Photo Credit: Win McNamee/Getty Images

Buzz Aldrin Shares What Happened To Him After Landing On The Moon

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Cat's Eye Nebula (NGC 6543), located about 3,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Draco.&nbsp;



The nebula's name comes from its eye-like appearance when viewed through a telescope. This particular image, which reveals the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horsehead-nebula-webb-telescope-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> in stunning detail, was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae-nbsp">Planetary nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, the Cat's Eye Nebula is one of the most complex planetary nebulae that has ever been discovered.



“A planetary nebula forms when Sun-like stars gently eject their outer gaseous layers to form bright nebulae with amazing twisted shapes," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Until recently, it was thought that shells around planetary nebulae were a rare phenomenon. However, astronomers have instead shown that these rings are likely to be the rule rather than the exception."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-of-the-cat-s-eye-nebula-nbsp">Appearance of the Cat's Eye Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The central focus of the Cat's Eye is a hot, dying star that has shed its outer layers to form the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragons-egg-nebula-is-a-truly-stunning-sight-to-behold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a>. It is surrounded by concentric gas shells, jets of high-speed gas, and unusual shock-induced knots of gas.



“Although the rings may be the key to explaining the final ‘gasp’ of the dying central star, the mystery behind the Cat’s Eye Nebula’s nested ‘Russian doll’ structure remains largely unsolved,” noted ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rings-around-the-cat-s-eye">Rings around the Cat’s Eye</h2>



“This image, taken with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), reveals the full pattern of eleven or more concentric rings, or shells, around the Cat’s Eye. Each ‘ring’ is actually the edge of a spherical bubble seen projected onto the sky - which is why it appears bright along its outer edge.”



According to ESA, observations suggest that the star ejected its mass in a series of pulses at 1,500-year intervals. “These convulsions created dust shells that each contains as much mass as all of the planets in our solar system combined.”



Several explanations have been proposed for this phenomenon, including cycles of magnetic activity similar to our Sun's sunspot cycle, the influence of companion stars orbiting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dying-stars-may-be-a-source-of-gravitational-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dying star</a>, or stellar pulsations.&nbsp;



Another theory suggests that the material is ejected smoothly from the star, with the rings forming later due to the creation of waves in the outflowing material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-draco-nbsp">The constellation Draco&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extrasolar-ocean-planet-discovered-in-the-draco-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Draco</a> is a constellation in the northern sky that represents a dragon. It's one of the largest constellations, winding between the Big and Little Dippers.&nbsp;



In Greek mythology, Draco is often identified as the dragon Ladon, who guarded the golden apples in the garden of the Hesperides.



Draco is a circumpolar constellation for most northern hemisphere observers, meaning it never sets below the horizon and can be seen all year round.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-famous-planetary-nebulae">Famous planetary nebulae </h2>



Planetary nebulae are some of the most beautiful and intriguing objects in the universe.&nbsp;



One of the most famous is the Ring Nebula, or M57, located in the constellation Lyra. This nebula is renowned for its nearly perfect ring shape, which is the result of a dying star shedding its outer layers.&nbsp;



Another well-known planetary nebula is the Helix Nebula, or NGC 7293, often referred to as the "Eye of God" due to its eye-like appearance. The Helix Nebula is one of the closest planetary nebulae to Earth, making it a popular target for amateur astronomers.&nbsp;



The Dumbbell Nebula, or M27, in the constellation Vulpecula, is another striking example. It is named for its resemblance to a dumbbell and is notable for being the first planetary nebula ever discovered, by Charles Messier in 1764.&nbsp;



The Butterfly Nebula, or NGC 6302, is located in the constellation Scorpius. Its name comes from its distinctive bipolar structure, resembling the wings of a butterfly. The nebula's central star is one of the hottest known, with a surface temperature of around 250,000 degrees Celsius.&nbsp;



The Eskimo Nebula, or NGC 2392, in the constellation Gemini, is known for its resemblance to a face surrounded by a fur parka, which gives it its name. Its intricate structure, including filaments and bubble-like shapes, makes it a fascinating object of study. 



These nebulae not only captivate us with their beauty but also provide valuable insights into the life cycles of stars and the processes that shape our galaxy.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope



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Cat's Eye Nebula in the constellation Draco

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 3783, which is located about 130 million light-years away in the constellation Centaurus. NGC 3783 is also the most prominent of a galaxy group (by the same name) that contains 47 galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-groups">Galaxy groups</h2>



“Like galaxy clusters, galaxy groups are aggregates of gravitationally bound galaxies. Galaxy groups, however, are less massive and contain fewer members than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy clusters</a> do: where galaxy clusters can contain hundreds or even thousands of constituent galaxies, galaxy groups do not typically include more than 50,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The Milky Way is actually part of a galaxy group, known as the Local Group, which contains two other large galaxies (Andromeda and the Triangulum galaxy), as well as several dozen satellite and dwarf galaxies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hd-101274-a-blue-giant-star">HD 101274: A blue giant star</h2>



The bright object that appears to the right of the galaxy is the star HD 101274. “The perspective in this image makes the star and the galaxy look like close companions, but this is an illusion. HD 101274 lies only about 1,530 light-years from Earth, meaning it is about 85 thousand times closer than NGC 3783,” explained ESA.&nbsp;



The star is part of the NGC 3766 cluster, which is sometimes referred to as the Pearl Cluster, an open cluster known for its richness in bright stars and its relatively young age.



HD 101274 is categorized as a blue giant star, characterized by its high temperature and luminosity. 



Blue giants are massive stars that have left the main sequence phase of stellar evolution and are burning helium or heavier elements in their cores. These stars are known for their short lifespans relative to smaller stars due to their rapid consumption of nuclear fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-blue-giants">Significance of blue giants</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-stars-scientists-discover-a-new-type-of-star-powered-by-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stars</a> like HD 101274 are important for astronomers because they help in studying the properties of stellar populations in clusters and the dynamics of stellar evolution in different environments. 



The spectral and photometric observations of such stars can provide valuable insights into the characteristics of their atmospheres, internal structures, and the processes occurring within and around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bright-central-region-of-ngc-3783">Bright central region of NGC 3783</h2>



One of the most interesting aspects of NGC 3783 is that it harbors an active galactic nucleus, meaning its central region is exceptionally luminous, likely due to the presence of a supermassive black hole. This black hole is actively accreting material, which emits a substantial amount of radiation as it spirals inward and heats up.



The galaxy is particularly known for its bright central region and has been studied extensively in the ultraviolet and X-ray light spectra to understand better the properties of the accretion disk around the black hole and the complex dynamics of the material surrounding it. These studies are crucial for understanding the physics of active galactic nuclei and the role they play in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>.



According to ESA, NGC 3783 is a&nbsp;Type I Seyfert galaxy. “In this image it is recorded by Hubble in incredible detail, from its glowing central bar to its narrow, winding arms and the dust threaded through them, thanks to five separate images taken in different wavelengths of light," noted ESA.



“In fact, the galactic center is bright enough to Hubble that it exhibits diffraction spikes, normally only seen on stars such as HD 101274.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-ngc-3783-galaxy-group">More about the NGC 3783 galaxy group</h2>



The NGC 3783 group is part of the larger Hydra-Centaurus Supercluster, which itself is a massive collection of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and galaxy clusters located primarily in the constellations of Hydra and Centaurus.



The NGC 3783 group consists of several galaxies that are gravitationally bound and interact with each other. These interactions can influence the galaxies' evolution through mechanisms like tidal forces and merger events, which can trigger star formation, fuel central black holes, and reshape the galaxies' structures.



Studying groups like the NGC 3783 group helps astronomers understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> evolve together in a common gravitational environment, offering insights into the dynamics and evolution of structures on cosmic scales. 



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Luminous galaxy NGC 3783 and a blue giant star

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a 9.5-mile section of Pangong Lake on the western end of the Tibetan Plateau. The image was captured on by a crew member onboard the International Space Station.&nbsp;



“In this winter scene, a sheet of cracked ice tops part of the lake,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “On the left side, open water appears blue. Shallow water offshore of a delta, formed by a small, winding river, appears green."



"Parallel lines along the coastlines of bays are visible in the high-resolution version of this image. These lines indicate raised beaches, which formed in the past when lake levels were higher.”



NASA pointed out that several roads cut across the landscape, including one with switchbacks that ascends a steep slope. "These roads facilitate tourist travel from both India and China.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-birds-at-pangong-lake-nbsp">Migratory birds at Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake and its surroundings are home to numerous bird species, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-burn-unexpected-amounts-of-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>. Visitors can spot various waterfowl and waders that are rarely seen elsewhere.



“During the summer, species such as bar-headed geese and Brahminy ducks attract bird watchers to the lake, which is a major breeding ground for migrating birds,” said NASA.



Pangong Lake is one of the few places in India where the endangered black-necked crane is found during its breeding season. 



