Black Widow Spider -Female, male and egg sac Photo Credit: Mark_Kostich

Black Widow Spider

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features dust streaming off the coast of Iran in January 2025.



“Some of the desert dust was carried across the Gulf of Oman to the Arabian Peninsula, degrading air quality for those in its path,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153859/desert-dust-streams-from-iran" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“The airborne material appears to primarily originate in the dried bed of the intermittent lake known as Hamun-e Jazmurian (Hamun-e Jaz Murian), while some may be blown from coastal areas." 



"Along with arid regions such as the Garagum and Lut deserts and the Sistan Basin, the lakebed is a major source of dust in southwest Asia.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precipitation-in-the-jazmurian-basin">Precipitation in the Jazmurian Basin</h2>



According to NASA, some areas of the Jazmurian Basin receive less than four inches of rain annually, on average, and evaporation rates are high. During wet times, however, parts of the basin may be covered by an intermittent lake, marshland, or other vegetation.&nbsp;



“Terra’s MODIS sensor has previously captured images of the area when water is present in Hamun-e Jazmurian and when green vegetation fringes the lakebed,” said NASA.



“In early 2025, the land was dry enough for winds to blow dust plumes south-southwest over the Gulf of Oman. Dust traveled across the water to the coast of the United Arab Emirates, where the haze reduced visibility in places, according to news reports.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-particles-in-dust-storms">Particles in dust storms</h2>



In addition to disrupting transportation and other daily activities, the suspended particles in dust storms can pose significant health risks. 



Recent research has revealed that dust from the Jazmurian Basin often contains heavy metals and other potentially harmful substances, such as silica and organic pollutants, which can negatively impact both human and ecosystem health.&nbsp;



Prolonged exposure to these particles has been linked to respiratory and cardiovascular issues, as well as the exacerbation of pre-existing health conditions like asthma and bronchitis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-of-dust-storms">Environmental impact of dust storms</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-is-an-understudied-contributor-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental impact</a> of dust storms extends beyond human health. The fine particles can settle on vegetation, reducing photosynthesis and agricultural productivity.&nbsp;



Dust deposition can also alter soil composition by introducing heavy metals and changing nutrient balances, which may affect crop growth and soil microbial communities. 



Such changes can lead to long-term degradation of arable land and disrupt local food security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-in-the-jazmurian-basin-nbsp">Dust in the Jazmurian Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Communities near the Jazmurian Basin are particularly vulnerable to the effects of dust storms due to limited access to healthcare and mitigation resources.



Seasonal changes and climate conditions, including prolonged droughts and desertification, further intensify the frequency and severity of dust storms in the region.&nbsp;



This creates a cycle of environmental and health challenges, making it imperative to develop strategies for prevention and adaptation.



Potential measures include reforestation and soil stabilization projects to reduce dust emissions, stricter regulations to limit activities that contribute to desertification, and public health initiatives to educate communities on protective measures during dust events.&nbsp;



Investing in early warning systems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-driven-wildfires-worsen-u-s-air-quality-and-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> monitoring can also help minimize exposure and protect both human populations and the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-jazmurian-basin">Significance of the Jazmurian Basin</h2>



The Jazmurian Basin is a prominent endorheic basin located in southeastern Iran, spanning parts of the provinces of Sistan and Baluchestan as well as Kerman. It lies at the heart of an arid region characterized by sparse vegetation, high temperatures, and limited rainfall.&nbsp;



The basin is primarily fed by the Halil and Bampur rivers, which provide seasonal water flow to the basin's low-lying areas. At its center lies the Jazmurian Depression, which forms a seasonal playa or shallow lake, though it often dries up during extended dry periods.&nbsp;



The area holds geological and archaeological significance, offering insights into ancient human settlements and environmental changes over time.&nbsp;



Despite its harsh climate, the basin supports small-scale agriculture and serves as a critical habitat for certain desert-adapted wildlife. 



The image was captured on January 22 by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on NASA’s Terra satellite.&nbsp;



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Dust rises from the Jazmurian Basin in Iran

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall. 



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting.&nbsp;



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features UGC 5460, a spiral galaxy that is located about 60 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



“This image combines four different wavelengths of light to reveal UGC 5460’s central bar of stars, winding spiral arms and bright blue star clusters. Also captured in the upper left-hand corner of this image is a far closer object: a star just 577 light-years away in our own galaxy,” said <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“UGC 5460 has hosted two recent supernovae named SN 2011ht and SN 2015as. It’s because of these two stellar explosions that Hubble targeted this galaxy, collecting data for three observing programmes that aim to study various kinds of supernovae.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-core-collapse-supernova-nbsp">A core-collapse supernova&nbsp;</h2>



SN 2015as is an example of a core-collapse supernova. This type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> occurs when the core of a massive star - typically with more than 8 times the mass of the sun - can no longer support its own gravity after exhausting its nuclear fuel. 



This causes the core to collapse under its own weight, leading to an extremely violent explosion. The collapse triggers the release of an enormous amount of energy, expelling the outer layers of the star into space.



In the aftermath of the explosion, a dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shockingly-bright-carbon-monoxide-detected-in-supernova-remnant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remnant</a> is created. This is often a neutron star or black hole, depending on the mass of the original star. Core-collapse supernovae are some of the most powerful events in the universe.



According to ESA, Hubble observations of SN 2015as will help researchers understand what happens when the expanding shockwave of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> collides with the gas that surrounds the exploded star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-stars-with-large-eruptions-nbsp">Rare stars with large eruptions&nbsp;</h2>



“SN 2011ht might have been a core-collapse supernova as well, but it could also be an impostor called a luminous blue variable. Luminous blue variables are rare stars that experience eruptions so large that they can mimic supernovae,” noted ESA.



“Crucially, luminous blue variables emerge from these eruptions unscathed, while stars that go supernova do not. Hubble will search for a stellar survivor at SN 2011ht’s location, and the explosion’s identity may be revealed at last.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-spiral-galaxy">What is a spiral galaxy?</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most recognizable and beautiful structures in the universe. They are known for their distinctive arms that spiral outward from a central bulge.&nbsp;



These galaxies are typically composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The arms are often sites of intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>, where clouds of gas collapse to form new stars. 



