We can explore humankind’s creations on land, but viewing them from space gives us an even more impressive picture of how we have changed the planet. This image – a composite of snaps from April and October 2012 – is a stunning map of where people have gathered and brightened this half of the globe.

35. North and South America by night

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Costa Atlántica Reserve stretching along the Atlantic coast in Argentina.



“At the far southern reaches of South America, a stretch of tidal flats, shoals, and beaches serves as a refuge for migratory shorebirds and copious aquatic life,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“The Costa Atlántica Reserve in Argentina extends for 220 kilometers (140 miles) along the eastern shore of Tierra del Fuego. The area was designated a Ramsar site in 1995 and a provincial nature reserve in 1998." 



According to NASA, the reserve is the southernmost site both on the Ramsar list and in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-costa-atlantica-reserve">Significance of the Costa Atlántica Reserve</h2>



The Costa Atlántica Reserve is an important conservation site that signifies Argentina's commitment to preserving its rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal biodiversity</a>.&nbsp;



This vast expanse of protected area serves as a sanctuary for many species, ranging from migratory birds to marine mammals and diverse plant life.



“Tidal habitats along the coast support some 135 species of birds, while crustaceans, mollusks, fish, and cetaceans feed in the productive coastal waters,” said NASA.&nbsp;



“The topography inland of Costa Atlántica, stretching into Chile to the west, is blanketed in shrubs and grassland vegetation adapted to dry conditions - part of a semiarid ecosystem known as the Fuegian steppe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-ecological-balance-nbsp">Maintaining ecological balance&nbsp;</h2>



Established to safeguard the delicate ecosystems of dunes, estuaries, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-lagoons-have-high-loads-of-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal lagoons</a>, the reserve plays a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance.&nbsp;



The Costa Atlántica Reserve provides critical habitats for numerous threatened species, including the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-right-whales-have-shifted-their-foraging-grounds/">Southern Right Whale</a>, which finds refuge in these waters during its breeding season. 



The reserve’s sheltered bays and nutrient-rich waters create an ideal environment for mothers to nurse their calves before embarking on long migrations. 



In addition to whales, the reserve supports populations of sea lions and Magellanic penguins. Its protection is vital for the long-term survival of these species in the face of climate change and human activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-costa-atlantica-reserve-a-living-laboratory-nbsp">Costa Atlántica Reserve: A living laboratory&nbsp;</h2>



The Costa Atlántica Reserve is not only a refuge for wildlife but also a living laboratory for scientific research. 



Conservationists and researchers work within its bounds to monitor ecosystems, study species behaviors, and develop strategies for sustainable management. 



This ongoing research is pivotal in understanding the impacts of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-river-deltas-face-major-threats-beyond-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal environments</a> and in devising measures to mitigate these effects.



Furthermore, the reserve illustrates the importance of community involvement in conservation efforts. Local communities are engaged in sustainable tourism and educational programs.&nbsp;



Through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bird-photographers-improve-nesting-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eco-tourism</a> initiatives, visitors can experience the natural beauty of the reserve while contributing to its preservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tierra-del-fuego-archipelago">Tierra del Fuego archipelago</h2>



According to NASA, the broader landscape of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was shaped by glaciers.&nbsp;



“Ice advanced over the mountains and lowlands during cold climatic periods between the mid-Pleistocene, about 1 million years ago, and the Last Glacial Maximum, about 20,000 years ago. San Sebastián Bay formed in a tectonic depression that was deepened by glacial erosion," noted NASA.&nbsp;



“Further evidence of glaciation, including hummocky moraines and fields of glacial erratics, appears around the bay, though it is too small to be visible in this image.”



“Partially enclosed by a long, sandy peninsula, San Sebastián Bay attracts copious migratory birds, some of which shuttle seasonally between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.”



“Large populations of the Hudsonian godwit, white-rumped sandpiper, and other long-distance flyers congregate in the vast intertidal zones. This part of the reserve, however, is vulnerable to the impact of oil and gas extraction from onshore and offshore deposits.”



The image was captured on February 20, 2024 by the <a href="https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/landsat-9/landsat-9-instruments/oli-2-design/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OLI-2</a> (Operational Land Imager-2) on Landsat 9.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Costa Atlántica Reserve in Argentina

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an explosive eruption of Mount Etna, the most active volcano in Europe. The photo was captured on February 13 by the OLI (Operational Land Imager) on the Landsat 8 satellite.



<a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153962/river-of-fire-on-mount-etna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> noted that the natural-color scene is overlaid with an infrared signal to distinguish the lava’s heat signature on the mountain's snowy slopes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-unrest">Signs of unrest</h2>



“On February 8, 2025, Italy’s National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) reported that Mount Etna had begun exhibiting ‘signs of unrest above its background level,’”&nbsp;said NASA.



“That’s unsurprising for the frequently unruly Sicilian peak, one of the most active stratovolcanoes in the world. But the fiery explosions, disruptive ash clouds, and long lava flows that ensued stood out as being unusually spectacular to many Etna watchers.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intensifying-eruptions-on-mount-etna">Intensifying eruptions on Mount Etna </h2>



The activity intensified on February 10th, with lava flowing from the Bocca Nuova crater at an altitude of approximately 3,000 meters above sea level.&nbsp;



According to news reports, the eruption created a striking visual as molten lava traversed the snow-covered slopes, producing rivers of lava up to 3 kilometers long and emitting ash plumes visible from several kilometers away.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> attracted thousands of tourists eager to witness the spectacle. However, the influx of visitors led to traffic congestion, obstructing emergency services and prompting warnings from local authorities about the potential dangers of approaching the active volcano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-mount-etna-eruptions">Impacts of Mount Etna eruptions </h2>



Despite the dramatic displays, there were no reports of injuries or significant property damage, though experts continue to closely monitor the situation.



Satellite imagery has provided detailed views of the active lava flow cutting through the snow-covered slopes, with ash plumes dispersing from the summit.



“The presence of ash prompted authorities to raise the aviation color code to orange on February 13. On other days during this eruption, it was elevated to red, the highest level of concern. The airport in nearby Catania diverted flights amid hazardous conditions, according to news reports,” said NASA.



“Since Etna stirred to life this time around, crowds of hikers and even some skiers flocked to its slopes to witness the fiery displays and lava flows melting through snow. The eruption was ongoing as of February 18, with weak ash emissions and decreasing explosive activity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-volcano-with-a-long-history">A volcano with a long history </h2>



Mount Etna has a history stretching back hundreds of thousands of years. Located on the east coast of Sicily, near Catania, the volcano has shaped the landscape and influenced human civilization.



The volcano’s activity dates back at least 500,000 years, with its earliest eruptions occurring beneath the sea before the landmass emerged. Over time, lava flows, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a>, and collapses have sculpted the towering stratovolcano seen today.



Ancient civilizations were well aware of Etna’s power. Greek mythology depicted it as the forge of Hephaestus, the god of fire, while the poet Pindar described its violent eruptions. The philosopher Empedocles was even said to have perished in its fiery depths.&nbsp;



Etna’s eruptions were documented throughout Roman history, including a major event in 122 BC that devastated Catania.



During the Middle Ages and Renaissance periods, Etna continued its eruptions, frequently altering its landscape and affecting nearby settlements.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-activity-of-mount-etna">Monitoring the activity of Mount Etna </h2>



One of the most devastating eruptions occurred in 1669, when lava flows destroyed several villages and overwhelmed parts of Catania’s city walls. Despite these dangers, people continued to live and farm on Etna’s fertile slopes, taking advantage of its rich volcanic soil.



Scientific study of Mount Etna began in the 19th and 20th centuries, as researchers sought to understand its behavior and mitigate its risks. Advances in monitoring technology have since helped track its activity, though eruptions remain unpredictable.&nbsp;



In modern times, Etna continues to be one of the most closely watched <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> in the world, with frequent eruptions, ash clouds, and lava flows affecting air travel and local communities.



Mount Etna was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013 due to its geological significance and cultural history.&nbsp;



Today, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-next-big-volcano-eruption-will-cause-global-chaos-climate-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> attracts tourists, scientists, and locals alike, serving as both a reminder of nature’s power and a source of economic and scientific interest.



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Fiery eruption of Mount Etna captured from space

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1333, a reflection nebula located in the Perseus molecular cloud about 960 light-years away from Earth. The photo is a mosaic of images captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-webb-nbsp-nbsp">The power of Webb&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>



“Webb’s superb sensitivity allows astronomers to investigate young objects with extremely low masses. Some of the faintest ‘stars’ in the picture are in fact newly born free-floating brown dwarfs with masses comparable to those of giant planets,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



The same cluster was featured as the 33rd anniversary image of the Hubble Space Telescope in April 2023.&nbsp;



According to ESA, Hubble’s image just scratched the surface of this region, because clouds of dust obscure much of the star formation process. 