Ruddy shelduck and brown-headed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gulls-are-shifting-their-habitats-to-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gulls</a> are also frequently spotted around the lake. The ruddy shelduck is known for its striking orange-brown body and creamy white head, while the brown-headed gulls are often seen flying or swimming in the lake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangong-lake-nbsp">Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake is a stunning high-altitude lake situated in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-are-rising-unexpectedly-fast-on-the-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, extending from India to the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. It is renowned for its mesmerizing beauty and dramatic setting, with the lake lying at an elevation of about 4,350 meters.



One of the most distinctive features of Pangong Lake is its changing colors, ranging from shades of blue to green and even red, influenced by the sky's reflection and the lake's mineral content.



This saline water lake is approximately 134 kilometers long and 5 kilometers wide at its broadest point. Despite its considerable size, Pangong Lake is relatively shallow. 



The lake gained additional popularity after being featured in several Indian films - most notably the Bollywood hit "3 Idiots." Its remote location requires a permit for visitors, especially due to its proximity to the Line of Actual Control between India and China.



Despite the geopolitical sensitivities surrounding its location, Pangong Lake remains a favorite among tourists for its unparalleled natural beauty and serene environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-altitude-lakes">High-altitude lakes</h2>



High-altitude lakes are unique bodies of water found at elevations typically above 3,000 meters (about 10,000 feet) in mountain ranges like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-glaciers-retreating-threat-is-much-worse-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, Andes, and Rockies. 



These lakes are formed either by glacial activity, where glaciers erode the earth to create depressions that fill with melted snow and rainwater, or when natural dams created by landslides or moraines trap water in valleys.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-environments">Extreme environments</h3>



The conditions at high altitudes make these lakes distinct in several ways. The climate is typically colder and harsher, with significant temperature variations between day and night. 



This extreme environment affects both the physical characteristics of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> and the types of ecosystems they support. For example, due to lower atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is reduced, which can affect the type of life that can survive in these regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-habitats">Critical habitats</h3>



Biologically, high-altitude lakes often have limited biodiversity because only certain types of plants and animals can tolerate the cold temperatures and lower oxygen levels in the water. 



Despite this, these lakes are crucial habitats for some unique species of fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also serve as important indicators of climate change, as variations in their water levels and temperatures can reflect environmental shifts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-high-altitude-lakes">Significance of high-altitude lakes </h3>



Lakes at high altitudes are often clear and pristine, due to the low density of human populations in these areas and minimal industrial activity, making them significant for ecological studies and attractive for tourism. 



However, they are sensitive ecosystems, and increased tourist activity brings challenges like pollution and habitat disruption.



High-altitude lakes are not only beautiful and scientifically significant but also hold cultural importance for local communities, often considered sacred and associated with historical and spiritual significance.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Pangong Lake on the Tibetan Plateau

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the aftermath of devastating floods in the Valencia region of Eastern Spain.&nbsp;



On October 29, 2024, torrential rainfall unleashed nearly a year’s worth of precipitation in just eight hours, leading to catastrophic flash floods that affected a vast area from Málaga to Valencia. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flash-floods-in-valencia">Flash floods in Valencia </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-floods-are-set-to-become-much-more-common-in-the-u-s/">Floodwaters</a> submerged entire neighborhoods and agricultural lands. Many roads and infrastructure were overwhelmed almost instantly, stranding vehicles and prompting widespread evacuations. Water levels rose faster than emergency services could respond.



One resident of Paiporta, near Valencia, told the BBC that when the water started to rise it was "like a tsunami wave."



“In a matter of minutes, flash floods caused by heavy downpours in eastern Spain swept away everything in their path. With no time to react, people were trapped in vehicles, homes and businesses,” reported the Associated Press.



More than 200 people were killed and thousands of people were rescued. According to SOS Desaparecidos, as many as 1,300 people remained unaccounted for on Friday, three days after the floods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnitude-of-the-tragedy-nbsp">Magnitude of the tragedy&nbsp;</h2>



Ángel Víctor Torres, the Minister for Territorial Policy and Democratic Memory, said: “The fact that we can’t give a number of the missing persons indicates the magnitude of the tragedy.”&nbsp;



Some areas, including the Spanish town of Alfafar, are completely cut off from communication.&nbsp;



Juan Ramón Adsuara, the mayor of Alfafar, said the aid isn't nearly enough for residents trapped in an "extreme situation."



"There are people living with corpses at home. It's very sad. We are organizing ourselves, but we are running out of everything," Adsuara told reporters. "We go with vans to Valencia, we buy and we come back, but here we are totally forgotten."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-government-warning-was-not-issued-in-time">Government warning was not issued in time</h2>



On Tuesday morning, Spain's meteorological agency Aemet warned that torrential rains were forecast for the region of Valencia, before issuing a&nbsp; "maximum red alert.”



Carlos Mazon, Valencia’s regional president, said the government sent out an SMS alert reserved for the “worst possible scenario.” But according to a report from CNN, that alert was sent hours too late.



“By 5 p.m., Valencia’s emergency services were swamped by hundreds of pleas for help throughout the region,” wrote Atika Shubert, a CNN Senior International Correspondent.



“It was at 8 p.m. that cell phones finally buzzed with the public alert telling residents to stay indoors. Much too little, much too late, even for those downstream of the raging water who might otherwise have had time to prepare.”



The BBC also noted that many people have questioned the timing of the government's warning, which arrived more than 12 hours after Aemet issued its first red alert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-in-a-warming-climate">Extreme weather in a warming climate</h2>



The deadly floods in Valencia were primarily caused by an extreme weather event that brought record-breaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-events-are-interconnected-around-the-globe/">rainfall</a>. The intense downpour was fueled by unusually warm Mediterranean Sea temperatures, which increased moisture in the atmosphere and intensified the rainfall.&nbsp;



Climate experts link this phenomenon to climate change, as warmer seas lead to more frequent, severe storms. The combination of heavy rain and the region's limited drainage capacity led to flash flooding, overwhelming local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-floods-its-not-just-about-rainfall/">infrastructure</a>.



Rising ocean temperatures are largely driven by increased greenhouse gases that trap more heat in the atmosphere. Oceans absorb about 90% of this excess heat, leading to warmer waters, especially near the surface.&nbsp;



This warming disrupts marine ecosystems, contributing to coral bleaching and altering habitats for species like fish and marine mammals.



With the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/">climate crisis</a> intensifying, experts warn that warmer ocean temperatures will heighten the risk of rapid, destructive rainfall events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-second-deadliest-flood-in-europe-this-century-nbsp">Second-deadliest flood in Europe this century&nbsp;</h2>



Prime Minister Pedro Sanchez said the disaster was the second-deadliest flood in Europe this century and that Spain was carrying out its largest deployment of army and security force personnel in peacetime. The country was sending 5,000 soldiers and 5,000 police officers to the eastern region of Valencia on Saturday.



Four days after the devastating floods, rescuers are still searching for bodies. Thousands of volunteers are helping to clean up the thick mud that covers streets, homes, and businesses in the hardest-hit towns.&nbsp;



Prime Minister Sanchez responded to people who expressed they feel abandoned with no help or communication in the days following the tragic flooding.



“I am aware the response is not enough, there are problems and severe shortages… towns buried by mud, desperate people searching for their relatives.”



"For those who at this moment are still looking for their loved ones, the whole of Spain weeps with you."



According to <a href="https://www.esa.int/">ESA</a>, the Copernicus Emergency Rapid Mapping Service has been activated to provide satellite imagery that can support rescue and recovery efforts.



Image Credit: USGS, processed by ESA&nbsp;



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Valencia floods: A tragedy fueled by extreme weather

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a brilliant stellar nursery located about 163,000 light-years away.



According to ESA, the image is one of the most photogenic examples of the many stellar nurseries observed by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope during its 30-year lifetime. 



“The portrait features the giant nebula NGC 2014 and its neighbor NGC 2020 which together form part of a vast star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-stellar-nursery">What is a stellar nursery?</h2>



Stellar nurseries are regions in space where new stars are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">born</a> - often within vast clouds of gas and dust called molecular clouds.&nbsp;



These areas are fascinating because they are cradles of stellar evolution, where gravity causes clumps of gas to collapse, eventually forming protostars.&nbsp;



Over time, the protostars will heat up and start the nuclear fusion process that powers a star.



One of the most well-known stellar nurseries is the Orion Nebula, which is visible to the naked eye and located about 1,350 light-years from Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-a-stellar-nursery-nbsp">Dynamic nature of a stellar nursery&nbsp;</h2>



Within these nurseries, the balance between gravity and pressure determines the types of stars that form, from massive, luminous stars to smaller, cooler ones like our Sun.&nbsp;



The environment is incredibly dynamic, with powerful winds from young stars shaping the clouds and triggering the birth of even more stars.