In the center of a spiral galaxy lies a dense concentration of older stars and, often, a supermassive black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-of-a-spiral-galaxy-nbsp">Structure of a spiral galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The structure of a spiral galaxy is generally divided into three main components: the disk, the bulge, and the halo.&nbsp;



The disk is where the spiral arms are located and contains most of the galaxy's visible stars and interstellar medium.&nbsp;



The bulge is a tightly packed region of older stars at the core, and the halo consists of a sparse collection of stars and globular clusters that surround the galaxy.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies can be classified into different types based on the tightness and number of their spiral arms, as well as the size of their central bulge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-galaxy">The Milky Way galaxy</h2>



Our solar system is located within a large spiral galaxy known as the Milky Way. The name refers to its appearance as a dim, milky band of light stretching across the night sky.&nbsp;



The term "Milky Way" comes from ancient Greek mythology, where it was associated the goddess Hera's milk spilling into the sky. In Greek, it was called "Galaxias Kyklos," meaning "milky circle."&nbsp;



Spanning about 100,000 light-years in diameter, the Milky Way is composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The galaxy has a distinct disk shape with spiral arms that wind outward from a central bulge, which houses a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>. 



Our sun is located in one of the spiral arms - known as the Orion Arm - positioned roughly halfway from the center to the outer edge.&nbsp;



The Milky Way is part of a small group of galaxies called the Local Group, which includes the Andromeda Galaxy and several smaller galaxies.



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Hubble views a spiral galaxy with stellar explosions

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features an extraordinary view of Uranus, the seventh planet from the sun in our solar system. 



The photo reveals the rings, moons, and extreme seasons of the ice giant Uranus in unprecedented detail.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-north-polar-cap-nbsp">Dynamic north polar cap&nbsp;</h2>



“The Webb image exquisitely captures Uranus’s seasonal north polar cap, including the bright, white, inner cap and the dark lane in the bottom of the polar cap,” noted NASA.



Unlike Earth, where polar ice caps are formed by the freezing of water, Uranus's polar caps are thought to be primarily composed of a dense concentration of haze in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



The polar cap's haze is likely composed of methane particles. Methane in Uranus's atmosphere condenses into ice particles, which then create a thick haze that scatters sunlight, giving the polar cap its distinct bright appearance in visible and infrared light.



The polar cap is dynamic and changes over time. It becomes more prominent during the summer season of each pole. 



As Uranus moves along its orbit, the cap's appearance transforms, with the haze becoming thicker and brighter when the pole is in continuous sunlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-zeta-ring-nbsp">The Zeta ring&nbsp;</h2>



The inner and outer rings of Uranus are visible in the image, including Zeta - the innermost ring which is the faintest and most difficult to observe.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-photo-of-uranus-and-its-rings-and-moons-captured-by-the-webb-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rings of Uranus</a> are primarily composed of narrow bands of particles, likely made of water ice mixed with a dark material. These rings are distinct from those of Saturn in that they are much darker and narrower.



The faintness and characteristics of the Zeta ring make it a subject of interest in studies related to the dynamics and composition of planetary ring systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moons-of-uranus-nbsp">Moons of Uranus&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/multimedia/images/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb</a> photo also features nine of the planet’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-four-uranus-moons-may-have-oceans-that-are-miles-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moons</a>, which appear as blue dots surrounding the rings.&nbsp;



“Clockwise starting at 2 o’clock, they are: Rosalind, Puck, Belinda, Desdemona, Cressida, Bianca, Portia, Juliet, and Perdita. The orbits of these moons share the 98-degree tilt of their parent planet relative to the plane of the solar system,” noted NASA.



Uranus has 27 known moons, and they are divided into three main groups based on their orbits: the inner moons, the major moons, and the irregular moons.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-moon-ariel-may-have-a-hidden-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moons</a> of Uranus are unique because they are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope, rather than being named after figures from classical mythology, as is common for the moons of other planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ice-giant-uranus-nbsp">The ice giant Uranus&nbsp;</h2>



Uranus is classified as an "ice giant" because, unlike the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, which are primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, Uranus has a significant proportion of "ices" in its composition.&nbsp;



In astronomical terms, ices refer to volatile substances like water, ammonia, and methane, which exist in solid or liquid forms at the low temperatures found in the outer solar system.



Uranus has a thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium, but beneath that, it contains a large, dense mantle composed of these ices, along with rock and other heavier elements.&nbsp;



The term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diamond-rain-may-be-common-on-giant-icy-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice giant</a> differentiates Uranus (and Neptune, the other ice giant) from the larger gas giants, emphasizing the different chemical compositions and internal structures of these planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-of-uranus-nbsp">Climate of Uranus&nbsp;</h2>



Uranus has a unique and extreme climate, largely influenced by its unusual tilt, which causes the planet to rotate almost on its side. This tilt leads to extreme seasonal variations, with each pole experiencing 42 years of continuous sunlight followed by 42 years of darkness.&nbsp;



Even though it is closer to the sun than Neptune, Uranus is the coldest planet in the solar system, with temperatures plunging to as low as -224°C (-371°F). The reason for this is not fully understood, but it might be due to an internal heat distribution anomaly.



Despite these frigid conditions, Uranus experiences intense weather patterns, including powerful storms and winds that can reach speeds of up to 900 kilometers per hour. These winds blow in the same direction as the planet’s rotation and are some of the fastest in the solar system.



Storms on Uranus are driven by its internal heat and the interaction of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-is-more-gassy-less-icy-than-we-ever-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric gases</a>. Observations have shown that these storms can be quite large, sometimes comparable in size to the Earth, and can last for several years.&nbsp;



The planet’s extreme axial tilt also means that the storms and weather patterns are highly variable, depending on the season. During equinoxes, when the Sun is directly over the equator, Uranus exhibits more storm activity compared to when the poles are pointed towards the Sun or away from it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-uranus">Observations of Uranus</h2>



“One day on Uranus is about 17 hours, so the planet’s rotation is relatively quick. This makes it supremely difficult for observatories with a sharp eye like Webb to capture one simple image of the entire planet - storms and other atmospheric features, and the planet’s moons, move visibly within minutes,” explained NASA.



“This image combines several longer and shorter exposures of this dynamic system to correct for those slight changes throughout the observing time.”