"Observing with larger aperture and in the infrared part of the spectrum, Webb is capable of peering through the dusty veil to reveal newborn stars, brown dwarfs and planetary mass objects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-view-of-ngc-1333">Webb’s view of NGC 1333</h2>



ESA noted that the center of the image presents a deep peek into the heart of the NGC 1333 cloud. 



“Across the image we see large patches of orange, which represent gas glowing in the infrared. These so-called Herbig-Haro objects form when ionized material ejected from young stars collides with the surrounding cloud. They are hallmarks of a very active site of star formation."



The disks of gas and dust that surround the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in this image may eventually produce planetary systems.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-the-sun">Formation of the Sun</h2>



“Similar to the young stars in this mosaic, our own Sun and planets formed inside a dusty molecular cloud, 4.6 billion years ago. Our Sun did not form in isolation but as part of a cluster, which was perhaps even more massive than NGC 1333,” explained ESA.



Over time, the stars in the Sun's birth cluster would have drifted apart due to gravitational interactions and the dispersion of gas in the region.



Astronomers have been studying certain clues, such as isotopic signatures in meteorites, that hint the Sun may have formed near massive stars. These stars likely produced supernovae, which could have influenced the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-objects-spotted-in-the-outer-solar-system-beyond-pluto/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> by injecting heavy elements like iron-60.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1333">Star formation in NGC 1333</h2>



NGC 1333 is a vibrant example of a stellar nursery, where active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> is ongoing. It is known for its chaotic appearance, shaped by the interactions between newborn stars and the surrounding material.



Within NGC 1333, astronomers have observed a high level of turbulence, which makes the region dynamic and complex. 



These disturbances are caused by the outflows of young stars as they eject material into their surroundings, creating shock waves and influencing further star formation.&nbsp;



These outflows are often seen as jets, which are visible in multiple wavelengths of light, especially infrared, as the surrounding dust absorbs visible light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-ngc-1333">Significance of NGC 1333</h2>



NGC 1333 is also an area of interest for studying the early stages of star and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>, as many of the stars within the cluster are in their infancy, still in the process of gathering material and developing protoplanetary disks.&nbsp;



In images, NGC 1333 is marked by bright patches of blue and red, representing reflection <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and the ionized gas created by energetic young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-perseus-molecular-cloud-nbsp">The Perseus molecular cloud&nbsp;</h2>



The Perseus molecular cloud is a vast region of cold gas and dust located about 600 light-years away from Earth in the constellation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1500-billion-orphan-stars-discovered-in-the-perseus-galaxy-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseus</a>.&nbsp;



It is one of the most studied star-forming regions in our galaxy due to its relative proximity and the diversity of its young stellar objects. This cloud spans several hundred light-years and contains dense pockets of gas where new stars are actively forming.&nbsp;



These areas are often enshrouded in thick dust, which obscures them in visible light but allows astronomers to study them using infrared and radio wavelengths.



The Perseus molecular cloud is particularly interesting because of the chemistry taking place within it, including the formation of complex organic molecules that could be precursors to life.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA



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Stellar nursery shines in the Perseus cloud

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features smoke streaming from Tasmania, where bushfires were ignited by dry lightning strikes earlier this month.&nbsp;



By February 5, more than a dozen fires were burning in the state's remote central and western regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bushfires-fueled-by-challenging-conditions">Bushfires fueled by challenging conditions </h2>



Communities such as Zeehan, Corinna, and Pieman Heads have been threatened, leading to evacuations and significant disruptions during the peak tourism season.



“In early February 2025, bushfires ignited in northwestern Tasmania, where they have continued to burn on the island for more than a week amid windy, warm, and dry conditions,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153933/smoke-billows-from-bushfires-in-tasmania" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“Smoke from the fires is visible in this image, acquired at about 4 p.m. local time on February 12, 2025, by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) instrument on NASA’s Aqua satellite.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-the-tasmania-bushfires">Impacts of the Tasmania bushfires</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-threaten-the-recovery-of-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fires</a> have burned over 90,000 hectares, with a combined perimeter exceeding 1,200 kilometers.



The fires are expected to continue burning for several more weeks. Due to the region's remote and challenging terrain, authorities report that significant effort is still needed to gain control over the blazes.



“According to a heatwave warning from Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology (BoM), much of the state’s west coast saw severe heatwave conditions on several days during the week of February 10,” noted NASA.



“The region has also been exceptionally dry. For example, the past 12-month period has been the driest on record (since 1900) along the coastal areas near Sandy Cape.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-and-heritage-sites">Cultural and heritage sites</h2>



One significant area under threat is the takayna/Tarkine region in northwest Tasmania. This region is home to a grove of ancient Huon pine trees, including one estimated to be between 2,500 and 3,000 years old, making it the oldest known Huon pine.&nbsp;



The Yellowband Plain fire has burned perilously close to this grove, coming within meters of these irreplaceable trees.



Firefighters from Tasmania, interstate, and New Zealand are collaborating to control the blazes and help protect the Huon pine trees, as well as Indigenous heritage sites. 



Efforts to assess and mitigate the damage have been hampered by challenging weather conditions, including low cloud cover that restricts aerial surveys. Strong winds of up to 50 miles per hour have also complicated efforts to contain the bushfires.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-is-intensifying-bushfires-nbsp">Climate change is intensifying bushfires&nbsp;</h2>



Climate change and bushfires are deeply interconnected, with rising global temperatures intensifying the frequency and severity of wildfires in many regions.&nbsp;



Warmer temperatures lead to drier conditions, reducing moisture in vegetation and making it more susceptible to ignition. Prolonged droughts - which are becoming more common due to climate change - further dry out forests and grasslands, creating an abundance of flammable material.



Extreme heat waves increase the likelihood of fires starting and spreading rapidly. Higher temperatures also contribute to stronger winds, which can fan flames and carry embers over long distances, igniting new fires. 



Additionally, shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultrafine-particles-in-wildfire-smoke-change-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns</a> are altering fire seasons, making them longer and more unpredictable. Some areas that previously had clear fire seasons are now experiencing fires year-round.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-behavior-of-wildfires-nbsp">Shifting behavior of wildfires&nbsp;</h2>



Climate change is also affecting the way bushfires behave. Many recent wildfires have been more intense, burning hotter and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-wildfires-are-gaining-even-more-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spreading faster</a> than historical fires. This makes them harder to control and increases their impact on communities, ecosystems, and wildlife. 



The destruction of forests not only contributes to immediate carbon emissions but also reduces the planet’s ability to absorb carbon dioxide, creating a feedback loop that worsens climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-increased-fire-activity">Consequences of increased fire activity</h2>



Beyond the direct effects on landscapes and air quality, increased bushfire activity has severe consequences for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-is-an-underestimated-threat-to-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human health</a>, economies, and biodiversity. 



Smoke from large wildfires contains fine particles that can cause respiratory problems and other health issues, even for people far from the fire zones.&nbsp;



Wildlife struggles to escape or recover from habitat destruction, sometimes pushing species closer to extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-the-risks">Mitigating the risks</h2>



Efforts to mitigate these risks include better fire management strategies, improved early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bushfires-are-detected-500-times-faster-with-ai-satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warning systems</a>, and sustainable land-use practices. 



However, long-term solutions require addressing the root cause - reducing greenhouse gas emissions to slow down global warming.&nbsp;



Without significant action, climate change will continue to fuel more extreme and destructive bushfires, with devastating consequences for both nature and society.



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Tasmania bushfires: A growing crisis in an era of climate change

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an astronaut view of Mount Nemrut, a volcano located in eastern Turkey near Lake Van.



Mount Nemrut is notable for its immense caldera, which was formed through a series of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a>. The caldera, one of the largest in the world, now contains several lakes such as Lake Nemrut.&nbsp;



"The eastern half of the caldera is partially filled by solidified lava flows from past eruptions. Snow cover present at the time of this photo accentuates pressure ridges that formed as the lava was flowing and cooling," noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"These pressure ridges vary in size, thickness, and orientation due to the varying viscosity and flow direction of the lavas during eruptions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-lake-nemrut">Formation of Lake Nemrut</h2>



"Lake Nemrut (Nemrut Gölü) occupies the western half of the caldera, creating a rough crescent shape that partially submerges the old lava flows," said NASA.



"This freshwater lake, reaching up to 176 meters deep, is accompanied by a smaller lake at the upper-center of the caldera."



The lake was formed after the collapse of the Nemrut volcano's summit. This collapse created a massive crater, which gradually filled with water over time, forming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unesco-world-heritage-site">UNESCO World Heritage Site </h2>



Mount Nemrut and its surroundings are part of a protected UNESCO World Heritage Site due to their ecological and geological significance.