These regions are often illuminated by the light from massive newborn stars - creating stunning, colorful displays. The light reveals the intricate structure of the dust and gas, sculpted by the energy of young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-stellar-nurseries-nbsp">Significance of stellar nurseries&nbsp;</h2>



Stellar nurseries are essential for understanding the early stages of planetary formation, as protoplanetary disks (the material from which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets form</a>) are often found around young stars in these regions.



Stellar nurseries play a crucial role in the ongoing evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>. They are responsible for the continuous birth of new stars that enrich the interstellar medium with heavier elements. This constant recycling of material is key to the development of future generations of stars and planets.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the study of these regions helps astronomers understand the fundamental processes that govern the life cycles of stars and the overall dynamics of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-local-group">The Local Group</h2>



The Local Group is a collection of over 80 galaxies that includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and the Triangulum Galaxy, along with numerous smaller dwarf galaxies. These galaxies are bound together by gravity and span a region roughly 10 million light-years across.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> and Andromeda are the dominant members, with their respective satellite galaxies orbiting them.&nbsp;



The Local Group is part of a larger structure known as the Virgo Supercluster, and its galaxies are moving toward the gravitational center of the Local Group, contributing to its dynamic nature.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-magellanic-cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</h2>



The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is the fourth largest galaxy in the Local Group and can be seen with the naked eye from the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



This irregular dwarf galaxy is home to the Tarantula Nebula, one of the most active star-forming regions in our cosmic neighborhood.&nbsp;



The Large Magellanic Cloud played a key role in astronomical history, particularly when the supernova SN 1987A was observed, providing valuable insights into stellar evolution.&nbsp;



The LMC's interaction with the Milky Way, along with its own companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud, is believed to influence its shape and star formation activity. Its proximity and unique properties make it a crucial object of study for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>, star formation, and the dynamics of interacting galaxies.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and STScI



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Hubble captures a stunning stellar nursery

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory (ESO) features the Dark Wolf Nebula, located around 5,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Scorpius.



According to ESO, this image of the dark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-the-ring-nebula-as-it-has-never-been-seen-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> creates the illusion of a wolf-like silhouette against a colorful cosmic backdrop. 



“This image takes up an area in the sky equivalent to four full Moons, but is actually part of an even larger nebula called Gum 55. If you look closely, the wolf could even be a werewolf, its hands ready to grab unsuspecting bystanders,” noted <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-nebulae-nbsp">Dark nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



Dark nebulae are dense regions in space filled with gas and dust that absorb visible light, making them appear as dark patches against brighter backgrounds.&nbsp;



Unlike emission or reflection nebulae, dark nebulae do not glow on their own. Instead, they obstruct and obscure the light from stars and other objects lying behind them.&nbsp;



This characteristic makes them challenging to observe using visible-light telescopes, as they absorb and scatter light rather than reflecting or emitting it.&nbsp;



However, when viewed in infrared, where their obscuring effect is reduced, dark nebulae reveal intricate details about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-the-perseus-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular clouds</a> they contain.



According to ESO, astronomers study these clouds of frozen dust because they often contain new stars in the making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-wolf-nebula-nbsp">Dark Wolf Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Dark Wolf Nebula is part of a larger complex known as the Lupus Molecular Cloud, one of several significant star-forming regions close to Earth.&nbsp;



Inside of dark nebulae, the conditions are prime for star formation. The dense gas and dust clump together under gravitational forces, and as the clouds contract, they heat up, eventually igniting nuclear fusion and forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new stars</a>.



The Dark Wolf Nebula is known for revealing young, low-mass stars, or T Tauri stars, which are in the early stages of their evolution. These stars are still surrounded by disks of material that may eventually form new planets.



This nebula is typically studied in infrared, which allows scientists to look beyond the obscuring dust to observe the processes of star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-scorpius-nbsp">The constellation Scorpius&nbsp;</h2>



Scorpius is one of the most recognizable constellations in the sky. It resembles a scorpion with a long, curved tail and stinger.&nbsp;



Located in the southern sky, Scorpius is especially visible during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere and winter in the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



The constellation is often associated with the story of Orion in Greek mythology. According to legend, the scorpion was sent by the goddess Artemis to kill Orion, the great hunter, either as punishment for his arrogance or to protect her animals, depending on the version of the tale.&nbsp;



The gods later placed both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a> and Scorpius in the sky, but in opposite parts of the heavens so they would never be seen together - as Scorpius rises in the east and Orion sets in the west.



Scorpius contains several notable stars and deep-sky objects. Its brightest star, Antares, is a red supergiant often referred to as the "Heart of the Scorpion" due to its reddish hue and central position.&nbsp;



Antares is one of the largest visible stars in the sky and has a luminosity tens of thousands of times greater than that of our Sun.&nbsp;



Scorpius is located close to the core of the Milky Way, making it a rich region for star clusters and nebulae. Among these are the Butterfly Cluster and the Ptolemy Cluster, both of which are visible to the naked eye under dark skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-dark-wolf-nebula">Image of the Dark Wolf Nebula </h2>



“This image shows in spectacular detail how the dark wolf stands out against the glowing star-forming clouds behind it,” noted ESO.



“The colorful clouds are built up mostly of hydrogen gas and glow in reddish tones excited by the intense UV radiation from the newborn stars within them.”



The picture was created from images taken at different times. Each of the images has a filter that makes a different color of light visible.&nbsp;



Observations of the Dark Wolf Nebula provide astronomers with valuable information about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of stars</a> and the environments in which they form.



The image was captured by the VLT Survey Telescope (VST) at ESO’s Paranal Observatory in Chile.



Image Credit: ESO/VPHAS+ team



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Dark Wolf Nebula in the constellation Scorpius

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features an incredible new image of the Crab Nebula in bright neon colors. 



“The unusual image was produced by combining data from telescopes spanning nearly the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to X-rays,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



Colored in red, the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) provided information about the nebula gathered in the radio regime.



NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope took infrared images, which appear yellow, while the NASA/ESA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-captures-another-cosmic-masterpiece-in-galaxy-ngc-2217/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope provided images made in optical wavelengths, colored in green.&nbsp;



Blue colors represent ultraviolet observations made by ESA’s XMM-Newton telescope, and the purple colors are X-ray radiation data from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-about-the-crab-nebula-nbsp">About the Crab Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Crab Nebula, located in the constellation Taurus, contains the remnants of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosion</a> first observed on Earth in 1054 AD. This explosion was recorded by Chinese astronomers and possibly by Native American rock art.&nbsp;



The nebula spans about 11 light-years across and lies approximately 6,500 light-years away from Earth. It is one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied objects</a> in the sky, largely due to its status as a bright and dynamic supernova remnant.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-crab-pulsar">The Crab Pulsar</h2>



The Crab Nebula contains a pulsar at its center, which is a rapidly rotating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-spinning-neutron-star-completely-defies-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> that emits pulses of radiation. This pulsar, known as the Crab Pulsar, spins about 30 times per second and is a significant source of gamma rays and other forms of high-energy radiation.&nbsp;



The nebula itself is a complex structure of filaments and synchrotron radiation. The filaments are remnants of the original star's outer layers, while the synchrotron radiation emerges from electrons spiraling in the magnetic fields produced by the pulsar.



“Surrounding the pulsar lies a mix of material; some of it was originally expelled from the star before it went supernova, and the rest was ejected during the explosion itself,” explained ESA.&nbsp;



“Fast-moving winds of particles fly off from the neutron star, energizing the dust and gas around it. These different layers and intricacies of the nebula can be observed in all of the different wavelengths of light.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crab-nebula-observation-nbsp">Crab Nebula observation&nbsp;</h2>



Throughout its history, the Crab Nebula has provided critical insights into the processes of stellar death, the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pulsars-are-helping-astronomers-pinpoint-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pulsars</a>, and the mechanics of supernova remnants.&nbsp;



Its continuous observation has revealed changes over time, such as the expansion of its filaments and variations in its brightness, offering a dynamic laboratory for astrophysical studies.



Overall, the Crab Nebula is a highly energetic and object, providing valuable insights into the processes following a supernova explosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-facts-about-nebulae">Fascinating facts about nebulae</h2>



Nebulae are some of the most breathtaking and intriguing structures in the universe. They are vast clouds of gas and dust, often considered stellar nurseries where new stars are born. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-of-nebulae">Colors of nebulae </h3>



One of the most fascinating aspects of nebulae is their ability to glow in different colors. This occurs because they either reflect the light of nearby stars or emit light due to the ionization of gases within them, particularly hydrogen. 