The first recorded observations of Uranus were made by John Flamsteed on December 13, 1690. However, Flamsteed mistakenly identified the planet as a star, which he named “34 Tauri."&nbsp;



It wasn't until March 13, 1781, that Uranus was officially identified as a planet by William Herschel. He initially thought he had discovered a comet, but further observations and calculations by other astronomers confirmed that it was a new planet, making Uranus the first planet discovered in modern history with the aid of a telescope.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI



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The ice giant Uranus in stunning detail

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features an extraordinary...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1792, a spiral galaxy located in the constellation Columba about 43 million light-years away from Earth.&nbsp;



This galaxy, discovered by British astronomer James Dunlop in 1826, is part of the larger NGC 1808 group of galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intimate-view-of-ngc-1792">Intimate view of NGC 1792</h2>



“An orange glow radiates from the center of NGC 1792, the heart of this stellar forge. Captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, this intimate view of NGC 1792 gives us some insight into this galactic powerhouse,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The vast swathes of tell-tale blue seen throughout the galaxy indicate areas that are full of young, hot stars, and it is in the shades of orange, seen nearer the center, that the older, cooler stars reside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vigorous-star-formation-nbsp">Vigorous star formation&nbsp;</h2>



NGC 1792 is notable for its vigorous star formation, classifying it as a starburst galaxy. This high rate of star formation is thought to be triggered by gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies, though the exact cause is still under study.



“Nestled in the constellation of Columba (The Dove), NGC 1792 is both a spiral galaxy, and a starburst galaxy,” said ESA. 



“Within starburst galaxies, stars are forming at comparatively exorbitant rates. The rate of star formation can be more than 10 times faster in a starburst galaxy than in the Milky Way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fierce-bursts-of-star-formation">Fierce bursts of star formation</h2>



ESA noted that when galaxies have a large reservoir of gas, like NGC 1792, these short-lived starburst phases can be sparked by galactic events such as mergers and tidal interactions.&nbsp;



“One might think that these starburst galaxies would easily consume all of their gas in a large forming event. However, supernova explosions and intense stellar winds produced in these powerful starbursts can inject energy into the gas and disperse it.”&nbsp;



“This halts the star formation before it can completely deplete the galaxy of all its fuel. Scientists are actively working to understand this complex interplay between the dynamics that drive and quench these fierce bursts of star formation.”



Due to its distance and brightness, NGC 1792 can be observed with medium-sized telescopes under favorable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-galaxies">The evolution of galaxies </h2>



Galaxy evolution refers to the process by which galaxies form and change over time. It begins in the early universe, shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, when small density fluctuations in the primordial gas led to the collapse of matter into the first galaxies.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-mergers">Galaxy mergers</h3>



Early galaxies were small and irregular, and were composed mostly of gas and dark matter. Over billions of years, galaxies grew larger by merging with one another and by accreting gas from the surrounding space. 



These interactions often triggered bursts of star formation, and collisions between galaxies sometimes led to the creation of new, more massive galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes">Structural changes</h3>



As galaxies evolve, their morphology - shape and structure - can change. Early galaxies were often irregular or disk-shaped, but over time, many galaxies formed into the elliptical or spiral shapes we see today. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation">Star formation</h3>



Star formation is a key driver of galaxy evolution, but it gradually slows down as galaxies age. 



The gas that fuels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> can be used up, or it can be heated and pushed out of galaxies by supernovae or black holes, reducing the galaxy's ability to form new stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-environment-nbsp">Galaxy environment&nbsp;</h3>



The environment in which a galaxy resides also plays a role in its evolution. Galaxies in dense clusters are more likely to interact with their neighbors, which can alter their shape or trigger bursts of star formation.&nbsp;



In contrast, galaxies in more isolated regions of space evolve more slowly and without as many dramatic interactions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter">Dark matter</h3>



Dark matter also plays a crucial role in galaxy evolution. It provides the gravitational framework that holds galaxies together and influences their interactions with one another.&nbsp;



Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Galaxies%20merge&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, found at the centers of most large galaxies, can also affect their evolution by releasing energy that impacts star formation and the movement of gas within the galaxy.



Overall, galaxy evolution is a complex and ongoing process driven by interactions between stars, gas, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and black holes, and shaped by both internal processes and external influences.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, J. Lee



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Starburst galaxy in the constellation Columba

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1333, a reflection nebula located in the Perseus molecular cloud about 960 light-years away from Earth. The photo is a mosaic of images captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



“Webb’s superb sensitivity allows astronomers to investigate young objects with extremely low masses. Some of the faintest ‘stars’ in the picture are in fact newly born free-floating brown dwarfs with masses comparable to those of giant planets,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



The same cluster was featured in the 33rd anniversary image of the Hubble Space Telescope in April 2023. 



According to ESA, Hubble’s image just scratched the surface of this region, because clouds of dust obscure much of the star formation process. 



"Observing with larger aperture and in the infrared part of the spectrum, Webb is capable of peering through the dusty veil to reveal newborn stars, brown dwarfs and planetary mass objects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-view-of-ngc-1333">Webb’s view of NGC 1333</h2>



ESA noted that the center of the image presents a deep peek into the heart of the NGC 1333 cloud.&nbsp;



“Across the image we see large patches of orange, which represent gas glowing in the infrared. These so-called Herbig-Haro objects form when ionized material ejected from young stars collides with the surrounding cloud. They are hallmarks of a very active site of star formation."



The disks of gas and dust that surround the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in this image may eventually produce planetary systems.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-in-the-sun-s-birth-cluster">Stars in the Sun's birth cluster</h2>



“Similar to the young stars in this mosaic, our own Sun and planets formed inside a dusty molecular cloud, 4.6 billion years ago. Our Sun did not form in isolation but as part of a cluster, which was perhaps even more massive than NGC 1333,” explained ESA.



Over time, the stars in the Sun's birth cluster would have drifted apart due to gravitational interactions and the dispersion of gas in the region.



Astronomers have been studying certain clues, such as isotopic signatures in meteorites, that hint the Sun may have formed near massive stars. These stars likely produced supernovae, which could have influenced the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-objects-spotted-in-the-outer-solar-system-beyond-pluto/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> by injecting heavy elements like iron-60.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1333">Star formation in NGC 1333</h2>



NGC 1333 is a vibrant example of a stellar nursery, where active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> is ongoing. It is known for its chaotic appearance, shaped by the interactions between newborn stars and the surrounding material.



Within NGC 1333, astronomers have observed a high level of turbulence, which makes the region dynamic and complex. 