The site is home to diverse wildlife, including various bird species that use the lake as a stopover during migration. The caldera also contains smaller lakes and wetlands, adding to the area's biodiversity.



Lake Nemrut is a popular destination for tourists, hikers, and nature enthusiasts, offering stunning views of the volcanic landscape.



Despite its popularity, the lake remains relatively remote and unspoiled, contributing to its appeal as a natural wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mount-nemrut-has-shaped-the-landscape">Mount Nemrut has shaped the landscape</h2>



Geologically, Mount Nemrut is interesting because its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a> have played a key role in shaping the local landscape. 



Its last major eruption occurred around 1441 AD, which indicates that it's not currently active.



The area around Nemrut is known for its geothermal activity, including hot springs and fumaroles, suggesting that there is still significant heat beneath the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tribute-to-a-king">Tribute to a king</h2>



Over thousands of years, various civilizations have inhabited the region around Nemrut, leaving behind a wealth of archaeological sites.



The summit of Mount Nemrut is dominated by a vast funerary mound constructed by King Antiochus I Theos, who ruled the Kingdom of Commagene in the 1st century BCE. 



The site was intended to serve as his tomb sanctuary and a place to commemorate the king's vision of divine kingship and unity between Eastern and Western cultures.



The mound, made of loose crushed stones, measures about 50 meters (164 feet) in height and spans a diameter of 150 meters (492 feet), creating an imposing feature visible from afar.



Surrounding the mound are terraces on the eastern, western, and northern sides, each adorned with colossal statues and reliefs. The statues, ranging in height from 8 to 10 meters (26 to 33 feet), represent various deities, including Zeus, Apollo, Hercules, and the goddess Tyche, alongside King Antiochus himself. 



The heads of the statues, many of which have toppled over due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a> and erosion, lie scattered around the site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiritual-and-religious-practices">Spiritual and religious practices</h2>



In addition to the statues, inscriptions at Mount Nemrut provide valuable historical information about the kingdom, the king's lineage, and the religious practices of the time.



The site is not only a marvel of ancient engineering but also a spiritual and astronomical center. Scholars believe the terraces were aligned with celestial events, serving as an observatory for solstices and equinoxes.



In addition to its natural and historical significance, the Nemrut volcano has been the subject of scientific study, as researchers aim to understand more about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> in the region, the history of its eruptions, and the potential risks it may pose in the future.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Mount Nemrut: Ancient mysteries and natural marvels 

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features La Niña, a global climate event that is expected to be short-lived.



The map represents sea surface height anomalies on January 13, 2025 across the central and eastern Pacific Ocean.&nbsp;



“Shades of blue indicate sea levels that were lower than average, while shades of red indicate areas where the ocean stood higher than normal. Normal sea level conditions appear in white,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153917/la-nina-is-here" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-onset-of-la-nina-nbsp">The onset of La Niña&nbsp;</h2>



According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), sea surface temperatures in the east-central equatorial Pacific dropped below average in December 2024, marking the onset of La Niña. This cooling pattern has persisted into early 2025.



NOAA's Climate Prediction Center indicates a 59% chance that La Niña conditions will continue through February-April 2025, with a likely transition to ENSO-neutral conditions during March-May 2025.



“After seven months of waiting, La Niña - the cooler sister of El Niño - finally showed up in the eastern Pacific Ocean in early December 2024. La Niña may not stick around long, though,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-la-nina">What is La Niña?</h2>



La Niña is a phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle that occurs when strengthened easterly trade winds enhance the upwelling of cooler water from the depths of the eastern tropical Pacific.&nbsp;



This process leads to a significant cooling of surface waters in the central and eastern Pacific near the equator. The intensified trade winds also drive warm equatorial waters westward toward Asia and Australia.&nbsp;



“This dramatic cooling of the ocean’s surface layers affects the atmosphere by modifying the moisture content across the Pacific,” explained NASA.



“In a report published on January 9, 2025, the NOAA Climate Prediction Center confirmed that La Niña conditions were present. They measured sea surface temperatures 0.7 degrees Celsius (1.3 degrees Fahrenheit) below average in an area of the tropical Pacific, from 170° to 120° West longitude, known as the Niño 3.4 region.”



“The signature of La Niña is also visible in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean as areas of lower-than-average water levels. That’s because cooler water contracts, lowering sea levels. (Conversely, warmer water expands, raising them).”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-la-nina-forecast-nbsp">La Niña forecast&nbsp;</h2>



Josh Willis, an oceanographer and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich project scientist at JPL, pointed out that although La Niña is here, it’s not a particularly strong one.



Willis noted that during an especially strong La Niña in 2010-2011, temperatures in the tropical Pacific were about 1.6°C (2.9°F) below average in January 2011, compared to just 0.7°C (1.3°F) below average in January 2025.&nbsp;



NOAA predicts that this La Niña will remain weak and is unlikely to drop below -1°C from the average - the threshold for a moderate-strength event. Neutral conditions are expected to return during the meteorological spring.



La Niña’s interaction between the ocean and atmosphere alters global atmospheric circulation, shifting mid-latitude jet streams in ways that can intensify rainfall in some regions and cause drought in others.&nbsp;



In the western Pacific, Indonesia and Australia may experience increased rainfall. The central and eastern Pacific is expected to experience reduced cloud cover and precipitation, leading to drier conditions in Brazil, Argentina, and other parts of South America. Meanwhile, Central America may see wetter conditions.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-"></h2>



In North America, La Niña typically brings cooler, stormier weather to the Pacific Northwest, while the southern United States and northern Mexico tend to experience warmer, drier conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-source-of-variability">Natural source of variability</h2>



“ENSO adds a natural source of year-to-year variability in global temperatures. Because such a wide swath of the Pacific is cold, La Niña tends to keep a lid on the average global surface temperature,” explained NASA.



“But even the cool water in the Pacific does not completely offset long-term warming trends; some of the hottest years on record have coincided with La Niña, such as in 2010 and 2020.”



The map is based on data that was acquired by the Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich satellite and processed by scientists at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).&nbsp;



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La Niña has arrived - but it may not stay for long

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Corbassière glacier, a high-altitude glacier in Switzerland. The glacier originates on the northern slope of the Grand Combin, which is one of the highest peaks in the Pennine Alps.



Collectively, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-glaciers-will-lose-half-of-their-volume-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpine glaciers</a> of Switzerland have lost more than half of their volume since the 1930s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-archives-of-past-climate">Natural archives of past climate </h2>



"Glaciers are natural archives of past climate. In their frozen layers lies evidence of Earth’s changing temperature and atmospheric composition. But as the climate warms, some of the longest records of our changing planet are melting away," said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



"In just over two decades, Corbassière has shrunk in area and surface mass. The glacier was darker in 2023 due to lack of snow, and the glacier’s tongue had retreated."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-cores-from-the-corbassiere-glacier">Ice cores from the Corbassière glacier</h2>



To reconstruct past concentrations of atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-aerosols-impact-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a>, a team of scientists analyzed ice cores that were collected from the Corbassière glacier in 2018 and 2020.&nbsp;



Aerosols are tiny airborne particles that are deposited in the ice. "Such information from glaciers around the world can provide clues about past environmental conditions thousands of years ago," noted NASA.



"Ice cores contain ammonium, nitrate, and sulfate ions - signatures of aerosols lacing the snow that’s deposited on glaciers year after year. Ion concentrations are lower in winter than in summer because less polluted air can rise from the valley when the air is cold."



When the researchers analyzed the ice core from 2018, they found seasonal fluctuations in the amount of ion deposits - which is what they expected to find.&nbsp;



"But when we went to core the glacier in 2020, we noticed melting on the surface right away,” said Margit Schwikowski, an environmental chemist at <a href="https://www.psi.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul Scherrer Institute</a> in Switzerland.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-surface-melting-on-corbassiere-glacier">Rapid surface melting on Corbassière glacier</h2>



The experts determined that melting on the glacier's surface likely penetrated the glacier layers below and carried away the aerosol ions. 



"This melting rendered the core unusable in the team’s research, and other attempts to core the glacier had the same result. The valuable information stored in the ice was destroyed," explained NASA.



Schwikowski has joined a team of other experts in an effort to preserve cores from the last remaining glaciers. Led by the <a href="https://www.ice-memory.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Memory Foundation</a>, the goal of the project is to obtain ice cores from 20 endangered glaciers around the world in 20 years and collect them in a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-ice-has-a-history-of-rapid-and-unexpected-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate archive</a>.