Some nebulae, like the famous Orion Nebula, are visible to the naked eye and serve as one of the nearest regions of active star formation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae">Planetary nebulae </h3>



Stars are born in dense regions of nebulae, and when they die, some will expel their outer layers, creating stunning structures known as planetary nebulae. The colorful clouds left behind can shine brightly for thousands of years. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-size">Massive size</h3>



Another amazing fact is that some nebulae are so vast that light can take years to travel from one side to the other, stretching across hundreds of light-years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-remnants">Star remnants </h3>



Perhaps even more mind-boggling is the fact that nebulae are the remnants of previous generations of stars. Supernova explosions of massive stars can create these glowing clouds of gas and dust, seeding the cosmos with the elements necessary for the formation of new stars and planets.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, G. Dubner (IAFE, CONICET-University of Buenos Aires) et al.; A. Loll et al.; T. Temim et al.; F. Seward et al.; VLA/NRAO/AUI/NSF; Chandra/CXC; Spitzer/JPL-Caltech; XMM-Newton/ESA; and Hubble/STScI



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Crab Nebula: The remains of a massive star explosion

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

The MODIS instrument, short for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, is a key instrument aboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. MODIS is playing a vital role in the development of Earth ecosystem models, able to predict global changes, which then assist policy makers in making informed decisions about the protection of the global environment.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps are seen in this Image of the day&nbsp;from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at heavy snow and low clouds in the Alps. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps

Monitoring Earth Changes with MODIS

Aqua is a NASA scientific research satellite that studies precipitation, evaporation, and water cycles. Terra and Aura make up the Earth Observing System. It's the second component of the system.

A frozen Lake Erie in February Today’s Image of the Day comes from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at a frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/icy-lake-erie/">Lake Erie</a>, which is currently 93.3 percent iced over. A frozen Lake Erie in February
This false-color image was created using data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Aqua satellite to differentiate between snow, ice, and clouds.
Lake Erie /ˈɪəri/ (French: Lac Érié) is the fourth-largest lake (by surface area) of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the eleventh-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area.It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet (64 metres) deep. 
Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie&#8217;s northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, specifically the Ontario Peninsula, with the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern, and eastern shores. These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries. 
The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native American people who lived along its southern shore. The tribal name &#8220;erie&#8221; is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word erielhonan, meaning long tail
&#8212;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

A frozen Lake Erie in February

Aqua Earth Observing Satellite

This beautiful photo gallery contains 50 incredible images of Earth from Space. These images were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station, as well as by a multitude of NASA satellites orbiting the earth.

Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean just south of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-blue-chrysanthemums-created/">Japan</a>.
This image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on July 31, 2017. 
At the time the photo was taken, Typhoon Noru was located just 250 kilometers south of Iwo Jima. Maximum sustained winds hit 150 miles per hour.
The storm briefly became a category 5 on July 30, before being downgraded to a category 4 one day later.
&#8211;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Source: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean

Incredible Images of Earth from Space

Photos from the International Space Station are found in this awesome Earth.com image gallery. Flat-earthers won't agree, but these incredible photos of the Earth were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station. The International Space Station is a modular space station in low Earth orbit.

Northern Italy from the space station is seen here in this Image of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). The view includes the top half of the Italian Peninsula, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/wildfires-burn-northern-corsica/">Corsica</a> and Sardinia off the coast. This image was captured by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on his third and final mission to the Space Station.

Northern Italy from the Space Station

Photos from the International Space Station

The Big Bang theory describes a mind-blowing event that took place around 14 billion years ago. The observable universe expanded from the size of a minuscule bacterium to the mammoth dimensions of the Milky Way, all within a fraction of a second. 



According to currently accepted theory, this early universe was a hot, dense environment. So, how do we know this massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic event</a> actually happened?



Much of what we know comes from evidence collected in the last century. In the late 1920s, American astronomer Edwin Hubble found that galaxies are moving away from each other, leading to the idea that our universe is always expanding. 



If we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trace this expansion back</a>, we discover a universe that is as old as the oldest astronomical objects we see.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-believers-and-skeptics-of-big-bang-theory">Believers and skeptics of Big Bang theory</h2>



Initially, this radical idea was met with skepticism. Interestingly, it was a skeptic, an Englishman named Fred Hoyle, who facetiously dubbed this hypothesis as the "Big Bang" during a <a href="https://www.bbc.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BBC</a> radio interview in 1949.



The tune of skepticism began to change when, in 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detected cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation -- an afterglow of the Big Bang that filled all space.



This discovery, which earned them the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics, opened a window into the hot, dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravitational-waves-dark-matter-big-bang-breakthrough/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beginning of our universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-moments-after-the-big-bang">First moments after the Big Bang</h2>



Over the years, experiments at particle accelerators like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higgs-boson-god-particle-still-remains-quantum-mystery-after-12-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Large Hadron Collider</a> have shed light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origins-of-matter-discovered-by-recreating-the-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions that existed</a> closer to the time of the Big Bang.



Our understanding of physics at these high energies suggests that the four fundamental forces of physics we recognize now were initially unified as a single force.



What are these four forces? We know them as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theory-gravity-exists-without-mass-so-dark-matter-does-not-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-sparks-the-discovery-of-a-new-electromagnetic-wave/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electromagnetism</a>, and the strong and weak nuclear forces. 



As our universe expanded and cooled down, it underwent dramatic changes, known as phase transitions, splitting these forces.



Experiments suggest that a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microscopic-primordial-black-holes-may-explain-all-dark-matter-in-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">few billionths of a second</a> after the Big Bang, the breakdown of electroweak unification took place. 



This was when electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force separated, leading to all matter in the universe acquiring its mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universe-s-primordial-soup">Universe’s primordial soup</h2>



Our walk through the early universe reveals a world filled with a peculiar substance called quark-gluon plasma. 



As its name suggests, this 'primordial soup' consisted of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gluons-quarks-and-mystery-what-makes-proton-spin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quarks and gluons</a>, sub-atomic particles responsible for the strong nuclear force. This plasma didn't last long, though.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/big-bang-theory_graphic-illustration_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/big-bang-theory_graphic-illustration_1s.jpg" alt="Infographic explaining the Big Bang theory and how it resulted in the universe that we see today." class="wp-image-1949475"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Infographic explaining the Big Bang theory and how it resulted in the universe that we see today.</figcaption></figure>



A few millionths of a second post-Big Bang, as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origins-of-matter-discovered-by-recreating-the-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> expanded and cooled, quarks and gluons clumped together to form protons and neutrons, the building blocks of atoms. This event is referred to as quark confinement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-bang-nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</h2>



With fewer high energy photons in the universe, the process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-claims-our-universe-is-27-billion-years-old-double-the-current-age-estimate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a> (BBN) kicked in. This was when the first atomic nuclei -- dense lumps of matter made from protons and neutrons -- formed.



Once, the higher amount of high energy photons would have quickly destroyed any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atomic-nucleus-made-of-quarks-and-gluons-reproduced-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atomic nuclei</a>, but with fewer of them around, BBN could take place. 



The fusion reactions stopped just a few minutes after the Big Bang, but their effects are observable to this day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-bang-theory-and-the-singularity">Big Bang theory and the singularity</h2>



Penetrating further into our cosmic past, we reach an intriguing period where there's no evidence for what existed before the breakdown of electroweak unification. 



The energy density at this point was so high that our mathematical equations fumble and become nonsensical. This period is known as a singularity.



In the 1960s, two British theoretical physicists, Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose, presented a series of mathematical theorems suggesting that the universe's spacetime must end at a singularity in the past -- the Big Bang singularity.



While Penrose received the Nobel Prize in 2020, Hawking, who passed away in 2018, was not eligible for this posthumous honor.



According to these theories, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/matter-spacetime-gravitational-waves-fabric-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space and time</a> appear at the Big Bang singularity, suggesting there is no 'before' the Big Bang. So, in scientific terms, the Big Bang is the dawn of time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-quandary-of-big-bang-theory">Quantum quandary of Big Bang theory</h2>



Despite its accuracy in a vast majority of cases, the theory of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">general relativity</a> fails to describe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossible-quantum-effects-observed-atoms-positioned-closely-together/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atoms</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-nova-explosion-nearby-star-light-up-earths-skies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear fusion</a>, or radioactivity. These phenomena are instead explained by quantum theory.



Quantum theory differs from its classical counterparts, such as relativity, by being probabilistic. While classical theories are deterministic and predict a definite outcome from certain initial conditions, quantum theory assigns a probability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multiple possible outcomes</a>.



Gravity is one such area where the classical description falls short, especially when spacetime curvature is extreme, near a singularity. 



During these extreme conditions, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/central-theory-of-quantum-gravity-is-modeled-in-the-laboratory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum nature of gravity</a> surfaces, making spacetime more like the fibers and threads of a carpet seen up close -- gnarly, not smooth.



Close to the Big Bang singularity, the structure of spacetime ceases to be smooth. Mathematical theorems suggest that spacetime is overwhelmed by gnarly features, or spacetime foam. 



In spacetime foam, causality does not apply, making the question "why did the Big Bang occur?" meaningless. Events do not need a cause to occur.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universe-born-out-of-chaos">Universe born out of chaos</h2>



To understand the physics at a singularity like the Big Bang, we need a theory explaining the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-particles-solution-gravitational-wave-mystery-bose-einstein-condensate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum behavior of gravity</a>. 