These disturbances are caused by the outflows of young stars as they eject material into their surroundings, creating shock waves and influencing further star formation.&nbsp;



These outflows are often seen as jets, which are visible in multiple wavelengths of light, especially infrared, as the surrounding dust absorbs visible light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-stages-of-planet-formation">Early stages of planet formation </h2>



NGC 1333 is also an area of interest for studying the early stages of star and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>, as many of the stars within the cluster are in their infancy.



These stars are still in the process of gathering material and developing protoplanetary disks. 



In images, NGC 1333 is marked by bright patches of blue and red, representing reflection <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and the ionized gas created by energetic young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-perseus-molecular-cloud-nbsp">The Perseus molecular cloud&nbsp;</h2>



The Perseus molecular cloud is a vast region of cold gas and dust located about 600 light-years away from Earth in the constellation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1500-billion-orphan-stars-discovered-in-the-perseus-galaxy-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseus</a>.&nbsp;



It is one of the most studied star-forming regions in our galaxy due to its relative proximity and the diversity of its young stellar objects. This cloud spans several hundred light-years and contains dense pockets of gas where new stars are actively forming.&nbsp;



These areas are often enshrouded in thick dust, which obscures them in visible light but allows astronomers to study them using infrared and radio wavelengths.



The Perseus molecular cloud is particularly interesting because of the chemistry taking place within it, including the formation of complex organic molecules that could be precursors to life.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA



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Stellar nursery shines in the Perseus cloud

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a blanket of dust over the Tarim Basin - a vast, arid region in northwestern China. 



Mountain peaks are visible through a break in the dust. These peaks are part of Tekilik Shan, a subrange of the Kunlun Mountains.



Though not as widely known as some other mountain ranges in the area, Tekilik Shan plays a significant role in shaping local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> patterns and geography.



Its snow-covered peaks can rise above 13,000 feet, contributing to the dramatic elevation differences that define the basin’s borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-storms-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Dust storms in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Spring marks the height of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storm</a> activity in the Tarim Basin, particularly in its southern region.&nbsp;



“It’s a time of year when regional wind patterns shift in ways that cause winds and storm systems to sweep in from the northwest,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154126/a-curtain-of-dust-over-the-tarim-basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“In early spring, when landscapes in this region are especially dry and have minimal vegetation, land surfaces warm rapidly under the Sun’s heat every morning, fueling convection that can help loft dust upward by the afternoon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerlike-dust-formations-nbsp">Fingerlike dust formations&nbsp;</h2>



Satellite images revealed dust formations with fingerlike shapes that mirrored the landscape below. These projections aligned with valleys, which channeled and directed the airborne dust.&nbsp;



Ralph Kahn is an atmospheric scientist at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and scientist emeritus at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.



According to Kahn, the dust may have been “self-lofting.” In this process, sunlight heats recently stirred-up surface dust, creating pockets of convection that lift it even higher into the air.



This interpretation is supported by hourly observations from Japan’s Himawari-9 geostationary satellite, which showed dust gradually rising into the Tekilik Shan throughout the day. By late afternoon, the storm had grown dense enough to obscure the mountains.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-atmospheric-dust">Decline in atmospheric dust</h2>



Long-term satellite data from MODIS suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric dust</a> levels in this region have declined by about 1.5 percent each year since the early 2000s.&nbsp;



NASA researcher Hongbin Yu attributes this trend mainly to springtime changes - such as altered wind speeds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil moisture</a>, or vegetation cover - rather than shifts in other seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Rainfall in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



“The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Takla-Makan-Desert" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Takla Makan Desert</a> is one of the driest, most barren expanses on Earth. Flanked by mountain ranges on three sides and parched by the resulting <a href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Rain_shadow" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rain shadow</a>, parts of the Tarim Basin receive no more than 10 millimeters (0.4 inches) of rain per year,” noted NASA.



“Dust storms can lead to public health problems in populated areas downwind by transporting small particles, bacteria, and viruses that infiltrate human respiratory systems.”&nbsp;



NASA added that dust storms can also affect Earth’s climate by scattering and absorbing incoming solar radiation and changing the properties of clouds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-of-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Landscape of the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



The Tarim Basin is one of the largest endorheic basins in the world, meaning that its rivers do not drain into the sea but instead flow into interior lakes or evaporate.&nbsp;



The basin is encircled by three mountain ranges: the Tien Shan to the north, the Kunlun Mountains to the south, and the Pamirs to the west. These ranges create a powerful rain shadow effect, making the region exceptionally dry.



At the heart of the Tarim Basin lies the Taklamakan Desert, one of the most extreme deserts on Earth. The desert is known for its high dunes, intense temperature swings, and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-will-wreak-havoc-on-mountain-ranges-as-warming-climate-turns-snow-to-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-and-geology">History and geology</h2>



Despite its harsh environment, the basin has been historically significant. It was a key section of the ancient Silk Road, with several oases such as Kashgar, Khotan, and Loulan serving as vital trading and cultural centers for centuries.



Geologically, the basin is rich in natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas, and has become a focal point for China's energy exploration and development.&nbsp;



The region’s challenging climate and remote location, however, make infrastructure development and human habitation difficult.&nbsp;



The image was captured on March 27, 2025 by the Operational Land Imager instrument on Landsat 8.



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Blanket of dust covers China’s Tarim Basin

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604. The nebula is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). 



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means that NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. 



This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

The MODIS instrument, short for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, is a key instrument aboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. MODIS is playing a vital role in the development of Earth ecosystem models, able to predict global changes, which then assist policy makers in making informed decisions about the protection of the global environment.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps are seen in this Image of the day&nbsp;from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at heavy snow and low clouds in the Alps. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps

Monitoring Earth Changes with MODIS

Aqua is a NASA scientific research satellite that studies precipitation, evaporation, and water cycles. Terra and Aura make up the Earth Observing System. It's the second component of the system.

A frozen Lake Erie in February Today’s Image of the Day comes from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at a frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/icy-lake-erie/">Lake Erie</a>, which is currently 93.3 percent iced over. A frozen Lake Erie in February
This false-color image was created using data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Aqua satellite to differentiate between snow, ice, and clouds.
Lake Erie /ˈɪəri/ (French: Lac Érié) is the fourth-largest lake (by surface area) of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the eleventh-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area.It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet (64 metres) deep. 
Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie&#8217;s northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, specifically the Ontario Peninsula, with the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern, and eastern shores. These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries. 
The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native American people who lived along its southern shore. The tribal name &#8220;erie&#8221; is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word erielhonan, meaning long tail
&#8212;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

A frozen Lake Erie in February

Aqua Earth Observing Satellite

This beautiful photo gallery contains 50 incredible images of Earth from Space. These images were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station, as well as by a multitude of NASA satellites orbiting the earth.

Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean just south of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-blue-chrysanthemums-created/">Japan</a>.
This image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on July 31, 2017. 
At the time the photo was taken, Typhoon Noru was located just 250 kilometers south of Iwo Jima. Maximum sustained winds hit 150 miles per hour.
The storm briefly became a category 5 on July 30, before being downgraded to a category 4 one day later.
&#8211;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Source: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean

Incredible Images of Earth from Space

Photos from the International Space Station are found in this awesome Earth.com image gallery. Flat-earthers won't agree, but these incredible photos of the Earth were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station. The International Space Station is a modular space station in low Earth orbit.

Northern Italy from the space station is seen here in this Image of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). The view includes the top half of the Italian Peninsula, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/wildfires-burn-northern-corsica/">Corsica</a> and Sardinia off the coast. This image was captured by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on his third and final mission to the Space Station.

Northern Italy from the Space Station

Photos from the International Space Station

Earth,Water,Surface,Global,Warming,Concept,Illustration

Satellite instruments that have been circling Earth since the early 1980s now paint a stark picture of our warm ocean temperatures: not only are they rising, they are doing so more quickly with each passing decade. 



According to a new study, between 1985 and 1989, global averages increased by about 0.06 °C every ten years.



In the most recent five‑year collection of data from 2019 to 2023, that figure leapt to roughly 0.27 °C per decade. In practical terms, the thin skin of water covering our planet is heating more than four times faster today than it was a generation ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-record-of-ocean-temperatures">Long-term record of ocean temperatures</h2>



The researchers analyzed sea‑surface temperature (SST) fields created through the European Space Agency’s <a href="https://climate.esa.int/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate Change Initiative</a> (ESA-CCI SST). They stitched together a single, carefully calibrated record extending from 1980 right up to 2023.



The experts took measurements from 20 satellite‑borne infrared radiometers, including sensors on missions such as ERS‑1, ERS‑2, Envisat and Copernicus Sentinel‑3, together with two microwave instruments that penetrate cloud cover at high latitudes.



Each satellite required meticulous cross‑calibration; otherwise, subtle drifts in sensor performance or orbital changes might be misread as genuine changes in ocean heat. 



By comparing satellite values with data from ships and drifting buoys, the team produced what is currently one of the world’s most reliable long‑term SST series.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trapped-heat-and-energy-imbalance"><a></a>Trapped heat and energy imbalance</h2>



With data in hand, investigators set out to identify the forces responsible for the accelerating climb. They examined <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-play-an-overlooked-role-in-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic eruptions</a>, which sometimes cool the Earth’s surface for a year or two by shading incoming sunlight.



The team also mapped out the impacts of recurring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-event-may-push-earth-towards-its-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> and La Niña events that alternately cool and warm oceans. Solar cycles, which raise or lower the Sun’s energy output on an eleven‑year rhythm, were also weighed.



Although each of these natural processes leaves a recognizable fingerprint, none could explain the long‑running upward trend, much less the recent acceleration. The prime driver, the authors conclude, is the long‑term energy imbalance caused by the build‑up of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a>.



Greenhouse gases trapping heat in the atmosphere result in an imbalance in the energy received by our planet from the Sun, while the energy radiates back out to space, resulting in an excess energy imbalance, according to lead author Chris Merchant from the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>.



To keep pace with the changing climate, he added, “we need ongoing monitoring and data improvements to ensure our climate models can accurately reflect future temperature increases.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dominant-driver-of-ocean-warming">Dominant driver of ocean warming</h2>



Owen Embury, scientific lead for the ESA‑CCI SST project, elaborated on the balance between short‑term fluctuations and the persistent warming signal. 



“Our study clearly identifies the increasing accumulation of planetary energy as the dominant driver of long‑term sea surface warming, while short‑term variations from El Niño, volcanic activity and solar changes add variability but do not alter the overall accelerating trend,” he explained.



The research therefore disentangles the temporary bumps and dips from the steadily ticking metronome of human‑driven change. Mounting heat in the oceans does more than shift a thermometer reading. 



Warmer surface water supplies extra fuel for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-moving-tropical-cyclones-are-becoming-more-powerful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical cyclones</a>, allowing storms to intensify faster and reach higher peak winds. As temperature thresholds are crossed, coral reefs bleach, fisheries relocate, and weather patterns on land alter in response to changed heat exchange between sea and atmosphere. 



Warmer water also expands, pushing sea level upward alongside meltwater from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-patterns-point-to-rapid-melting-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice sheets</a> and glaciers. These knock‑on effects affect everything from coastal infrastructure to global food security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasting-future-ocean-temperatures">Forecasting future ocean temperatures </h2>



Because consequences of accelerating ocean warming reach into many corners of society and the biosphere, the findings have already been integrated into <a href="https://climate.esa.int/en/Cross_ECV_Projects/motecusoma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA’s MOTECUSOMA project</a>, which examines Earth’s energy imbalance and its downstream effects.



The same SST data set will also serve as a touchstone for refining climate models, which must reproduce the observed rate of heat uptake if they are to forecast future conditions credibly.



“Addressing these challenges requires accurate climate projections - increasing ocean heat uptake intensifies extreme weather events, disrupts ecosystems, and accelerates sea level rise, making continued observation and model refinement essential,” Embury said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-vigilance"><a></a>A call for vigilance</h2>



Looking ahead, several forthcoming satellite missions promise to sharpen the picture further. Additional Copernicus Sentinel‑3 satellites will lengthen the infrared record, while ESA’s proposed TRUTHS mission plans to carry an ultra‑stable reference spectrometer.



The spectrometer will improve calibration across the entire suite of Earth‑observing instruments. Such advances are vital, because even small errors in measuring the ocean’s surface can accumulate into large uncertainties about total planetary heat.



Although the new study focuses on sea‑surface temperature, the implications extend well beyond. Surface warming is often just the tip of the iceberg. 



Heat propagates downward on timescales of decades to centuries, altering currents, destabilizing ice shelves from below and setting the stage for further climate shifts long after atmospheric greenhouse‑gas levels are stabilized. 