“Glaciers are retreating worldwide, and we may find similar issues at other sites,” said Schwikowski. She added that even at the highest altitudes in the Alps, "glaciers are on the verge of becoming unsuitable as natural paleo-archives."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-features-of-the-corbassiere-glacier">Features of the Corbassière Glacier</h2>



The Corbassière Glacier is a captivating natural feature located in the Swiss Alps, part of the canton of Valais. 



The glacier stretches over approximately 9 kilometers, making it one of the significant glaciers in the region. It originates from the Grand Combin, an imposing mountain massif that reaches heights of over 4,300 meters, contributing greatly to the glacier's nourishment through snow and ice accumulation.



A distinct feature of the Corbassière Glacier is its accessibility and the dramatic scenery it offers, which attracts many hikers and nature enthusiasts. 



One of the most notable attractions near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomsday-glacier-seems-to-have-lost-its-ability-to-recover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> is the Corbassière footbridge, a 210-meter long suspension bridge that provides stunning views of the glacier and the surrounding peaks. 



This bridge not only enhances the experience for visitors but also serves as a crucial observation point for scientists studying glacier dynamics and the effects of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Swiss Alps&nbsp;</h2>



The Swiss <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-cover-in-the-alps-could-soon-be-cut-in-half/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alps</a> are a majestic and expansive mountain range that stretches across the southern part of Switzerland, forming a part of the greater Alpine region that spreads across several countries in Europe.&nbsp;



Renowned for their stunning beauty and formidable peaks, the Swiss Alps are not just a geographical landmark but also a cultural symbol of Switzerland, epitomizing its identity as a nation of scenic landscapes and outdoor adventure.



The region is famous for its dramatic scenery, including towering mountains, pristine lakes, and picturesque valleys. Among these peaks are some of the highest in Europe, such as the Dufourspitze, part of the Monte Rosa massif, which is the highest point in Switzerland. 



The Matterhorn, perhaps the most iconic of all Swiss mountains, is celebrated for its unique, pyramid-like shape and is a magnet for climbers and tourists alike.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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The Corbassière glacier in the Swiss Alps

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy I Zwicky 18, which was captured in remarkable detail by the James Webb Space Telescope.



I Zwicky 18 is a blue compact dwarf <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> located approximately 59 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-i-zwicky-18">Star formation in I Zwicky 18</h2>



The galaxy is notable for its relatively young appearance and the fact that it contains very few heavy elements. These characteristics indicate that it has experienced little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> compared to other galaxies of similar age.



“The galaxy was first identified by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930’s and resides roughly 59 million light-years from Earth,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. “This galaxy has gone through several sudden bursts of star formation.”&nbsp;



According to ESA, I Zwicky 18 is typical of the kinds of galaxies that inhabited the early universe and is much smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-star-j1249-36-spotted-trying-to-escape-our-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-telescope-image-of-the-galaxy">Webb telescope image of the galaxy</h2>



“Two major starburst regions are embedded in the heart of the galaxy. The wispy brown filaments surrounding the central starburst region are bubbles of gas that have been heated by stellar winds and intense ultraviolet radiation unleashed by hot, young stars,” said ESA.



“A companion galaxy resides nearby to the dwarf galaxy, which can be seen at the bottom of the wider-field image. The companion may be interacting with the dwarf galaxy and may have triggered that galaxy's recent star formation.”&nbsp;



ESA explained that the “orange blobs” surrounding the galaxy are the dim glow from ancient fully formed galaxies at much larger distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-characteristics-of-i-zwicky-18">Key characteristics of I Zwicky 18</h2>



As previously mentioned, the galaxy has a very low abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, suggesting that it has not undergone significant stellar processing.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-stellar-population-nbsp">Young stellar population&nbsp;</h3>



Despite its old age, I Zwicky 18 contains many young, hot stars. This suggests that it might have experienced a burst of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-detects-awe-inspiring-newborn-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> relatively recently in its history.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-medium-nbsp">Interstellar medium&nbsp;</h3>



The galaxy has a high density of gas, which is a prime ingredient for star formation. This gas is mostly in the form of hydrogen.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-characteristics">Unusual characteristics</h3>



Its characteristics are more typical of primordial galaxies found in the early universe, making it a valuable object of study for understanding galaxy formation and evolution.



Ultimately, I Zwicky 18 provides insights into the conditions and processes that might have been prevalent in the early universe.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-cycles-of-stars-and-dust">Life cycles of stars and dust</h3>



The image was captured as part of a Webb program to study the life cycle of dust in I Zw 18.&nbsp;



“Scientists are now building off of previous research with Hubble obtained at optical wavelengths, studying individual dusty stars in detail with Webb’s equivalent spatial resolution and sensitivity at infrared wavelengths.”&nbsp;



ESA noted that this galaxy is of particular interest as its content of elements heavier than helium is one of the lowest of all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in the local universe.&nbsp;



“Such conditions are thought to be similar to those in some of the first star-forming galaxies at high redshift, so the Webb study of I Zw 18 should shed light on the life-cycle of stars and dust in the early universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-ursa-major">The constellation Ursa Major </h2>



Ursa Major, also known as the Great Bear, is one of the most prominent and easily recognizable constellations in the northern sky. 



Its name, "Ursa Major," means "Great Bear" in Latin, and it has been a significant part of various mythologies and star lore across cultures for thousands of years. 



One of the most famous asterisms within Ursa Major is the Big Dipper, a group of seven bright stars that form a shape resembling a ladle or dipper. The Big Dipper is often used as a navigation tool because it points to Polaris, the North Star, located in the nearby constellation Ursa Minor.



Ursa Major is best viewed in the northern hemisphere and is circumpolar, meaning it is visible year-round for much of the Northern Hemisphere. Its position changes with the seasons, rotating around Polaris, the North Star.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Dwarf galaxy provides a window into the early universe

The MODIS instrument, short for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, is a key instrument aboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. MODIS is playing a vital role in the development of Earth ecosystem models, able to predict global changes, which then assist policy makers in making informed decisions about the protection of the global environment.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps are seen in this Image of the day&nbsp;from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at heavy snow and low clouds in the Alps. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps

Monitoring Earth Changes with MODIS

Aqua is a NASA scientific research satellite that studies precipitation, evaporation, and water cycles. Terra and Aura make up the Earth Observing System. It's the second component of the system.

A frozen Lake Erie in February Today’s Image of the Day comes from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at a frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/icy-lake-erie/">Lake Erie</a>, which is currently 93.3 percent iced over. A frozen Lake Erie in February
This false-color image was created using data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Aqua satellite to differentiate between snow, ice, and clouds.
Lake Erie /ˈɪəri/ (French: Lac Érié) is the fourth-largest lake (by surface area) of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the eleventh-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area.It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet (64 metres) deep. 
Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie&#8217;s northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, specifically the Ontario Peninsula, with the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern, and eastern shores. These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries. 
The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native American people who lived along its southern shore. The tribal name &#8220;erie&#8221; is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word erielhonan, meaning long tail
&#8212;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

A frozen Lake Erie in February

Aqua Earth Observing Satellite

This beautiful photo gallery contains 50 incredible images of Earth from Space. These images were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station, as well as by a multitude of NASA satellites orbiting the earth.

Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean just south of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-blue-chrysanthemums-created/">Japan</a>.
This image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on July 31, 2017. 
At the time the photo was taken, Typhoon Noru was located just 250 kilometers south of Iwo Jima. Maximum sustained winds hit 150 miles per hour.
The storm briefly became a category 5 on July 30, before being downgraded to a category 4 one day later.
&#8211;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Source: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean

Incredible Images of Earth from Space

Photos from the International Space Station are found in this awesome Earth.com image gallery. Flat-earthers won't agree, but these incredible photos of the Earth were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station. The International Space Station is a modular space station in low Earth orbit.

Northern Italy from the space station is seen here in this Image of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). The view includes the top half of the Italian Peninsula, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/wildfires-burn-northern-corsica/">Corsica</a> and Sardinia off the coast. This image was captured by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on his third and final mission to the Space Station.

Northern Italy from the Space Station

Photos from the International Space Station

Most people think wrinkles, graying hair, and a few creaks in the knees define aging. Yet scientists have spent decades exploring whether these signs, along with genetic mutations, tell the whole truth about growing older.



Early research suggests that <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/genomics-and-health/epigenetics/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetics</a> might help us measure how our bodies grow older, but what actually pushes these epigenetic “clocks” forward has been heavily debated.



The answer may involve unexpected links between random genetic changes and the epigenetic patterns found in older cells, according to Dr. Steven Cummings from Sutter Health’s California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-mutations-control-biological-age">Do mutations control biological age?</h2>



Scientists once thought that DNA mutations were the main culprits behind the decline in health we see with age.