But efforts to formulate one, such as loop quantum gravity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consciousness-may-stem-from-unseen-dimensions-beyond-our-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">string theory</a>, are still in their infancy, rendering spacetime foam an enigma.



However, the theory of cosmic inflation, introduced by Alexei Starobinsky and Alan Guth, might provide some answers. 



Inflation is a period of accelerated expansion in the early universe. As difficult as it may be to comprehend, it explains why our universe is large, uniform, and spatially flat.



"I usually describe inflation as a theory of the 'bang' of the Big Bang: It describes the propulsion mechanism that we call the Big Bang," explained Alan Guth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



To sum it all up, according to a well-accepted theory called the Big Bang, the story of our universe begins with a cataclysmic explosion roughly 14 billion years ago. 



This explosion kickstarted a period of explosive expansion, called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-telescope-will-reveal-the-universe-in-more-than-100-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic inflation</a>. The events before inflation remain a mystery. Is it a spacetime singularity, or is it spacetime foam? The answer is still largely unknown.



We know, or at least what we think we know, is that our universe was born from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visible-matter-dark-matter-evolved-together-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chaos</a> and has evolved over billions of years into the organized cosmos we see today. 



We still have a lot to learn, but we've come a very long way in a relatively short period of time. 



Rather than beat ourselves up that we still don't know the "why" part of the question, let's just enjoy the ride and never stop seeking the answer to the ultimate question: How did it all begin?



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If the Big Bang theory is correct, what exactly happened?

The Big Bang theory describes a mind-blowing event that took...

Recent research led by the Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology (HIMB) at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa challenges the commonly held belief that coral reefs face inevitable decline.&nbsp;



Led by the Toonen-Bowen “ToBo” Lab at <a href="https://www.himb.hawaii.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HIMB</a> with collaboration from the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a>, the study shows that coral reefs have the potential to adapt and survive in changing climates if carbon emissions are reduced and local stressors are managed effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-experimental-design">Innovative experimental design</h2>



Researchers constructed 40 experimental “mesocosms” in a laboratory near the coral reefs, replicating the conditions and biodiversity found in nature. 



The mesocosms included eight common Hawaiian coral species along with reef sand, rubble, and various organisms that create a mini-ecosystem reflective of wild reefs.&nbsp;



For two years, these mesocosms were subjected to controlled levels of higher temperatures, increased acidity, or a combination of both to simulate potential future climate conditions.



“We included the eight most common coral species in Hawai‘i, which constitute about 95% of the coral cover on Hawaiian reefs,” explained lead author Christopher Jury, a postdoctoral fellow at HIMB.&nbsp;



“By understanding how these species respond to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-study-provides-answers-to-how-coral-reefs-can-survive-climate-change/">climate change</a>, we should have a better understanding of how Hawaiian reefs and other Indo-Pacific reefs will change over time, and how to better allocate resources as well as plan for the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-process-of-coral-calcification">The process of coral calcification</h2>



Coral reefs form over time through calcification, where individual coral polyps secrete calcium carbonate to create limestone structures.&nbsp;



However, various organisms naturally erode these reefs. If reef erosion surpasses calcification, coral structures and the vast array of species that depend on them may vanish.&nbsp;



The ToBo Lab closely monitored how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-vanish-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> and acidity affected calcification and reef health in the mesocosms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-results-challenge-projections">Surprising results challenge projections</h2>



Contrary to widespread projections, the experimental reef communities did not <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-save-coral-reefs-with-selective-breeding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collapse</a> but persisted and adapted. 



“These experimental reef communities persisted as new reef communities rather than collapsing,” Jury said.&nbsp;



“This was a very surprising result, since almost all projections of reef futures suggest that the corals should have almost entirely died, the reef communities should have experienced net carbonate dissolution, and reef biodiversity should have collapsed.”



This result suggests that under controlled, realistic conditions that account for diverse reef organisms - including microbes, algae, invertebrates, and fish - reefs demonstrate resilience.&nbsp;



“Rather than focusing on just one or two species in isolation, we included the entire complement of reef species from microbes, to algae, invertebrates, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-coral-reef-fish-survive-in-the-worlds-warmest-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, under realistic conditions they would experience in nature,” noted co-senior author Rob Toonen, the co-director of the UH Marine Biology Graduate Program. 



This comprehensive approach is a key differentiator that sets the ToBo Lab’s study apart from traditional, more limited research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-coral-conservation">Implications for coral conservation</h2>



The findings offer a renewed sense of hope for coral conservation strategies. Coral reefs, known for their rich biodiversity, support millions of people globally, providing resources and livelihoods. However, they are vulnerable to the impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-corals-can-survive-high-ocean-heat-which-could-save-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a> and acidification due to climate change. 



“Reefs are not inevitably doomed. The recognition that coral reefs are not doomed if we take appropriate action on climate change and local stressors reinforces the need to accomplish these goals,” Jury said.



The study highlights that, while reefs will undergo significant changes under future ocean conditions, a total collapse can be avoided if global warming is kept within the Paris Climate Agreement targets and local environmental pressures are managed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-coral-reef-research-nbsp">Future of coral reef research&nbsp;</h2>



Rob Toonen and his colleagues are optimistic about the future of coral reef research and conservation, advocating for proactive and science-based measures.&nbsp;



“These more realistic mesocosm experiments help us to understand how coral reefs will change over time,” Toonen said.&nbsp;



The study also sets a precedent for future research aimed at developing effective strategies to preserve coral reef ecosystems amidst a changing climate.



This breakthrough suggests that with urgent climate action and localized efforts, coral reefs can remain resilient.&nbsp;



The research underscores the critical importance of climate change mitigation and localized protective measures, showcasing that nature's resilience can be leveraged if humanity rises to the challenge.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2407112121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 



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Coral reefs may be more resilient than we thought

Recent research led by the Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology...

A new study suggests that extreme temperatures could lead to a mass extinction event -- the first since the dinosaurs died out -- that would ultimately end the reign of humans and mammals on Earth.



Dr. Alexander Farnsworth, a Senior Research Associate at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, led the research that paints a grim picture of our planet's distant future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangea-ultima-future-supercontinent">Pangea Ultima -- future supercontinent</h2>



Scientists believe that Earth's continents are slowly drifting and will eventually come together to form a single massive landmass, called Pangea Ultima. 



This supercontinent would drastically change the planet's climate. 



The study, published in Nature Geoscience, uses supercomputer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate models</a> to show how this new configuration could create an environment that's too hot and dry for most life forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triple-threat-to-life-on-earth">Triple threat to life on Earth</h2>



So, what's causing this extreme heat that results in the extinction of humans? 



"The newly-emerged <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supercontinent</a> would effectively create a triple whammy, comprising the continentality effect, hotter sun and more CO₂ in the atmosphere, of increasing heat for much of the planet," Dr. Farnsworth explained.



First, the formation of the supercontinent would mean more land area far from the cooling effects of the ocean -- a phenomenon known as the continentality effect. 



Second, over millions of years, the sun will become brighter, emitting more energy and warming the Earth. 



Third, increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> due to tectonic movements would release more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, trapping more heat.



"Widespread temperatures of between 40 to 50° Celsius (104 to 122° Fahrenheit), and even greater daily extremes, compounded by high levels of humidity would ultimately seal our fate," Dr. Farnsworth added.



"Humans -- along with many other species -- would expire due to their inability to shed this heat through sweat, cooling their bodies."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-heat-limitations">Mammals' heat limitations</h2>



Mammals have always been adaptable, surviving various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate extremes</a> throughout history. We've evolved features like fur to keep warm and the ability to hibernate during cold spells. 



However, our upper temperature tolerance hasn't changed much. Prolonged exposure to excessive heat is much harder for mammals to handle.



The study suggests that only about 8% to 16% of the land on the new supercontinent would be habitable for mammals. 



With most of the planet facing extreme heat and dryness, finding food and water would become nearly impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-climate-action-and-extinction-of-humans">Current climate action and extinction of humans</h2>



While this scenario is millions of years away, the researchers stress that we shouldn't lose sight of the current climate crisis. 



"It is vitally important not to lose sight of our current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-crisis-global-supply-chains-face-25-trillion-in-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate Crisis</a>, which is a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases," urged Co-author Dr. Eunice Lo, Research Fellow in Climate Change and Health at the University of Bristol. 



"While we are predicting an uninhabitable planet in 250 million years, today we are already experiencing extreme heat that is detrimental to human health. This is why it is crucial to reach net-zero emissions as soon as possible."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co₂-levels-and-tectonic-shifts">CO₂ levels and tectonic shifts</h2>



To estimate future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/met-office-2024-co2-levels-will-surpass-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide levels</a>, the team used models of tectonic plate movement and ocean chemistry. 



They predict that CO₂ levels could rise from around 400 parts per million today to more than 600 ppm in the future. 