By tracking the surface layer with high precision, scientists gain clues about how much thermal energy is entering the deeper ocean and how quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-influence-on-ocean-temperatures">Human influence on ocean temperatures</h2>



The quadrupling of the warming rate since the late 1980s serves as a sobering marker of humanity’s influence on the climate system. It illustrates not only that the oceans are acting as a buffer, absorbing enormous amounts of excess heat, but also that this buffer is filling up faster than before.



Continued satellite surveillance of warm oceans, combined with in‑situ measurements and refined climate models, provides the clearest picture yet of how and why the ocean is changing - and helps societies plan responses. 



Whether the next forty years see another acceleration or a slowdown will depend largely on how soon and how vigorously global greenhouse‑gas emissions are curbed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adaa8a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Ocean temperatures are rising faster than expected, and likely to accelerate

Satellite instruments that have been circling Earth since the early...

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from the age of dinosaurs sounds like pure fantasy, yet that is exactly what happened on England’s west coast. 



A stretch of shoreline below Somerset’s crumbling cliffs yielded a bone so large that it challenged everything we thought we knew about prehistoric marine reptiles. 



The fossil - a lower jaw more than 6½ feet long - promised a creature leagues beyond anything alive today. The find dated to around 202 million years ago, slotting it into the turbulent final chapter of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic Period</a>.



At that time, much of what is now Britain lay beneath a warm, shallow sea patrolled by meat‑eating giants. Their reign ended in a mass extinction, leaving only scattered bones to whisper their stories - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruby-and-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Ruby and Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



Back in late&nbsp;May&nbsp;2020, 11‑year‑old Ruby&nbsp;Reynolds and her father, Justin, headed for the mudflats of Blue&nbsp;Anchor, looking for fossils. 



Justin spotted a four‑inch scrap of bone, “bigger than any piece of bone I'd ever found before,” he recalls. 



Ruby wandered on and unearthed a second fragment twice that size. “It was just sort of lying there,” she says. “I was just happy, really.” Their excitement would soon ripple far beyond the shoreline.



Word reached paleontologist Dean&nbsp;Lomax, who holds posts at both the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>. He recognized echoes of another Somerset specimen lifted in&nbsp;2016 by local collector Paul&nbsp;de&nbsp;la&nbsp;Salle. 



That earlier jaw fragment, called a surangular, came together from several chunks that, Lomax remembers, “fit together perfectly like an ancient prehistoric jigsaw puzzle.”



Ruby's discovery was eventually named Ichthyotitan severnensis, which literally translates to “giant fish lizard from the Severn.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ichthyotitan-severnensis-was-a-true-monster">Ichthyotitan severnensis was a true monster</h2>



The first bone’s eroded edges left scientists yearning for more. “It suggests that it was from something unusual and exceedingly large,”&nbsp;Lomax says. 



He and colleagues published a cautious description, but could not pin down the creature’s identity. “What we'd hoped for - we kept our fingers crossed - we hoped that maybe more specimens would come to light in the future,” he admits.



Ruby and Justin’s beachside haul delivered exactly that. After they emailed photographs - “Hey, Dr.&nbsp;Lomax - we think we've found another one of your giant ichthyosaur jawbones”&nbsp;-&nbsp;the research team raced to Somerset. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1s.webp" alt="Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax" class="wp-image-1966376"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax</figcaption></figure>



“Of course, they were quite right,” Lomax says. “They correctly identified these sections of bone as belonging to an ichthyosaur.” 



Fresh collecting trips recovered still more pieces, leaving nearly two‑thirds of the jaw intact and in excellent shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-two-huge-jawbones">Matching two huge jawbones</h2>



Comparison of the two Somerset jaws revealed striking similarities. Because both turned up in the same rock layer and displayed uncommon internal bone textures, the team concluded they belonged to one new species. 



In a paper published in PLOS&nbsp;ONE, they proposed that the full animal stretched roughly&nbsp;82&nbsp;feet - “genuinely enormous, about the length of a blue whale,” Lomax says.



Scale alone does not grant a place in the record books; scientists also scrutinized microscopic structures inside the bone. 



These matched the odd pattern seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fiona-the-ichthyosaur-was-preserved-for-millions-of-years-after-a-landslide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super‑sized ichthyosaurs</a>, nudging researchers to suggest these reptiles grew in a way unlike most of their scaly kin.



Whether Ichthyotitan severnensis belonged to the shastasaur group - the clade that once produced Triassic leviathans across the globe - remains uncertain until a complete skeleton surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sizing-up-ichthyotitan">Sizing up Ichthyotitan</h2>



The Somerset titan likely carried a lighter, more streamlined frame suited for open‑ocean cruising. Its jawbone alone outsizes a grown person by several feet. 



If its proportions followed relatives such as Shonisaurus, the skull may have spanned over&nbsp;10&nbsp;feet, with paddle‑shaped flippers stretching wider than a living‑room couch.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1966374"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



Growth to such dimensions suggests a sea rich in food and free of bigger predators. Massive schools of squid‑like cephalopods thrived in Triassic waters, offering a banquet to long‑roaming hunters. 



Stable‑isotope evidence from other ichthyosaur bones hints at warm‑blooded metabolisms, which, paired with live birth and sleek bodies, let them fill whale‑like niches long before mammals took the plunge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-the-triassic-was-incredible">Life in the Triassic was incredible</h2>



The Triassic often flies under the radar next to the Jurassic’s celebrity dinosaurs, yet biomechanist Kelsey&nbsp;Stilson calls it “a really weird time.” 



Continents had only just fused into <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangaea</a>, monsoon‑driven climates swung from drought to deluge, and both early dinosaurs and mammals were fresh on the scene. 



“There were things that we can't even possibly imagine in the past,”&nbsp;Stilson adds. “But we can get little hints, and this is one little hint at this larger picture of evolution on Earth.”



That broader picture shows ichthyosaurs rising fast after the end‑Permian mass extinction, then peaking in size just before the next cataclysm. 



“No marine reptile ever reached such gigantic sizes ever again,”&nbsp;Lomax notes. Later Jurassic and Cretaceous ichthyosaurs shrank, perhaps pushed aside by changing oceans and by the emergence of other reptilian predators such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pliosaurs</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosasaurs-had-fierce-survival-strategies-including-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-replaced-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Whales replaced Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



The last ichthyosaurs disappeared about&nbsp;94&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, vacating the top spot in marine food webs. 



That gap lingered until hoofed mammals ventured back to sea some&nbsp;50&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, setting whales on their own path to titanic proportions. 



