriers, respectively. This explains why the balances shift at the interface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-the-inconspicuous">The impact of the inconspicuous</h2>



The behavior of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-breathing-cancer-causing-chemicals-in-our-cars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a> at the interface is significantly different from that inside the bulk environment. 



This difference shapes how sulfur dioxide absorbs and reacts with other pollutants, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-nitrogen-oxide-pollution-could-boost-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen oxides</a> (NOx) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the atmosphere.



These findings have profound implications - they provide us with a better understanding of the mechanics that occur in the microscopic zone between liquids and gases, and can help guide us in finding effective strategies to mitigate air pollution and its harmful effects on our health and the environment.



This research wouldn't have been possible without the combined efforts of scientists from esteemed institutions around the globe including the <a href="https://www.fhi.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society</a> in Berlin.



Every step towards understanding the chemistry of our atmosphere aids us in our battle against the global problem of air pollution, as we move forward towards creating a healthier world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-applications-in-climate-modeling">Real-world applications in climate modeling</h2>



Understanding the molecular dynamics of air pollution isn't just an academic exercise - it directly influences climate modeling.



By refining how we model interactions between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-air-pollutants-contribute-to-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollutants</a> (such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) and water particles, scientists can create more accurate simulations of how these substances behave under various atmospheric conditions.



This improvement in climate models could help predict the long-term effects of pollutants on both global warming and localized weather patterns, enabling us to understand better how pollution might influence future climate scenarios.



As models grow more precise, policymakers and environmental agencies can make informed decisions based on realistic projections, and can guide climate action on both local and global scales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-pollution-mitigation">Future directions in pollution mitigation</h2>



With new insights into the molecular behavior of pollutants, researchers are also exploring innovative ways to mitigate air pollution before it disperses into the atmosphere. 



For example, developing materials or coatings that react with specific pollutants to neutralize them could provide a proactive approach to air quality management. 



Additionally, by identifying the chemical triggers that promote pollutant transformations, scientists could design more targeted filters for industrial emissions, thereby ensuring that harmful substances are neutralized at the source.



These advances in pollution control could pave the way for cleaner air in urban and industrial regions, which would ultimately reduce the health and environmental impacts of airborne pollutants.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53186-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Understanding how air pollution forms may help us prevent it

Air pollution involves more than just a mix of gases;...

For a very long time, we have been under the impression that memory and learning are solely the brain's forte. Central to this belief is the fact that our brains, particularly our brain cells, store memories.



However, an innovative team of researchers begs to differ, suggesting that cells in other parts of the body partake in this memory function too.



The ability of non-brain cells to learn and form memories is a riveting discovery. This thought-provoking study provides us with a new understanding of memory's mechanisms and paves the way for potential advancements in learning and memory-related afflictions treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-formation-and-cells">Memory formation and cells</h2>



“Learning and memory are generally associated with brains and brain cells alone, but our study shows that other cells in the body can learn and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-is-shaped-by-both-past-and-future-experience-and-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">form memories</a>, too,” explains New York University’s&nbsp;<a href="https://liberalstudies.nyu.edu/about/faculty-listing/nikolay-kukushkin.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nikolay V. Kukushkin</a>, the lead author of the&nbsp;study.&nbsp;



The goal of the research was straightforward - to investigate if non-brain cells contribute to memory. To do this, the scientists deployed the time-honored neurological property, known as the massed-space effect.



This principle asserts that our retention capacity is better when information is studied in spaced intervals rather than crammed into a single, intensive session.



Does this strike a chord? We have all experienced the futility of last-minute cramming before tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-test-in-non-brain-cells">Memory test in non-brain cells</h2>



In their research, the scientists simulated the process of spaced learning by examining two types of non-brain human cells - one from nerve tissue and one from kidney tissue - in a laboratory setting. 



These cells were exposed to varying patterns of chemical signals, akin to the exposure of brain cells to neurotransmitter patterns when we learn new information.



The intriguing part? These non-brain cells also switched on a "memory gene" - the same gene that brain cells activate when they detect information patterns and reorganize their connections to form memories.



So, how exactly did the scientists gauge the memory and learning process? They ingeniously engineered the non-brain cells to generate a glowing protein, which indicated whether the memory gene was active or dormant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-cells-learning-and-pulses">Memory, cells learning, and pulses</h2>



The results of this innovative research were nothing short of astounding. 