"We think CO₂ could rise from around 400 parts per million (ppm) today to more than 600 ppm many millions of years in the future," noted Professor Benjamin Mills at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Pangea-Ultima_supercontinent_humans-mammals-extinct_illustration_UBristol_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Pangea-Ultima_supercontinent_humans-mammals-extinct_illustration_UBristol_1s.webp" alt="The image shows the geography of today’s Earth and the projected geography of Earth in 250 million years, when all the continents converge into one supercontinent (Pangea Ultima). Credit: University of Bristol" class="wp-image-1949412"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The image shows the geography of today’s Earth and the projected geography of Earth in 250 million years, when all the continents converge into one supercontinent (Pangea Ultima). Credit: University of Bristol</figcaption></figure>



Of course, this assumes that humans will stop burning fossil fuels, otherwise we will see those numbers much, much sooner."



"The outlook in the distant future appears very bleak. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virus-lifespan-and-transmission-boosted-by-high-co2-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carbon dioxide levels</a> could be double current levels," Dr. Farnsworth added.



"With the sun also anticipated to emit about 2.5% more radiation and the supercontinent being located primarily in the hot, humid tropics, much of the planet could be facing temperatures of between 40 to 70°C (104 to 158°F)."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-earth">Implications beyond Earth</h2>



This research doesn't just tell us about Earth's future; it also has implications for the search for life on other planets. 



"This work also highlights that a world within the so-called '<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-17-exoplanets-that-have-oceans-and-possibly-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable zone</a>' of a solar system may not be the most hospitable for humans depending on whether the continents are dispersed, as we have today, or in one large supercontinent," Dr. Farnsworth concluded.



Understanding how continental layouts affect climate can help scientists assess the habitability of exoplanets -- planets outside our solar system. Could other worlds be facing similar challenges?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-mass-extinctions">Past mass extinctions</h2>



The Earth’s geological and climatic history is punctuated by several mass extinction events, moments in time when the planet experienced abrupt shifts, leading to the substantial loss of its biodiversity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ordovician-silurian-extinction-around-443-million-years-ago">Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (Around 443 million years ago)</h3>



In this first notable mass extinction, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice ages</a> predominated and caused substantial marine life loss, wiping out nearly 85% of sea life. 



Changing sea levels and temperatures reduced habitat range and induced environmental stress, directly affecting marine biodiversity. 



This extinction primarily decimated marine species, since life on land was scarce during this period.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-late-devonian-extinction-around-360-million-years-ago">Late Devonian Extinction (Around 360 million years ago)</h3>



The Late Devonian extinction left a significant impact, with a 75% <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-half-of-earths-species-are-experiencing-rapid-population-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reduction in species</a>. This extinction event extensively affected marine life, particularly reef-building organisms and fish. 



Volcanic activity and asteroid impacts are considered primary culprits, disrupting ecosystems and altering atmospheric conditions, leading to extensive marine anoxia.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-permian-triassic-extinction-around-252-million-years-ago">Permian-Triassic Extinction (Around 252 million years ago)</h3>



Often referred to as “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predator-was-king-prior-to-the-great-dying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Great Dying</a>,” this cataclysm annihilated around 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial species. 



Massive volcanic eruptions in what is now Siberia released colossal amounts of lava, triggering severe climate change, acid rain, and ocean acidification. 



These environmental alterations devastated global ecosystems, transforming life on Earth.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triassic-jurassic-extinction-around-200-million-years-ago">Triassic-Jurassic Extinction (Around 200 million years ago)</h3>



This event marked the end of the Triassic and the rise of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-extinction-may-hold-clues-about-our-oceans-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jurassic period</a>, with around 50% of species perishing. 



Large-scale volcanic activities and resultant climate changes are believed to be the driving forces, facilitating the dominance of dinosaurs by clearing ecological niches and allowing for adaptive radiations of various species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cretaceous-paleogene-extinction-around-66-million-years-ago">Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction (Around 66 million years ago)</h3>



This well-known mass extinction event resulted from a colossal asteroid impact, creating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-chicxulub-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chicxulub crater</a> in present-day Mexico and obliterating approximately 75% of all species, including the non-avian dinosaurs. 



The impact caused wildfires, tsunamis, and released substantial quantities of sulphur, leading to a “nuclear winter” effect, causing extreme and sudden climate shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-climate-supercontinents-and-extinction">Humans, climate, supercontinents, and extinction</h2>



Wrapping it all up, this study from the University of Bristol shows that Earth's future could get so hot that most mammals, including humans, won't be able to avoid extinction. 



The formation of a new supercontinent called Pangea Ultima, a brighter sun, and higher CO₂ levels could crank up the heat to unbearable levels. 



It's a wild thought, but it reminds us that our planet is always changing, and not always in ways that suit us.



When we look back at the mass extinction events throughout Earth's history, we keep seeing the same story play out. 



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Something big happens -- like a huge volcano erupts or an asteroid smacks into Earth -- and suddenly everything changes, wiping out huge numbers of species. </li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>The environment shifts so dramatically and quickly that most life just can't keep up.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>These ancient mass extinctions teach us a pretty sobering lesson about life on Earth: it's way more fragile than we might think. </li>
</ul>



As we face our own environmental crisis today, these past events remind us to take better care of our environment and the planet's biodiversity. 



Mother Earth has a wild and predictable history of shaking things up, and we humans -- just like all the creatures before us -- are really just temporary residents on this ever-changing planet.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01259-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Scientists predict how and when humans and mammals will face extinction

A new study suggests that extreme temperatures could lead to...

Between 120 and 130 million years ago, during the age of the dinosaurs, northeast China hosted vibrant temperate forests and lakes that nurtured a diverse ecosystem.&nbsp;



Fossils from this period stayed untouched for millions of years until villagers began to unearth exceptionally preserved specimens in the 1980s.&nbsp;



These finds, often sold to collectors and museums, initiated a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> rush that has since transformed the region into one of the most heavily excavated paleontological sites in the world, visible even from space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-of-well-preserved-dinosaurs">Fossils of well-preserved dinosaurs</h2>



The dinosaur fossils discovered in the Yixian Formation stood out for being remarkably well-preserved. 



Unlike the usual fragmented skeletal remains found at other sites, these fossils often included soft tissues, internal organs, feathers, fur, and even stomach contents. 



Notable among these finds was a cat-sized mammal locked in a struggle with a small dinosaur, both seemingly frozen in time. 



Such discoveries confirmed that modern birds are descendants of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathered dinosaurs</a> and provided crucial insights into their evolution, redefining paleontological understanding. 



Early theories suggested that a sudden volcanic event, similar to the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius that buried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tragic-end-of-pompeii-was-not-solely-caused-by-mount-vesuvius/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pompeii</a>, might have been responsible for preserving these fossils, leading to the formation’s nickname, “Chinese Pompeii.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refuting-volcanic-theories">Refuting volcanic theories</h2>



A recent study published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2322875121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> challenges the long-held belief that volcanic activity was the primary reason for the pristine preservation of these fossils.&nbsp;



The researchers, using precise dating techniques, argue that the fossils were preserved not by dramatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-survived-the-eruption-of-toba-supervolcano/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic cataclysms</a> but by more common occurrences such as burrow collapses and periods of heavy rainfall that quickly buried the remains.&nbsp;



This new study pinpoints the age of these fossils to a compact period of less than 93,000 years, dismissing the notion that preservation was the result of multiple volcanic pulses over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-well-preserved-dinosaur-discoveries">Well-preserved dinosaur discoveries</h2>



“These are probably the most important dinosaur discoveries of the last 120 years,” said study co-author Paul Olsen, a paleontologist at the Columbia Climate School’s <a href="https://lamont.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory</a>. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/dinosaurs_Psittacosaurus_skeletons_burrow-collapse_credit-Jun-Liu_CAS_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/dinosaurs_Psittacosaurus_skeletons_burrow-collapse_credit-Jun-Liu_CAS_1s.webp" alt="Two perfectly articulated skeletons of the sheep-size dinosaur Psittacosaurus, found in China's Yixian Formation. New research suggests they died in burrow collapses, not via volcanism, as previously thought. Credit: Jun Liu, Institute of Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences" class="wp-image-1949576"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two perfectly articulated skeletons of the sheep-size dinosaur Psittacosaurus, found in China's Yixian Formation. New research suggests they died in burrow collapses, not via volcanism, as previously thought. Credit: Jun Liu, Institute of Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences</figcaption></figure>



“But what was said about their method of preservation highlights an important human bias. That is, to ascribe extraordinary causes, i.e. miracles, to ordinary events when we don’t understand their origins. These [fossils] are just a snapshot of everyday deaths in normal conditions over a relatively brief time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-against-volcanic-theories">Evidence against volcanic theories</h2>



The research team dismissed the possibility of preservation by volcanic lahars -- fast-moving mudflows -- due to their violent nature, which would have obliterated delicate remains. 