The repeat story - big fish‑shaped predators evolving from land‑going ancestors - highlights how evolutionary solutions recur when similar ecological opportunities arise.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1s.webp" alt="A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy." class="wp-image-1966372"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy.</figcaption></figure>



Modern blue whales now stretch beyond&nbsp;100&nbsp;feet and can weigh&nbsp;180&nbsp;tons, yet, length for length, they share the open ocean’s realm with Ichthyotitan in the fossil archives. 



Their stories highlight the ocean’s capacity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trachelosaurus-fischeri-worlds-oldest-long-necked-marine-reptile-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nurture behemoths</a> when food is ample and competition sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Somerset’s cliffs erode a little more each winter. Storms tear at ancient mudstones, exposing new fossils overnight. 



“This research has been ongoing for almost eight years. It is quite remarkable to think that gigantic, blue whale‑sized ichthyosaurs were swimming in the oceans around what was the UK during the Triassic Period," Lomax concluded.



"These jawbones provide tantalizing evidence that perhaps one day a complete skull or skeleton of one of these giants might be found. You never know.”



Beachcombers like Ruby and Justin now scan those shores with renewed purpose. Their lucky strike reminds us that scientific breakthroughs sometimes hide in plain sight, waiting for curious eyes and a little persistence. 



The sea claimed Ichthyotitan severnensis long before humans walked Europe, yet its story shows that even after millions of years, a coast‑side ramble can rewrite natural history.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0300289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Largest marine reptile ever known to exist was discovered by an 11-year-old girl

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from...

Space travel isn’t just about brave explorers rocketing to distant orbits. It also involves a constant watch over each astronaut's well-being, which becomes more complicated when Earth’s gravity no longer holds sway.



<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/hrp/bodyinspace" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experts</a> agree that prolonged missions can chip away at bone mass by as much as 1–2% per month, and they can also cause muscle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-could-threaten-the-health-of-future-astronauts-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weakness</a>. These factors show why health tracking has become a top priority for those who launch beyond our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wearable-devices-for-astronauts">Wearable devices for astronauts </h2>



Yi Wang, an expert in the Department of Physical Education at <a href="http://Renmin University of China +86 10 6251 1084 https://g.co/kgs/mniGefw" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Renmin University of China</a>, is the lead author of a study that explored efforts to use comfortable and flexible devices for real-time insights into astronaut fitness.



"The burgeoning domain of flexible wearable devices is leading the way in aerospace medicine, providing groundbreaking solutions for the real-time health monitoring of astronauts," wrote the research team.



"As human space exploration evolves towards extended missions, the imperative to monitor the physiological and psychological well-being of astronauts is becoming increasingly paramount."



This approach tackles key concerns like blood pressure swings, joint strain, and emotional strain that might arise during months of weightlessness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-astronaut-wearables-are-essential">Why astronaut wearables are essential</h2>



Flexible sensors bring a gentle fit that matches the body’s contours. They track vital signs such as heart rate and oxygen levels through materials that can bend without losing accuracy.



The devices also collect data on how well each crew member adjusts to changes like <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/what-is-microgravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a>. That information can help ground teams figure out if an astronaut’s bones or muscles need extra support during flights.



Some research suggests that flexible <a href="https://mhealth.jmir.org/2020/7/e15576/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">devices</a> can spot subtle shifts in cardiovascular function or posture before things become serious. This is important because the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-can-survive-mars-space-journey-but-their-kidneys-will-be-permanently-damaged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harsh environment</a> of space can turn a small health hiccup into a full-blown emergency.



Wearable devices also pave the way for continuous monitoring without burdening the astronaut. Less bulky hardware means more room inside cramped modules and improved mobility for daily tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-space-specific-hurdles">Tackling space-specific hurdles</h2>



Microgravity is a tricky term to define in plain language, but microgravity essentially means the near-weightless environment in orbit. It sets off changes throughout the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-may-need-to-jump-for-better-knee-health-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body</a> that can’t be fixed by typical gym routines.



Radiation is another threat since <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/analog-field-testing/why-space-radiation-matters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space radiation</a> lacks the natural shielding we enjoy on Earth. Flexible wearables must withstand this hazard so that vital signals aren’t scrambled or lost.



In close quarters, data privacy and secure handling are absolute musts. Astronauts trust these devices to monitor intimate details, so breach-proof software is nonnegotiable.



The process of blending different streams of data into one reliable readout is still being refined. Scientists keep busy refining astronaut wearables to fuse data from heart monitors, motion trackers, and environmental detectors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Teams aim to create new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-microbiome-health-is-crucial-to-future-space-exploration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials</a> that can handle extreme cold on a spacewalk, then shift back indoors without cracking. These breakthroughs could help sensors remain stable across temperature swings of hundreds of degrees.



Better algorithms are also on the radar. With artificial intelligence, ground crews can receive real-time alerts if any parameter spikes or dips in ways that signal a looming problem.



Battery life is another concern. Researchers are looking into how to harvest energy from an astronaut’s body heat or movement so the devices can run longer without heavy power packs.



Some innovators imagine a full suite of wearables layered under an astronaut’s suit. The idea is to deliver a near-instant update on muscle fatigue, radiation exposure, and even mood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teamwork-to-improve-space-safety">Teamwork to improve space safety</h2>



Experts in aerospace medicine, biomechanics, materials science, and data security have begun teaming up. This joint effort ensures that <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264599699_Recent_advances_in_flexible_and_stretchable_electronic_devices_via_electrospinning" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flexible sensors</a> do more than just capture numbers.



Researchers also want to refine how insights reach mission control. A well-designed interface can let flight surgeons step in early, possibly keeping a small concern from escalating.



Such teamwork crosses national and cultural boundaries. Multiple agencies share findings so that any breakthroughs can improve missions for everyone who ventures out of Earth’s orbit.



Universities, private companies, and government labs all contribute key pieces to the puzzle. They design prototypes, test them, and streamline the data flow so that astronauts remain safe and well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wearables-reshape-astronaut-health-tracking">Wearables reshape astronaut health tracking</h2>



Flexible wearables represent a big shift in how we look after crew members who travel hundreds of miles above Earth’s surface. They blend advanced materials and smooth sensors to create a constant flow of health data.



By focusing on material research, robust electronics, stronger algorithms, and airtight privacy, experts are shaping the next wave of support for humans in space travel.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2950235725000083?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wearable Electronics</a>.