It turned out that these cells were able to discern when the chemical pulses (simulating bursts of neurotransmitters in the brain) were repeated rather than simply prolonged - much like neurons in our own brains when we opt for break-filled studying instead of continuous cramming.



When the pulses were delivered at intervals, they activated the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> gene" more intensely and for a longer duration than when the same treatment was administered all at once - a perfect demonstration of the massed-space effect.



“This reflects the massed-space effect in action,” says Kukushkin, a clinical associate professor of life science at NYU Liberal Studies and a research fellow at NYU’s Center for Neural Science. 



“It shows that the ability to learn from spaced repetition isn't unique to brain cells, but, in fact, might be a fundamental property of all cells.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-memory-works">Understanding how memory works</h2>



Not only does this research on non-brain cells introduce fresh perspectives to study memory, but it also holds promise for potential health-related benefits.



“This discovery opens new doors for understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> works and could lead to better ways to enhance learning and treat memory problems,” notes Kukushkin.



“At the same time, it suggests that in the future, we will need to treat our body more like the brain - for example, consider what our pancreas remembers about the pattern of our past meals to maintain healthy levels of blood glucose or consider what a cancer cell remembers about the pattern of chemotherapy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-research">Implications of the research </h2>



The research team also included Thomas Carew, a professor in NYU’s Center for Neural Science; Tasnim Tabassum, an NYU researcher; and Robert Carney, an NYU undergraduate researcher. The study was funded by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (R01-MH120300-01A1).



As we explore this fascinating new research on non-brain cells, the pressing question remains - how will this impact our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-create-three-copies-of-every-memory-we-make/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of memory formation</a>?



What implications does this discovery hold for the future of learning and memory-related treatments? Only time will tell. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53922-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Memory isn’t only stored in our brains - other cells can remember too

For a very long time, we have been under the...

Ever heard of a rule that's been around for so long, everyone just assumes it's unbreakable? Well, a team of scientists is turning that notion on its head by proving wrong a key rule of organic chemistry.



Neil Garg, a distinguished professor of chemistry and biochemistry, is leading the charge to rewrite a fundamental principle that's been part of organic chemistry for the past hundred years.



In a recent study published in Science, Garg and his colleagues at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> revealed that Bredt's rule -- a staple in chemistry textbooks since 1924 -- might not be as ironclad as we've been led to believe. 



But before we get into how they're shaking things up, let's take a step back and understand what this rule is all about.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-bredt-s-rule">What exactly is Bredt's rule?</h2>



According to Bredt's rule, you can't have a double bond at the bridgehead position of a small, bridged ring system -- a kind of molecular structure that looks like two rings sharing some atoms. 



Imagine trying to fit a double bond in a tight space -- it just doesn't work because the molecule becomes too strained and unstable.



In these small ring systems, the atoms are connected in such a way that there's not enough room for the flat shape of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capturing-carbon-directly-from-the-air-is-now-much-more-efficient-thanks-to-new-material/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">double bond</a>. 



The angles get all messed up, and the molecule would be forced into an awkward position. It's kind of like trying to bend a straight stick into a circle without breaking it -- it just doesn't work that way.



Bredt's rule has been a guiding principle for chemists studying organic molecules, especially those known as olefins.



Olefins are compounds featuring a double bond between two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-detect-molecules-that-store-carbon-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon atoms</a>, and they usually have a flat, planar structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-bredt-s-rule-upside-down">Turning Bredt's rule upside down</h2>



Garg's team decided to challenge that assumption. Instead of accepting the limitations imposed by this long-standing rule, they set out to prove that these molecules, called anti-Bredt olefins (ABOs), can indeed be created and used.



"People aren't exploring anti-Bredt olefins because they think they can't," Garg pointed out.



Using a clever approach, the researchers treated certain molecules known as silyl (pseudo)halides with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-water-fluoridation-still-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluoride source</a>. This reaction was designed to produce the elusive ABOs. 



Since these molecules are highly unstable and tend to fall apart quickly, the team included another chemical to "trap" them. 



This way, they could capture the ABOs long enough to study them and even use them to make new, valuable compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-anti-bredt-olefins-abos">Understanding anti-Bredt olefins (ABOs)</h2>



Anti-Bredt olefins are compounds that defy Bredt's rule by featuring a double bond at the bridgehead position of a bridged ring system.