Similarly, the theory of pyroclastic flows, like those that buried Pompeii, was ruled out. 



Such flows would have incinerated feathers and fur, and left the bodies in the characteristic “pugilistic” posture seen in victims of extreme heat. 



Instead, the animals in the Yixian Formation are found in more relaxed positions, suggesting a peaceful end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theory-of-sudden-burrow-collapses-nbsp">Theory of sudden burrow collapses&nbsp;</h2>



Instead of volcanic cataclysms, the researchers propose that many of the preserved fossils were the result of sudden burrow collapses. Evidence for this theory came from the composition of the rock surrounding the fossils.&nbsp;



While the general rock formations were made of coarse grains, the material immediately around and within the skeletons was finer, indicating that fine sediment seeped in as bacteria or insects degraded the soft tissues, preserving the bones.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/dinosaurs_Psittacosaurus-babies_burrow_hunted_Repenomamus-mammal_credit-Alex-Boersma_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/dinosaurs_Psittacosaurus-babies_burrow_hunted_Repenomamus-mammal_credit-Alex-Boersma_1s.webp" alt="Artist's rendition of a Psittacosaurus dinosaur with babies being hunted by Repenomamus, a mammal. One fossil assemblage from the Yixian Formation preserved the remains of these species in mortal combat, frozen in mid-action. The dinosaur here is shown with bristly proto-feathers on its tail. Credit: Alex Boersma" class="wp-image-1949578"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artist's rendition of a Psittacosaurus dinosaur with babies being hunted by Repenomamus, a mammal. One fossil assemblage from the Yixian Formation preserved the remains of these species in mortal combat, frozen in mid-action. The dinosaur here is shown with bristly proto-feathers on its tail. Credit: Alex Boersma</figcaption></figure>



Olsen noted that even today, burrow collapses can be fatal for animals like penguins, illustrating how this process may have played a role in the preservation of ancient creatures.



The extraordinary find of a mammal and dinosaur locked in combat could potentially be explained by such collapses. 



The mammal may have been invading the dinosaur’s burrow in search of food or safety when both met their end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-triggered-burrow-collapses">What triggered burrow collapses?</h2>



While the researchers propose burrow collapses as the primary cause of death, the exact triggers remain speculative.&nbsp;



One possibility is that larger dinosaurs, which do not appear in the fossil record but likely roamed the area, may have inadvertently crushed the burrows while moving through the landscape. 



Additionally, periods of intense rainfall could have destabilized the ground, contributing to collapses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-for-future-dinosaur-discoveries">Potential for future dinosaur discoveries</h2>



Olsen believes that the Yixian Formation's unique preservation is not exclusive and that other areas around the world could yield similarly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gigoutella-mauretanica-best-preserved-trilobite-fossils-ever-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">well-preserved</a> dinosaur fossils if excavated with the same intensity. 



“It’s just that there is no place else where such intense collecting has been done in this kind of environment,” he said. 



While China has taken measures to regulate fossil sales, the demand remains robust, and significant investments have been made to promote tourism around these fossil sites.



Olsen mentioned sites in the eastern United States that share environmental similarities with Yixian, such as a quarry straddling the North Carolina-Virginia border, sites in Connecticut, and a former quarry in New Jersey.&nbsp;



However, large-scale excavation in these areas has yet to happen due to the high cost and the value of the land.



“It takes enormous effort, which is expensive. And land is valuable in these areas. So no one is doing it. At least not yet,” Olsen concluded.



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Image Credit: Jun Liu, Institute of Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences



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How did the world’s best-preserved dinosaurs die? 

Between 120 and 130 million years ago, during the age...

Supermassive black holes reside at the centers of most galaxies, captivating scientists with their enormous gravitational pull. However, understanding how these black holes managed to grow so rapidly in the early universe has posed significant challenges.&nbsp;



A recent study led by Hyewon Suh of the <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/programs/gemini-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Gemini Observatory/NSF NOIRLab</a> sheds light on this cosmic enigma. The team uncovered an extraordinary low-mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>, named LID-568, consuming material at an alarming rate just 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-the-webb-telescope-nbsp">The power of the Webb telescope&nbsp;</h2>



To make this groundbreaking discovery, Suh's team utilized the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expansion-rate-of-the-universe-confirmed-by-jwst/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST), a technological marvel known for its unmatched infrared sensitivity. 



The telescope observed a sample of galaxies from the <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ApJ...819...62C/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandra X-ray Observatory’s COSMOS legacy survey</a>. This particular survey includes galaxies that are bright in the X-ray spectrum but had previously been undetectable in optical and near-infrared wavelengths. JWST's capabilities enabled the team to detect these elusive emissions.



LID-568 was especially notable within this sample for its intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-x-ray-radiation-that-spews-out-of-black-holes-surroundings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray</a> emissions. Yet, accurately determining its exact position was problematic based on the X-ray data alone. 



The team received instrumental support from JWST scientists, who recommended using the telescope’s integral field spectrograph on NIRSpec. This tool provided a complete spectrum for every pixel in its field of view, allowing a comprehensive analysis of LID-568 and its surroundings.&nbsp;



“Owing to its faint nature, the detection of LID-568 would be impossible without JWST. Using the integral field spectrograph was innovative and necessary for getting our observation,” said co-author Emanuele Farina, an astronomer at the International Gemini Observatory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-outflows-and-rapid-accretion">Gas outflows and rapid accretion</h2>



With JWST’s NIRSpec, the team discovered unexpected outflows of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mechanism-discovered-that-creates-the-gas-disks-around-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas</a> around LID-568, hinting at substantial mass growth occurring in a single, rapid episode. These outflows offered clues to how the black hole could be feeding so aggressively. 



“This serendipitous result added a new dimension to our understanding of the system and opened up exciting avenues for investigation,” Suh noted.



The researchers also found that LID-568 was accreting matter at an astonishing rate - approximately 40 times its Eddington limit.&nbsp;



The Eddington limit describes the theoretical maximum luminosity a black hole can achieve while maintaining balance between the inward gravitational pull and the outward pressure produced by infalling material.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-in-a-feeding-frenzy">Black hole in a feeding frenzy</h2>



The observation of such extreme luminosity suggested something remarkable was unfolding within LID-568.&nbsp;



“This black hole is having a feast,” stated co-author Julia Scharwächter, an astronomer at the International Gemini Observatory/NSF NOIRLab.&nbsp;



“This extreme case shows that a fast-feeding mechanism above the Eddington limit is one of the possible explanations for why we see these very heavy black holes so early in the Universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-formation-theories">Black hole formation theories</h2>



The discovery of LID-568 has significant implications for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole formation</a> and growth. 



Current theories propose that supermassive black holes evolve from initial “seeds” formed either through the collapse of the universe’s first stars (light seeds) or by direct gas cloud collapse (heavy seeds). However, until now, these theories lacked substantial observational backing.



“The discovery of a super-Eddington accreting black hole suggests that a significant portion of mass growth can occur during a single episode of rapid feeding, regardless of whether the black hole originated from a light or heavy seed,” Suh explained.&nbsp;



This observation challenges existing models and hints that some black holes in the early universe may have grown rapidly, far beyond the Eddington limit, allowing them to achieve immense size in a relatively short time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-in-rapid-growth-phases-nbsp">Black holes in rapid growth phases&nbsp;</h2>



The detection of LID-568’s extreme accretion rates also opens the door for investigating how black holes manage to exceed their Eddington limits without collapsing under the pressure.&nbsp;



One theory is that the powerful outflows observed around LID-568 act as a release mechanism for excess energy, thus stabilizing the system.&nbsp;



This idea, if proven true, could reshape our understanding of how supermassive black holes sustain such rapid growth phases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-for-future-exploration">Path for future exploration</h2>



To further investigate these dynamics, Suh's team plans to conduct follow-up observations with JWST.&nbsp;



These future studies aim to deepen the understanding of early black hole behavior and provide more context for the universe’s formative years.&nbsp;



The researchers hope these insights will refine existing theoretical models and uncover new information about black hole growth and the evolution of the cosmos.



The research highlights the transformative impact of the Webb telescope on the field of astrophysics and emphasizes the importance of continued exploration to unravel the complex nature of our universe’s earliest structures.



Image Credit: NOIRLab/NSF/AURA/J. da Silva/M. Zamani



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Fastest-feeding black hole found in the early universe

Supermassive black holes reside at the centers of most galaxies,...

Trawling is a major part of the fishing industry, which provides us with fresh seafood. Have you ever wondered what happens on the ocean floor when we go about our quest to catch fish? Does deep sea fishing affect our environment? 



A recent study has revealed that trawling disrupts the carbon balance in our oceans, which ultimately impacts our climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-and-its-carbon-secrets">Deep sea and its carbon secrets</h2>



The deep-sea abyss is more than a home for marine life. It acts as a critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-southern-ocean-is-a-critically-important-carbon-sink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sink</a>, holding onto more carbon than it releases. 