Previous research has shown that somatic mutations, which are genetic changes acquired over a lifetime, occur more often in older tissues. Other studies noted that not all aspects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-tea-every-day-proven-studies-to-delay-biological-aging-in-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a> could be blamed on these changes alone.



This curiosity set the stage for new research on the processes sitting “on top” of DNA, known as epigenetic changes. 



Epigenetic modifications do not alter the core DNA sequence. Instead, they shift the activity of genes, and appear to follow consistent patterns as people age. Scientists measure these patterns with tests called epigenetic clocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-random-mutations-fit-in">How random mutations fit in</h2>



The recent study used tumor and noncancerous tissue samples from thousands of patients to see if they could track how mutations and epigenetic marks matched up. 



The researchers noticed a striking overlap. Once a random mutation appeared, surrounding CpG sites often showed significant shifts in a specific epigenetic mark called methylation.



The scientists found that mutated spots had a reduced level of methylation. When these changes showed up, many nearby spots either gained or lost methylation too.



Ultimately, the researchers found that the overall methylation patterns reliably tracked a person’s age, hinting at a tight bond between random genetic errors and the chemical marks that define <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36206857/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetic clocks</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-mutations-speed-up-aging">Do mutations speed up aging?</h2>



“This is very clear evidence of a relationship,” said Dr. Cummings. He emphasized that the correlation between mutations and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-cellular-mortality-timer-that-dictates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetic changes</a> leaves room for two big possibilities. One idea is that both changes are triggered by an unknown source of aging.&nbsp;



Another possibility is that somatic mutations gradually push these clocks forward. This would mean that reversing epigenetic changes may not solve the biggest problems associated with aging.



The researchers also noticed that once a cytosine base in DNA gains a methyl group, it becomes more likely to mutate. This can create a chain reaction in which each new mutation influences future epigenetic shifts. 



Scientists say more studies will help explain which event happens first, or if both swirl together in a complex cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-angles-on-health-and-disease">Fresh angles on health and disease</h2>



Epigenetic clocks have long been used to spot tissues that appear “older” or “younger” than expected for a given person’s chronological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-hotspot-found-in-the-brain-may-hold-the-key-to-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age</a>. 



These measurements often show up in discussions of early disease risk or overall lifespan. Such clocks may even prove valuable in predicting which treatments will work best for certain age-related conditions.



Still, experts warn that the actual drivers behind these epigenetic signals need more research. In some labs, investigators plan to create controlled mutations in cultured cells, then watch how epigenetic marks shift over time. 



Others hope to follow human subjects over the years, collecting samples at different intervals so that real aging patterns can be observed in action.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-mutations-and-aging">Future research on mutations and aging</h2>



Researchers are also looking at diseases tied to heightened mutation rates. Such conditions might give extra clues about whether these random genetic changes truly lead to faster aging.



Scientists are curious whether preventing new mutations, improving DNA repair, or slowing epigenetic changes can significantly extend a healthy lifespan.



Although there is excitement in the scientific community, finding the exact mechanics behind aging is tricky. More data will help show if both the mutations and epigenetic marks merely act as signals of a deeper aging process.



As Dr. Cummings suggested, if mutations are the actual trigger, then resetting epigenetic clocks alone may not be enough to reduce certain age-related health risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-hope-and-caution">Balancing hope and caution</h2>



For the average person, the concept of “biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/muscles-defy-aging-with-remarkable-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age</a>” might still feel like a puzzle. Researchers, however, see these new findings as a chance to broaden our understanding of everything that happens inside aging cells. 



Any further understanding of the basic mechanisms that are at play are going to ultimately help to advance the field.



By testing how cells respond to targeted epigenetic modifications, scientists hope to clarify whether adjusting these markers can deliver practical health benefits. Their findings, along with long-term observations of how mutations appear in various tissues, could be vital in refining current anti-aging tools.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00794-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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Causes of biological aging are much different than we thought

Most people think wrinkles, graying hair, and a few creaks...

A small weekly dose of moderate to vigorous exercise - just 35 minutes - could significantly lower an older adult’s chances of developing dementia, according to a new study.



Led by the <a href="https://publichealth.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health</a>, the research found that even older people who are frail appear to benefit from this low level of activity. 



The results suggest that physical activity is an accessible way for many seniors to protect their cognitive health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-dementia-risk-with-exercise">Reducing dementia risk with exercise</h2>



The researchers analyzed data from nearly 90,000 adults living in the United Kingdom. Each participant wore a wrist-based device that recorded their physical activity for a week, and they were then followed over an average period of 4.4 years to see who developed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>.



The findings were striking: compared to participants who recorded zero moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, those who achieved as little as 35 minutes per week had a 41% reduced risk of being diagnosed with dementia.&nbsp;



Greater amounts of physical activity correlated with even lower risks: 60% lower for 35–69.9 minutes, 63% lower for 70–139.9 minutes, and 69% lower for 140 or more minutes.



Study lead author Amal Wanigatunga is an assistant professor of epidemiology at the Bloomberg School.&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-focused-medicine-physical-activity-reduces-chronic-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a>, even as little as five minutes per day, can reduce dementia risk in older adults,” explained Wanigatunga.



“This adds to a growing body of evidence that some exercise is better than nothing, especially with regard to an aging-related disorder that affects the brain that currently has no cure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-risks-and-the-role-of-exercise">Dementia risks and the role of exercise</h2>



Dementia, often caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-attacks-the-brain-in-two-separate-phases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s</a> disease, is highly prevalent among older populations - about seven million individuals in the United States alone. One in three people over the age of 85 is affected, and the numbers are expected to rise as the population ages.



Scientists have long studied how lifestyle factors might reduce dementia risk, pointing to better management of cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood sugar, alongside increased physical activity. However, it has been less clear how small or large an exercise dose should be to help protect the brain.&nbsp;



Current guidelines in both the U.S. and the U.K. recommend 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise each week (roughly 20 minutes per day). While beneficial, that target may intimidate some older adults - particularly those who are frail or limited by mobility issues.



The new data suggest that even a fraction of the recommended time could deliver meaningful protection against dementia. The researchers took special note of participants who met criteria for “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flavonol-rich-foods-reduce-the-risk-of-developing-frailty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frailty</a>” or “pre-frailty” and found that low volumes of exercise were associated with lower dementia risk in those groups as well. 



“This suggests that even frail or nearly frail older adults might be able to reduce their dementia risk through low-dose exercise,” Wanigatunga said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-limitations-and-future-directions">Study limitations and future directions</h2>



Because this study was not a clinical trial, it cannot conclusively prove that exercise itself prevents dementia.&nbsp;



To reduce the possibility of reverse causation - i.e., that undiagnosed dementia caused people to move less - the team repeated their analysis after excluding dementia diagnoses that occurred in the first two years of follow-up.&nbsp;



The protective link between activity and lower dementia risk remained strong, adding credibility to the idea that movement itself helps preserve cognitive function.



The authors call for additional research to confirm these results through randomized clinical trials. They see “low-dose” exercise as a potentially critical step for seniors - especially those who struggle to meet higher targets.&nbsp;



By encouraging just a few minutes per day and building up gradually, more people might achieve at least 35 minutes of moderate or vigorous activity per week and thus lower their odds of cognitive decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-risk-in-older-adults">Dementia risk in older adults</h2>



These findings are particularly relevant given the growing number of older adults worldwide and the significant impact dementia can have on individuals, families, and healthcare systems.&nbsp;



Although some may find it difficult to dedicate 20 minutes each day to exercise, the study demonstrates that even small increments of movement - brief walks, light gardening, or gentle workouts - can add up to better brain health.



For now, the message is clear: a little bit of exercise is better than none at all, and that small effort might yield substantial rewards.&nbsp;



By broadening access to physical activity for older adults - especially those who feel constrained by frailty - health practitioners could take an important step toward reducing the burden of dementia in an aging society.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jamda.com/article/S1525-8610(24)00879-X/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Medical Directors Association</a>.



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Small doses of exercise can greatly reduce dementia risk

A small weekly dose of moderate to vigorous exercise -...

Scientists recently shared news of a particle event that has sparked excitement in the physics community. One of the most energetic neutrinos ever recorded was observed in the Mediterranean Sea by the ARCA detector of the KM3NeT project.



The astounding neutrino, named KM3-230213A, has caught global attention.&nbsp;Researchers estimate its energy at about 220 million billion.



“KM3NeT has begun to probe a range of energy and sensitivity where detected neutrinos may originate from extreme astrophysical phenomena," said Paschal Coyle, a researcher at the National Centre for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/fr/le-cnrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>).