ABO's challenge Bredt's rule by simply existing, despite the inherent instability caused by this strain.



They provide valuable insights into the behavior of strained molecules and have potential applications in materials science and organic synthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



By showing that ABOs can be generated and utilized, the team is opening up new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drug discovery</a>.



"There's a big push in the pharmaceutical industry to develop chemical reactions that give three-dimensional structures like ours because they can be used to discover new medicines," Garg explained. 



The ability to create these unique molecular structures means scientists can explore a whole new realm of compounds that were previously off-limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-rules-need-to-be-challenged">More "rules" need to be challenged</h2>



Garg's work doesn't just break a rule -- it invites the entire scientific community to rethink how we approach long-held beliefs. 



"We shouldn't have rules like this -- or if we have them, they should only exist with the constant reminder that they're guidelines, not rules. It destroys creativity when we have rules that supposedly can't be overcome," he said.



By challenging Bredt's rule, the team is advocating for a more flexible and innovative approach to chemistry. 



They're reminding us that science is always evolving, and what we consider impossible today might just be tomorrow's breakthrough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-needs-more-creativity">Science needs more creativity</h2>



What does this mean for budding chemists and researchers? 



It's a call to question assumptions and push boundaries. If a century-old rule can be upended, who knows what other "impossible" feats are within reach?



"What this study shows is that contrary to one hundred years of conventional wisdom, chemists can make and use anti-Bredt olefins to make value-added products," Garg noted. 



It's not just about breaking a rule; it's about expanding the toolkit scientists have to tackle some of the world's most pressing challenges, like developing new medications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-garg-and-bredt-s-rule">What's next for Garg and Bredt's rule?</h2>



This discovery is a stepping stone to numerous possibilities in organic chemistry, pharmaceuticals, and basically any other field of study.



By demonstrating that ABOs can be both generated and trapped effectively, Garg's team has laid the groundwork for future research that could lead to significant advancements in medicine.



So, the next time you hear someone say, "You can't do that," remember that sometimes, all it takes is a fresh perspective and a willingness to challenge the status quo. 



Who knows? You might just be the one to rewrite the next chapter in the science books.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq3519" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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100-year-old chemistry rule proven false, updating textbooks comes next

Ever heard of a rule that's been around for so...

New research suggests that about 3.6 billion years ago, Mars featured vast water flows and a lake rivaling the size of the Mediterranean.&nbsp;



This ancient hydrology, scientists say, was preserved under protective ice layers, contrary to the previous notion that warmer climates were necessary for liquid water on Mars.&nbsp;



The study, led by Peter Buhler, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a>, explores how a process driven by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mars-became-uninhabitable-after-being-life-supporting-ocean-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ carbon dioxide cycles could have created conditions allowing water to flow across the Martian surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-layer-of-frozen-carbon-dioxide">Layer of frozen carbon dioxide</h2>



Buhler's model proposes that ancient Martian rivers and lakes were enabled not by warmth but by carbon dioxide freezing out of the atmosphere and forming a thick layer atop an ice sheet at the Martian poles.&nbsp;



This layer of frozen carbon dioxide functioned like an insulating blanket, trapping heat from Mars’ interior, which increased pressure on the underlying ice and melted nearly half of Mars’ water reserves, allowing rivers to form.



“This model describes the origins of major landscape features on Mars - like the biggest lake, the biggest valleys and the biggest esker system (remnants of rivers that once flowed beneath an ice sheet) - in a self-consistent way,” Buhler explained.



He emphasized that the findings don’t depend on a hypothetical warming event but rather on a process observed on Mars even today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-dioxide-cycle-on-mars">Carbon dioxide cycle on Mars</h2>



Decades of research have established that a significant amount of Mars’ carbon dioxide is absorbed in a single-molecule-thick layer around the regolith grains (i.e. the layer of unconsolidated solid material covering the bedrock of a planet).&nbsp;



By including this regolith component, Buhler found that the Martian atmosphere “is mostly just along for the ride,” with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> cycle playing a primary role. 



Mars’ rotational tilt - shifting every 100,000 Martian years - impacts this cycle. When Mars tilts upright, sunlight bakes the equator while the poles cool, causing carbon dioxide to escape from the regolith into the atmosphere before freezing atop the polar ice.&nbsp;



As Mars’ tilt becomes more extreme, this pattern reverses, subliming the ice back into gas and causing the regolith to absorb it like a sponge.