Animal activity on the seafloor consumes and shifts this carbon into deeper soil layers, safely tucking it away for thousands of years. But when fishing trawls stir up these sediments, it disrupts this natural, delicate balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trawling-s-impact-on-climate">Trawling’s impact on climate </h2>



Research carried out at <a href="https://www.hereon.de/index.php.en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon</a> - in collaboration with the Alfred Wegener Institute, GEOMAR Helmholtz Center for Ocean Research Kiel, and the German Federation for the Environment and Nature Conservation (BUND) - has cast a spotlight on this lesser-known consequence of fishing.



The study has provided significant data on how bottom trawling impacts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-ocean-turbulence-impacts-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a>, particularly in the North Sea. The scientists examined over 2,300 sediment samples from the North Sea.



"We found that sediment samples collected in intensely trawled areas contained lower amounts of organic carbon than samples collected in areas with less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-fishing-method-of-bottom-trawling-harms-both-the-ocean-and-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a>. We were able to attribute this effect to bottom trawling with high confidence," said Dr. Wenyan Zhang, the study's lead author.



According to Dr. Zhang, the methodology used for this research reduces uncertainty in assessing the regional to global impact of trawling compared to previous estimates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-release-due-to-trawling">Carbon release due to trawling</h2>



The experts uncovered a worrisome trend. Computer simulations demonstrated a steady decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabed-disruptions-may-be-destroying-our-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seabed</a> carbon concentration across the past few decades, and this decline was attributed to intensive trawling activities.



Vulnerable areas were soft, muddy bottoms where damage was most significant. When trawling takes place, it disturbs the sediment, releasing carbon from a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-oxygen-zone-is-expanding-in-the-arabian-gulf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low-oxygen</a> environment into the water column filled with oxygen. 



Here, microorganisms transform the carbon into carbon dioxide, or CO2, which can escape into the atmosphere. This heat-trapping greenhouse gas is a major contributor to climate change.



Dr. Zhang's team estimated that North Sea trawling alone releases about 1 million tons of CO2 from sediments annually. The global estimate stands at 30 million tons - which is about 10% less than previous global estimates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calling-for-enhanced-seabed-protection">Calling for enhanced seabed protection</h2>



The study's findings highlight the need to protect our ocean floors more effectively, explicitly targeting muddy habitats in marginal seas like the North Sea. 



Marine protection measures have traditionally been focused on areas with hard, sandy bottoms and reefs. These areas, despite their ecological diversity, store less carbon.



"Our methods and results might be used in optimizing marine spatial planning policies to gauge the potential carbon benefits of limiting or ending bottom trawling within protected areas," noted Dr. Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-marine-protection-strategies">Rethinking marine protection strategies</h2>



The findings on trawling’s climate impact are pushing scientists and conservationists to reconsider current marine protection strategies.



Traditional conservation efforts have focused on areas with high biodiversity, such as coral reefs and sandy seabeds, often overlooking soft, muddy habitats where trawling causes the most carbon disruption.



By shifting attention to these vulnerable carbon-rich areas, policymakers could develop more effective regulations that not only protect marine life but also contribute to climate mitigation. 



This renewed focus could involve establishing no-trawling zones in sediment-heavy regions - enhancing carbon storage while safeguarding diverse ocean ecosystems.



While these strategies offer a pathway forward, it’s essential to understand the long-term effects that seabed disturbance has on our oceans' capacity to store carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-impacts-of-seabed-disturbance">Long-term impacts of seabed disturbance</h2>



The disruption of seabed sediments through trawling has consequences that extend beyond immediate carbon release. 



Once disturbed, these sediments take years or even decades to stabilize and rebuild their carbon-storing capabilities.



This prolonged recovery period means that frequent trawling in the same areas could prevent the seafloor from ever fully regaining its role as a carbon sink. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trawling-and-climate-change">Trawling and climate change</h2>



Over time, this ongoing disturbance diminishes the ocean’s natural ability to capture and store carbon, amplifying the challenge of addressing climate change. 



Researchers warn that without intervention, these cumulative effects could lead to long-term losses in carbon storage capacity, highlighting the importance of sustainable fishing practices and regulated trawling efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01581-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Unseen impacts of fishing: Trawling fuels climate change

Trawling is a major part of the fishing industry, which...

Starting early Tuesday morning, the Southern Taurids meteor shower - fondly known as the "fireball champion" -- is ready to light up our night sky.



Unlike many meteor showers that produce a higher quantity of faint meteors, the Southern Taurids are renowned for generating a smaller number of very bright, slow-moving fireballs that can be easily spotted across the night sky.



Not to mention, their sister event, the Northern Taurids, will follow closely behind. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dart-mission-debris-will-create-a-human-made-meteor-shower/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteor shower</a> will reach its peak on November 12, giving us not one but two fiery performances.



"While&nbsp;the two showers&nbsp;only produce around five visible meteors per hour under ideal viewing conditions, they are often very bright fireballs," said Sally Brummel, planetarium manager at the University of Minnesota’s <a href="https://www.bellmuseum.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bell Museum</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brighter-and-longer-lasting-meteors">Brighter and longer lasting meteors </h2>



Despite producing fewer visible meteors, their luminosity makes each one a sight to behold. Think of the Taurids as the shooting star quality controllers of the universe, selecting only the brightest and the best for your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-meteor-showers-delta-aquarids-alpha-capricornids-light-up-night-skies-august-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stargazing experience</a>.



“What’s notable is that they’re likely to produce brighter and longer-lasting meteors than some other showers, even if there aren’t as many,” said Brummel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-of-the-taurids-meteor-showers">Timing of the Taurids meteor showers </h2>



For the Southern Taurids, the peak viewing moment coincides with a rather convenient time when the moon will be only about 11% full.



Meanwhile, the Northern Taurids may face some moonlight interference with the moon being 79% full.



The grandeur of these shows is not a one-time affair. In fact, you can relish the sight until December. 



The showers are most active between midnight and the early morning hours. For optimal viewing, pick a spot away from city lights with a clear overhead view.



Keep in mind, the less light around you, the better the show. Also, avoid the glow of your cell phone as your eyes adapt better to meteor spotting without it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-showers">Science behind the showers</h2>



So, how do these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-meteor-showers-delta-aquarids-alpha-capricornids-combine-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">showers</a> happen? Most meteor showers, including the Taurids, stem from the debris left behind by comets. In this case, both the Northern and Southern Taurids originate from the debris of Comet Encke. 



When the cosmic bits of debris collide with our planet's atmosphere, the air resistance heats them up significantly. This causes the air surrounding them to illuminate and form a spectacular fiery tail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-myths-and-folklore-of-meteors">Myths and folklore of meteors</h2>



Meteors have inspired myths and folklore across cultures, and are often regarded as mysterious and powerful omens.



In many Western cultures, meteors or "shooting stars" are seen as good luck, and people are encouraged to make a wish upon seeing one. 



This belief stems from ancient Greece, where philosopher Ptolemy suggested that stars falling from the heavens meant that the gods were watching - providing a moment when wishes would be heard.



In many ancient societies, meteors were seen as omens of war, disaster, or the death of a prominent person. 



For example, in ancient Rome, meteors were often interpreted as signs from the gods warning of an upcoming battle or tragedy.



Similarly, in medieval Europe, meteor showers were sometimes thought to foretell famine, plague, or other significant disasters.



These tales reflect humanity's enduring fascination with the celestial drama above, where scientific phenomena merge with cultural narratives, enriching our understanding of both the physical and metaphysical worlds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-embracing-taurids-meteor-showers">Embracing Taurids meteor showers</h2>



Engaging with the Taurids and other meteor showers is more than just an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dart-mission-debris-will-create-a-human-made-meteor-shower/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronomical event</a>; it's a call to embrace the natural world's beauty and complexity. 



These occurrences offer a profound opportunity to reconnect with the night sky in an increasingly light-polluted world. 



By venturing out to witness this celestial display, one can find solace and inspiration under the vast canopy of stars, reigniting a sense of wonder and curiosity.



Moreover, by understanding and appreciating the science behind these events, we can cultivate a deeper respect for the cosmos and our unique place within it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leonids-meteor-shower">Leonids meteor shower</h2>



Following closely on the heels of the Taurids, the next big meteor shower - the Leonids - will peak early in the morning of November 17.



The Leonids are one of the most famous annual meteor showers, known for their intensity and occasional "meteor storms" where thousands of meteors can be seen per hour.



This cosmic theater, ultimately running from September 23 through December 8, is turning November into an astronomical extravaganza.



Together, these back-to-back events offer a more comprehensive and varied night-sky experience that’s hard to replicate with a single meteor shower.



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Two "sister" Taurids meteor showers peak this week, fireballs begin tonight

Starting early Tuesday morning, the Southern Taurids meteor shower -...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...