"This first ever detection of a neutrino of hundreds of PeV opens a new chapter in neutrino astronomy and a new observational window on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-gravity-search-south-pole-neutrinos-experiment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universe</a>.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-elementary-particles">Mysterious elementary particles</h2>



Neutrinos travel across the universe, slipping through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-nova-explosion-nearby-star-light-up-earths-skies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> and planets without much disturbance. 



For decades, scientists have aimed to spot ultra-high-energy neutrinos to shed light on cosmic accelerators. 



The <a href="https://www.km3net.org/about-km3net/collaboration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KM3NeT Collaboration</a> unites more than 360 experts from 68 institutions in 21 countries.



“Neutrinos are one of the most mysterious of elementary particles. They have no electric charge, almost no mass and interact only weakly with matter. They are special cosmic messengers,” said Rosa Coniglione, a researcher at the <a href="https://home.infn.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INFN National Institute for Nuclear Physics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-deep-sea-sensors-detect-neutrinos">How deep-sea sensors detect neutrinos</h2>



KM3NeT is a sprawling setup resting on the seabed, composed of two detectors called ARCA and ORCA. 



ARCA is located about 50 miles from <a href="https://www.italia.it/en/sicily/portopalodicapopassero" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Portopalo di Capo Passero</a>, Sicily, at a depth of 11,319 feet. ORCA is positioned near Toulon, France, at a depth of 8,038 feet. 



Each site serves a distinct goal, with ARCA tuned for high-energy neutrinos and ORCA for lower-energy neutrinos.



The detectors depend on photomultipliers nestled within glass spheres. 



When a cosmic neutrino collides with water molecules, faint bluish light appears. The sensors collect that light, letting researchers map the neutrino’s journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-single-muon">Remarkable single muon</h2>



ARCA picked up a single <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsmuons" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muon</a>, which signaled a neutrino interaction close by. Its path across the detector left a trail that triggered a large number of active sensors. 



This confirmed the neutrino was <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> in origin rather than coming from local backgrounds.



“To determine the direction and energy of this neutrino required a precise calibration of the telescope and sophisticated track reconstruction algorithms,” said Aart Heijboer, KM3NeT Physics and Software Manager.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-high-energy-neutrinos">Origins of high-energy neutrinos </h2>



Scientists suggest that such high-energy neutrinos could come from cataclysmic sources like supernova remnants or supermassive black holes.



Interactions between cosmic rays and other matter or photons can also create these neutrinos. 



Some of the most energetic cosmic rays in the universe may bump into the cosmic microwave background, producing what researchers call “cosmogenic” neutrinos.



Studying these events may unmask fresh secrets of the universe, offering a direct clue about the places and processes that fling particles to unimaginable energies. 



As these neutrinos fly mostly unimpeded from their source, they can deliver information that light or charged particles cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-neutrino-astronomy">Advancing neutrino astronomy </h2>



The ARCA site will eventually include 230 detection units, while the ORCA site will have 115. Each unit features 18 high-tech optical modules, and altogether, KM3NeT will span over a cubic kilometer of water.&nbsp;



Miles Lindsey Clark is the KM3NeT Technical Project Manager and research engineer at the CNRS - Astroparticle and Cosmology laboratory in France.



“The scale of KM3NeT, eventually encompassing a volume of about one cubic kilometer with a total of about 200,000 photomultipliers, along with its extreme location in the abyss of the Mediterranean Sea, demonstrates the extraordinary efforts required to advance neutrino astronomy and particle physics,” said Clark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-a-rare-event">Capturing a rare event</h2>



Though the installation is incomplete, ARCA was able to catch one of the rarest events in nature. With advanced calibration and data analysis, teams extracted the trajectory and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-travels-back-in-time-to-better-understand-supernovae-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy details</a> of this neutrino. 



Since it most likely entered the water with more than 220 PeV of energy, that single neutrino opens the door to more surprises as KM3NeT continues to grow.



Such an event supports the existence of even higher-energy cosmic neutrinos. Different from lower-energy detections, these ultra-high-energy signals hint that distinct astrophysical engines could drive them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Teams worldwide aim to see if this was a “cosmogenic” neutrino or if it sprang from an active celestial powerhouse. 



Eventually, a bigger fleet of detection units will allow more frequent captures of such signals, improving the odds of pinpointing their origin and clarifying the forces that shape our universe.



“We stand at a frontier where new data will sharpen our understanding of the cosmos,” said a KM3NeT representative. 



Each new detection offers a chance to spot patterns and compare them with signals from gamma-ray telescopes and other observatories.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08543-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Record-breaking "ghost particle" discovered in the deep ocean

Scientists recently shared news of a particle event that has...

This,Digital,Illustration,Showcases,A,Vibrant,Atomic,Model,With,Interconnected

Protons and neutrons stay together in the nucleus and make a stable atomic center, thanks to powerful interactions. For decades, the two-nucleon force was seen as the main player that both attracts these particles and keeps them from smashing too close together.



In a recent paper, researchers have shed light on an overlooked ingredient known as the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0370157320303409" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three-nucleon force</a>.



The research was led by Professor Tokuro Fukui of <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a>'s Faculty of Arts and Science in Japan. The team investigated the ways in which adding a third player to the mix can change how stable an atom’s center is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-nucleons-matter">Why nucleons matter</h2>



Nucleons are protons and neutrons. These particles form the central nucleus of each atom and influence whether an element is stable or liable to break down. 



Three forces are thought to operate within a nucleus - the strong nuclear force and the electrostatic force (together known as the two-nucleon force) - as well as the weaker three-nucleon force.



Many scientists trace our modern understanding of nuclear structure to the nuclear shell model, which won Maria Goeppert Mayer a Nobel Prize in 1963. 



In that model, nucleons fill specific energy levels, much like electrons do, though the underlying physics is more involved.



Nuclear forces also guide how atoms evolve in stars, where new elements can be created through fusion. This process, called nucleosynthesis, powers the production of heavier atoms that eventually spread through space.



Understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cell-nuclei-play-unexpected-role-in-organ-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear forces</a> shape this process can improve models of stellar evolution and element formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-force-in-atomic-nuclei">Missing force in atomic nuclei</h2>



“Scientists have formed a good understanding of the two-nucleon force and how it impacts nuclear stability,” said Fukui, who is the lead author of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269324003976" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>. 



Physicists have spent years fine-tuning models that show how the two-nucleon force functions. However, the three-nucleon force, which operates when three nucleons interact at the same time, has remained less well understood.



The recent study suggests this extra force is surprisingly significant in making the nucleus stronger. The researchers used advanced simulations to see how these interactions change energy levels inside the nucleus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spin-orbit-splitting-and-nuclear-stability">Spin-orbit splitting and nuclear stability</h2>



When nucleons line up their spins with their orbital movement, they settle into a lower-energy state. When their spins oppose their orbits, they climb to a higher energy state.



The differing energies form distinct shells. The study revealed that the three-nucleon force cranks up the energy gap between these shells in larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atomic-nucleus-made-of-quarks-and-gluons-reproduced-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclei</a>.



“This effect is so large that it has almost equal weighting to the impact of the two-nucleon force,” noted Fukui. In carbon-12, which carries 12 nucleons, this gap increased by a factor of 2.5.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-this-force-on-heavier-nuclei">Impact of this force on heavier nuclei</h2>



Heavier atoms have more nucleons, so these interactions become even more critical. If the nucleus has a stable arrangement - sometimes referred to as a magic number configuration - stacking on more neutrons becomes challenging.



When elements fuse inside stars, increasing stability in the nucleus makes the next step of capturing extra neutrons harder. As a result, certain elements might form more slowly or under special conditions.



This research could also impact nuclear physics applications, such as predicting isotopic stability, understanding radioactive decay, and refining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-fission-what-exactly-happens-when-the-nucleus-of-an-atom-splits-in-two/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nuclear energy</a> models. 



These findings may help design better reactors or improve predictions about rare isotopes found in cosmic events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-quantum-twists">Unexpected quantum twists</h2>



Another outcome relates to quantum entanglement, a phenomenon better known in electrons and photons. With the three-nucleon force in play, two of the three nucleons can exist in mixed spin states until observed.



This entanglement hints that nucleons might not be so simple to pin down. It raises fresh questions about how these spin states might be measured or harnessed. 



Similar effects in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-wobble-how-scientists-manipulated-the-nucleus-of-a-single-titanium-atom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> computing use entanglement for information processing, and researchers wonder if nuclear systems could contribute to future quantum technologies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Scientists plan to extend these investigations to elements heavier than carbon. More nucleons likely strengthen the three-nucleon force even further, possibly making some atomic nuclei more stable than current models suggest.



These findings could improve predictions for stellar fusion pathways. By refining how we model nuclear interactions, researchers hope to predict which elements form under different cosmic scenarios.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269324003976?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters B</a>.