The findings demonstrate that this modern-day carbon dioxide exchange mechanism could explain Mars’ ancient landscape features, which had previously baffled scientists.&nbsp;



In testing his model for the period 3.6 billion years ago, Buhler pinpointed the early phases of Mars’ current carbon dioxide cycle, a time associated with the formation of river valley networks.&nbsp;



This cycle, he theorized, was responsible for melting large volumes of Martian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-lost-most-of-its-water-but-where-did-it-go/">water</a> without significant warming events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-trapped-beneath-the-icy-surface-nbsp">Water trapped beneath the icy surface&nbsp;</h2>



In Buhler’s model, Mars’ carbon dioxide ice sheet could have been around 0.4 miles thick, lying atop a layer of water ice around 2.5 miles thick.&nbsp;



This layered arrangement, Buhler suggested, acted as a powerful insulator, trapping geothermal heat below the ice cap and adding substantial weight and pressure, which melted the underlying water ice.&nbsp;



The meltwater then pooled beneath the ice sheet, saturating the surrounding Martian crust and eventually freezing as permafrost on the edges.



Buhler explained that this setup caused water to flow in only one direction - through the narrow interface between the ice sheet and the bedrock.&nbsp;



“The only way left for the water to go is through the interface between the ice sheet and the rock underneath it,” he said, pointing out that similar subglacial rivers emerge from glaciers on Earth.&nbsp;



These Martian rivers left behind eskers - long ridges of gravel, remnants of ancient rivers that once flowed under glaciers. These eskers, commonly observed near Mars’ south pole, align well with Buhler’s subglacial river predictions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explaining-water-on-ancient-mars">Explaining water on ancient Mars</h2>



Buhler’s model provides an alternative explanation for Mars’ eskers without invoking hypothetical warming. “Eskers are evidence that at some point there was subglacial melt on Mars, and that’s a big mystery,” Buhler said.&nbsp;



Instead of requiring a global warming event, Buhler’s model relies on carbon dioxide insulation to facilitate subglacial melting.&nbsp;



His findings offer a more consistent explanation, as warmer temperatures would have likely burned off any exposed feathers, fur, or other features.



According to Buhler, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-river-landscape-lies-beneath-the-east-antarctic-ice-sheet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subglacial rivers</a> emerging from beneath the ice formed slow-moving, ice-covered flows. Over time, these flows would gather enough pressure to form larger rivers under a thick ice cover. 



Buhler estimates that these ice-topped rivers could reach depths of several feet and stretch for thousands of miles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-flowing-on-mars-nbsp">Water flowing on Mars&nbsp;</h2>



As the subglacial rivers reached the edge of the ice sheet, they encountered Mars’ cold atmosphere and initially created oozing, lava-like flows covered by frozen skins.&nbsp;



Eventually, these rivers poured into the Argyre Basin, a vast basin comparable in volume to the Mediterranean Sea, filling it with meltwater over tens of thousands of years. Once filled, the water would overflow and travel nearly 5,000 miles to the northern plains of Mars.&nbsp;



Buhler’s model also suggests that this process occurred multiple times across millions of years during a one-hundred-million-year period, making it the first to demonstrate that enough water was present to overtop the Argyre Basin.



“This is the first model that produces enough water to overtop Argyre, consistent with decades-old geologic observations,” Buhler explained, suggesting that this subglacial melting and overflow may have driven a cycle of water sublimation and condensation, creating a pole-to-equator hydrologic cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-mars-water-cycle-nbsp">Redefining Mars’ water cycle&nbsp;</h2>



Moving forward, Buhler plans to continue testing his model to further solidify its findings. Should future results continue to support his work, it may prompt a substantial reevaluation of Mars’ ancient water cycle.&nbsp;



By demonstrating how ancient Mars could sustain liquid water without requiring atmospheric warming, Buhler’s model reshapes scientific understanding of how Mars’ rivers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-largest-lake-once-contained-an-enormous-amount-of-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> formed and persisted billions of years ago.



Ultimately, the research suggests that Mars may have once harbored conditions even more dynamic and water-rich than previously believed.



The study is published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2024JE008608" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets</a>.



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Did water flow across the surface of an icy Mars?

New research suggests that about 3.6 billion years ago, Mars...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...