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Poorly understood force helps keep atomic nuclei stable

Protons and neutrons stay together in the nucleus and make...

Fog harvesting may provide a crucial water source for people living in some of the planet’s driest regions.&nbsp;



By <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-technology-can-purify-water-as-it-is-collected-from-fog/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">capturing moisture</a> from passing fog, this technique gathers droplets and channels them into storage, potentially easing shortages for those who have little or no connection to traditional water infrastructures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-water-solutions">Urban water solutions</h2>



The study was carried out by researchers at Chile’s <a href="https://www.umayor.cl/santiago" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad Mayor</a>, who examined whether fog harvesting could meet the needs of residents in informal settlements in the Atacama Desert.&nbsp;



“This research represents a notable shift in the perception of fog water use - from a rural, rather small-scale solution to a practical water resource for cities,” said Virginia Carter Gamberini, an assistant professor at Universidad Mayor and first co-author of the paper.



“Our findings demonstrate that fog can serve as a complementary urban water supply in drylands where climate change exacerbates water shortages.”



Characterized by annual rainfall below one mm, Chile’s Atacama Desert has extremely limited water resources. Cities in the region often rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-has-a-vital-role-in-ecosystem-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groundwater</a> reserves that were last recharged between 17,000 and 10,000 years ago.&nbsp;



The goal of the research was to see if fog harvesting - a passive system that collects atmospheric moisture on mesh panels - could help alleviate the water needs of rapidly expanding urban areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-moisture-from-the-air">Capturing moisture from the air</h2>



 Fog collectors usually feature a mesh stretched between two posts. As fog rolls in, tiny droplets attach to the mesh, then trickle down into a collection gutter and onward to storage tanks. Because this setup requires no external power, it offers an appealing option in remote or infrastructure-poor environments.&nbsp;



The research team conducted a year-long study in Alto Hospicio, a municipality in the hyper-arid Atacama with a fast-growing population. Approximately 10,000 people in Alto Hospicio reside in informal settlements, and most depend on truck deliveries for their daily water.



“The collection and use of water, especially from non-conventional sources such as fog water, represents a key opportunity to improve the quality of life of inhabitants,” Carter said.&nbsp;



In the surrounding 100-square-kilometer area at higher altitudes, the researchers estimated a daily harvest potential of 0.2 to 5 liters of fog water per square meter, although fog density peaks in certain seasons. At times - such as August and September 2024 - fog yields jumped up to 10 liters per square meter each day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-adoption-of-fog-harvesting">Broader adoption of fog harvesting </h2>



“By showcasing its potential in Alto Hospicio, one of Chile’s most stigmatized yet rapidly urbanizing cities, this study lays the groundwork for broader adoption in other water-scarce urban areas,” said researcher Nathalie Verbrugghe of <a href="https://www.ulb.be/en/ulb-homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université libre de Bruxelles</a>, also a first co-author of the article.&nbsp;



While the team emphasizes that fog harvesting alone will not solve chronic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-worlds-climate-driven-water-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water shortages</a>, they believe it can become part of a larger strategy for sustainable urban water management.



The scientists envision multiple uses for harvested fog, including drinking water and irrigation for communal gardens. They estimate that installing 17,000 square meters of mesh - capable of generating an average of 2.5 liters of water per square meter per day - could meet the weekly water needs (about 300,000 liters) for urban slums.&nbsp;



For irrigating city green spaces, 110 square meters would cover an annual requirement of approximately 100,000 liters. Even small-scale food production is possible: according to the study, fog water could fuel soil-free agriculture, producing 15 to 20 kg of leafy vegetables a month.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prerequisites-for-fog-harvesting">Prerequisites for fog harvesting </h2>



Fog harvesting is dependent on specific geographical and climatic conditions. “Key prerequisites include fog density, suitable wind patterns, and well-oriented elevated landforms. Additionally, since fog is seasonal in many regions, this variability should be considered,” Verbrugghe said.&nbsp;



Storage tanks, piping infrastructure, and distribution systems are likewise necessary to deliver the collected water where it is needed.



For large settlements, scalability becomes a critical question. If successful, fog harvesting would require significant planning, funding, and collaboration among local communities, government authorities, and possibly private sector partners.&nbsp;



Yet the technique’s minimal energy demand and adaptability make it an appealing option, especially for regions forecast to face ever more severe water stresses under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-the-driving-force-behind-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fog-harvesting-and-resource-planning">Fog harvesting and resource planning </h2>



Encouraged by their findings, the researchers aim to integrate fog harvesting into broader, renewable water resource planning. 



“We hope to encourage policymakers to integrate this renewable source into national water strategies,” Carter concluded. “This could enhance urban resilience to climate change and rapid urbanization while improving access to clean water.”



In places like the Atacama Desert, where traditional water supplies are both ancient and limited, fog harvesting could serve as a practical complement to existing resources.&nbsp;



By combining multiple solutions - from groundwater to desalination to advanced conservation methods - communities may be better equipped to cope with the increasingly harsh realities of water scarcity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2025.1537058" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Environmental Science</a>.&nbsp;



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Fog harvesting could ease water shortages in the world’s driest places

Fog harvesting may provide a crucial water source for people...

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some species have evolved the ability to reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis. In these species, females can produce offspring without mating.&nbsp;



However, even in predominantly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asexual species</a>, rare males occasionally appear. What remains unclear is whether these males retain reproductive functions or if they are merely evolutionary remnants. 



Understanding this question could provide crucial insights into the evolution and persistence of reproductive strategies in nature.



A new study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4522" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>, addresses this mystery by examining the rare males of Ramulus mikado, a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stick-and-leaf-insects-have-all-evolved-the-same-basic-body-parts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stick insect</a> in Japan where parthenogenetic reproduction is the norm. 



The research was led by assistant professor Tomonari Nozaki from the <a href="https://www.nibb.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Basic Biology</a>, professor Kenji Suetsugu from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>, and associate professor Shingo Kaneko from <a href="https://english.adb.fukushima-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fukushima University</a>.



The results provide compelling evidence that these males, despite their mating attempts, have completely lost their reproductive function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-males-with-no-reproductive-function">Males with no reproductive function </h2>



The researchers closely studied the behavior and physiology of these rare males and found that, although they actively engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-trick-their-way-into-mating-by-removing-testosterone-from-their-bodies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> with females, they did not contribute genetically to the next generation. 



Genetic analysis confirmed that no male-derived genes were passed on to the offspring, indicating that these males are effectively sterile.



The findings revealed that, although the males display typical stick insect morphology and mating behaviors, they do not produce functional sperm. This means that sexual reproduction cannot be restored in the species, even in the presence of males.&nbsp;



Interestingly, female reproductive organs associated with sexual reproduction showed signs of degeneration, further suggesting that the species has been evolving without sexual reproduction for a long time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-rare-males-to-study">Finding rare males to study</h2>



One of the major hurdles in conducting this study was obtaining specimens of these rare males.



“In fact, we have never personally encountered a male R. mikado in the wild, despite extensive field collections of stick insects across Japan,” Suetsugu said. “To overcome this, our research team collaborated with museums and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-gain-a-stronger-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science</a> groups, successfully collecting seven males over four years.”



The collected males were then observed in controlled conditions, where their mating behavior was recorded. Additionally, researchers conducted detailed morphological and histological analyses to examine their reproductive anatomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-reproductive-traits-in-males">Loss of reproductive traits in males</h2>



The study raises important questions about the long-term evolutionary trajectory of asexual species.



“Surprisingly, the rare males of this stick insect have completely lost their reproductive function,” Kaneko remarked.



“Unlike female sexual traits, the loss of male sexual traits is generally thought to take an extremely long time. In many other species, even rare males often retain their reproductive capabilities.”&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that R. mikado has relied solely on parthenogenesis for such an extended period that even neutral mutations have accumulated, leading to the complete loss of male reproductive traits.”



This suggests that once a species becomes fully dependent on parthenogenesis, the re-emergence of sexual reproduction may become impossible. Over time, genetic changes accumulate that further reinforce the asexual mode of reproduction, making the reversal to sexual reproduction unlikely.



“This study demonstrates that parthenogenesis in R. mikado has become irreversible. Although asexual reproduction is often considered evolutionarily short-lived due to the lack of genetic recombination, our previous research estimated that this species has persisted for hundreds of thousands of years," said Nozaki.



"How has R. mikado managed to survive for such a long time? This remains an intriguing mystery for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-viability-of-asexual-reproduction">Long-term viability of asexual reproduction</h2>



Biologists have long debated the evolutionary fate of asexual organisms. Many studies suggest that asexual reproduction, while advantageous in the short term, can be an evolutionary dead end due to the absence of genetic recombination.&nbsp;



Without recombination, harmful mutations can accumulate, and the population may struggle to adapt to environmental changes or resist emerging pathogens.



Yet, the persistence of R. mikado challenges this assumption. If this stick insect species has survived for hundreds of thousands of years without sexual reproduction, it raises the question of what mechanisms allow it to maintain<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> genetic diversity</a> and adaptability. 



One possibility is rare genetic mutations that provide variation even in the absence of recombination. Another explanation could be environmental stability, where selective pressures have remained relatively constant, reducing the need for genetic diversity.&nbsp;



There is also the potential for cryptic mechanisms of genetic exchange, such as occasional hybridization events with related species - though no evidence of this has been found in R. mikado.



These possibilities open new avenues for research into the sustainability of asexual reproduction in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study on R. mikado is part of a broader effort to understand how parthenogenetic species evolve and persist. Future research may focus on identifying the genetic changes responsible for male sterility and exploring whether other parthenogenetic stick insect species have undergone similar irreversible transitions.



Additionally, scientists are interested in investigating how R. mikado avoids the pitfalls associated with asexual reproduction, such as genetic stagnation and vulnerability to environmental shifts. Comparative studies with other stick insect species, both sexual and asexual, could provide valuable insights into these evolutionary dynamics.



By continuing to study rare cases like R. mikado, researchers hope to unravel the complexities of reproductive evolution and better understand the forces shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in nature.



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Some male insects have lost the ability to reproduce but still have sex

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some...

The idea of consuming human flesh is enough to turn the stomach. It feels unnatural, grotesque, and completely at odds with the norms of modern society. Yet, history tells a different story. For some ancient cultures, cannibalism was not only practiced but carried deep meaning.



Whether as an act of survival, a form of warfare, or a ritual, the consumption of human flesh has left its mark on history.



A recent study has revealed shocking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-turn-to-cannibalism-recycle-bodies-for-colony-disease-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> of cannibalism among the Magdalenians, a prehistoric European culture that thrived between 17,000 and 12,000 years ago. 



Researchers have discovered that these ancient people not only consumed their enemies after battle but may have also eaten their own dead. 



The findings, based on remains found in Maszycka Cave, challenge our understanding of early human societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-evidence-of-ancient-cannibalism">Unearthing the evidence of ancient cannibalism</h2>



Maszycka Cave, located about 12 miles from Krakow, Poland, has long been a significant archaeological site. More than a century ago, researchers uncovered human bones there, alongside stone tools and animal remains.



These findings suggested that the site was once home to a late Ice Age society. Recent excavations, however, have revealed something far more disturbing.



Researchers from Spain and Poland analyzed 63 human bone fragments from the cave, and uncovered clear signs of cannibalism. 



Cut marks, fractures, and evidence of flesh removal suggest that these individuals were not merely buried but processed for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannibalism-cellular-level-common-across-various-life-forms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumption</a>.



The study, published in Scientific Reports, provides undeniable evidence that the Magdalenians engaged in human consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-process-of-consumption">Process of consumption</h2>



One of the most striking discoveries was the evidence of skull manipulation. 



Skulls from Maszycka Cave bore marks from scalping, flesh removal, and intentional fracturing. These modifications suggest that Magdalenians actively sought to access the brain, a nutrient-rich part of the body.



"The butchering process took place shortly after death, with no period reserved for the bodies to decompose or dry," the researchers stated.



Long bones, such as femurs and humeri, showed clear signs of being broken open, likely to extract marrow. This method closely resembles how ancient people processed animal bones for nutrients. 



Researchers noted that many of the cut marks on human remains were nearly identical to those found on animal bones, further supporting the idea that the bodies were treated as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosasaurs-had-fierce-survival-strategies-including-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food source</a>.



"The position and frequency of the cut marks, as well as the targeted smashing of bones, leave no doubt that their intention was to extract nutritious components from the dead," explained first author Francesc Marginedas from the Catalan Institute of Human Paleoecology and Social Evolution (<a href="https://www.iphes.cat/institute" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPHES</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enemies-or-ritual-victims">Enemies or ritual victims?</h2>



The study raises important questions about why the Magdalenians engaged in cannibalism. 



Some experts believe it was a result of warfare, with victorious warriors consuming their fallen enemies as an act of dominance. Others suggest it may have had ritualistic significance.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/cannibalism_ancient-europeans_bite-marks-bones_credit-IPHES_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/cannibalism_ancient-europeans_bite-marks-bones_credit-IPHES_1s.webp" alt="Human induced modifications on cranial and postcranial remains. Cut marks (blue and yellow) due to scalping (e, u) and defleshing of the skull (c, d, f, i, j, t), percussion damage (red) on skull fragments (a, b). Defleshing marks on a mandible (g, h), on a clavicle (l, n), on a radius (o), on a femur (p, q) and on a fibula (s). Disarticulation marks on a humerus (k, r) and peeling (green) on a clavicle (m). The specimen ID is located next to the scale at the bottom of the images. Credit: IPHES" class="wp-image-1960442"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Human induced modifications on cranial and postcranial remains. Cut marks (blue and yellow) due to scalping (e, u) and defleshing of the skull (c, d, f, i, j, t), percussion damage (red) on skull fragments (a, b). Defleshing marks on a mandible (g, h), on a clavicle (l, n), on a radius (o), on a femur (p, q) and on a fibula (s). Disarticulation marks on a humerus (k, r) and peeling (green) on a clavicle (m). The specimen ID is located next to the scale at the bottom of the images. Credit: IPHES</figcaption></figure>



The practice was not limited to enemies. A 2023 study suggested that Magdalenians also consumed their deceased loved ones, possibly as a method of body disposal. 



This further complicates the debate over whether their cannibalistic acts were driven by necessity or belief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-culture-of-art-and-violence">A culture of art and violence</h2>



Despite these gruesome discoveries, the Magdalenian culture was known for its artistic achievements. 



They left behind intricate cave paintings, carved tools, and engraved bones. Their artwork, found in locations such as the famous Lascaux caves in France, suggests a society that valued creativity and expression.



"The wide range of artistic evidence points to favorable living conditions during this period. It therefore seems unlikely that cannibalism was practiced out of necessity," said Professor Thomas Terberger from the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a>.



This presents an interesting paradox. How could a culture so advanced in artistic expression also engage in cannibalism? One possibility is that cannibalism was not about survival but about power, belief, or warfare. 



It may have been a way to mark territory, strike fear into enemies, or maintain social order within their groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannibalism-linked-to-population-pressure">Cannibalism linked to population pressure</h2>



Researchers believe that growing population pressure during the late Ice Age may have played a role in the rise of violent cannibalism. 



As resources became scarce, competition between groups intensified. The increase in territorial conflicts could have led to extreme acts of violence, including consuming enemies as part of warfare.



"It is possible that this was an example of violent cannibalism. After the last Ice Age, there was population growth, and that may have led to conflicts over resources and territories," said Marginedas.



At Maszycka Cave, human remains were found mixed with settlement debris, suggesting that the dead were not treated with respect. 



This further supports the idea that these individuals were not honored in death but were instead treated as food or trophies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannibalism-across-human-history">Cannibalism across human history</h2>



The Magdalenians were not the first to engage in cannibalism, nor were they the last. 



Evidence of human consumption dates back 1.45 million years to Kenya, where a shin bone fossil bore cut marks consistent with butchery. 



Throughout <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stellar-cannibalism-scientists-find-the-remnants-of-devoured-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a>, various cultures have engaged in cannibalism for different reasons, whether due to starvation, warfare, or religious rituals.



"Cannibalism is a behavior that has been documented at various times in human evolution," said co-author Dr. Palmira Saladié.



"In prehistoric contexts, it could respond both to survival needs and to ritual practices or even to dynamics of intergroup violence."



The Magdalenians may have practiced it more frequently than other groups, but it was by no means unique to them. 



Archaeologists have uncovered similar evidence among Neanderthals, early Homo sapiens, and even societies from more recent historical periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-magdalenian-legacy">Rethinking the Magdalenian legacy</h2>



This discovery forces us to rethink how we view the Magdalenian people. They were not just artists and hunters but also warriors and possibly ritualistic cannibals. Their society was complex, shaped by both creativity and brutality.



Cannibalism during this period was not necessarily widespread, but it was also not unheard of. It was likely a response to specific circumstances, whether conflict, population pressure, or deeply held beliefs. 



The remains at Maszycka Cave offer a rare glimpse into this brutal aspect of their culture, challenging our assumptions about early human societies.



While we may never fully understand the motivations behind Magdalenian cannibalism, this research brings us closer to uncovering the realities of life in prehistoric Europe. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-86093-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Cannibalism: Ancient Europeans ate both enemies and loved ones

The idea of consuming human flesh is enough to turn...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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