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Flexible, wearable devices could track astronaut health in space

Space travel isn’t just about brave explorers rocketing to distant...

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum spell out existence with the same four DNA letters. Ribosomes read that code, snap together twenty familiar amino acids, and pay each cellular bill with the energy token ATP.



That sameness keeps biologists chasing one big puzzle: if the instructions are nearly identical everywhere, who wrote the first edition? 



The answer points to LUCA - the Last Universal Common Ancestor - an organism that sat at the split between Bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-the-pressure-builds-archaea-go-multicellular/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaea</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-genetic-code-one-single-ancestor">One genetic code, one single ancestor</h2>



Living systems are not fond of coincidence. A single genetic alphabet, the same protein‑making machinery, and a universal energy currency add up to more than luck. 



“The evolutionary history of genes is complicated by their exchange between lineages," explained Dr. Edmund Moody, lead author from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. His team sifted thousands of genomes to see how far back the shared toolkit stretches.



"We have to use complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary models</a> to reconcile the evolutionary history of genes with the genealogy of species.” 



By letting the data, rather than strict cutoffs, decide which features belonged to LUCA, the researchers landed on roughly 2,600 genes - about as many as a run‑of‑the‑mill modern bacterium carries. 



Co-author Dr. Tom Williams noted, “One of the real advantages here is applying the gene‑tree species‑tree reconciliation approach to such a diverse dataset representing the primary domains of life, Archaea and Bacteria. This allows us to say with some confidence - and assess that level of confidence - in how LUCA lived.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-developmental-toolkit">LUCA's developmental toolkit</h2>



Previous estimates swung from a lean 80‑gene outline to libraries topping 1,500 families. The updated theory paints LUCA as anything but a genetic ghost. 



Inside those 2,600 blueprints are membrane pumps, DNA‑repair crews, and all the ingredients for simple lipids. Better still, the cache includes the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood%E2%80%93Ljungdahl_pathway" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wood–Ljungdahl pathway</a>, a tidy chemical loop that welds carbon dioxide to hydrogen, spits out acetate, and releases usable energy in the process.



Such provisions point to a self‑reliant cell thriving without outside help. That picture challenges older ideas that early life was a stripped‑down passenger riding geology’s coattails toward complexity. 



Instead, LUCA seems to have been capable, adaptable, and ready to try new tricks the moment the planet cooled enough to keep liquid water in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-hydrothermal-vents">Chemistry of hydrothermal vents</h2>



Tracking gene changes throughout Earth's history, the study dates LUCA to about 4.2 billion years ago, only a few hundred million years after Earth itself pulled together. 



“We did not expect LUCA to be so old, within just hundreds of millions of years of Earth formation. However, our results fit with modern views on the habitability of early Earth,” said <a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/persons/sandra-alvarez-carretero?_gl=1*1vhoh1m*_ga*NzU0MjM5MjI2LjE3NDQ5Mjc5MDk.*_ga_6R8SPL3HLT*MTc0NDkzMTg1Ni4yLjEuMTc0NDkzMTk2Mi42MC4wLjA." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Sandra Álvarez‑Carretero</a>.



Back then, asteroid impacts and belching volcanoes regularly upended the crust. Yet seafloor hydrothermal vents likely offered warm, metal‑rich oases. 



Iron, nickel, and sulfur minerals could have driven the very reactions scripted in LUCA’s genome. 



The Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, still used by some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">present‑day microbes</a>, fits neatly into that setting, turning vent chemistry into food and fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luca-s-peace-was-short-lived">LUCA's peace was short-lived</h2>



“Our study showed that LUCA was a complex organism, not too different from modern prokaryotes. What is really interesting is that it clearly possessed an early immune system, showing that even by 4.2 billion years ago, our ancestor was already engaged in an arms race with viruses,” said <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Davide-Pisani-27ef6f2a-19b3-4474-b71c-e61f2c8585a4/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Davide Pisani</a>. 



Genes resembling today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> defenses suggest viral predators appeared almost as soon as cells did.



This constant sparring matters. Viral raids can shuffle genes between hosts faster than random mutation alone. 



The pressure to dodge infection forces microbes to innovate, potentially speeding up the invention of new enzymes, pathways, and even entire metabolic lifestyles that later lineages would inherit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-sharing-space-with-luca">Microbes sharing space with LUCA</h2>



It’s clear that LUCA was exploiting and changing its environment, but it is unlikely to have lived alone. 



"Its waste would have been food for other microbes, like methanogens, that would have helped to create a recycling ecosystem,” observed Tim Lenton from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>. 



In modern hydrothermal vents, acetate‑producers and methane‑makers trade leftovers, smoothing local chemistry and stabilizing energy flows.



Similar give‑and‑take could explain how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-early-earth-a-purple-planet-scientists-say-its-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Earth</a> cycled carbon and hydrogen long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> took the stage. 



By knitting together waste and resource, hydrothermal vent communities may have tempered extreme swings in temperature and acidity, opening fresh niches for the next wave of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-bacteria-used-oxygen-about-one-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary experiments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-luca-matter">Why does LUCA matter?</h2>



“The findings and methods employed in this work will also inform future studies that look in more detail into the subsequent evolution of prokaryotes in light of Earth history, including the lesser‑studied Archaea with their methanogenic representatives,” said Professor Anja Spang, co-author from the Royal Netherlands <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Sea Research</a>.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Philip-Donoghue-4fd2d6ef-3986-4566-97e4-7ae7db296525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Philip Donoghue</a> highlighted the interdisciplinary nature of the work, saying it brought together data and techniques from across multiple fields. 



This collaborative approach, he explained, made it possible to uncover insights into early Earth and the origins of life that no single discipline could have revealed on its own. 



He also pointed out how swiftly ecosystems seem to have taken root on the early planet - an observation that opens the door to the possibility that life might be thriving on other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-k2-18b-strongest-evidence-yet-of-extraterrestrial-life-discovered-webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth-like worlds</a> in the universe.



"This suggests that life may be flourishing on Earth‑like biospheres elsewhere in the universe," Donoghue concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



To sum it all up, each genome pulled from ocean mud or desert crust adds a puzzle piece to LUCA’s portrait. 



As sequencing tech grows faster and cheaper, scientists will keep hunting for ancient gene families, refining the ancestral blueprint, and scoping out early viral fossils hidden in microbial DNA. 



New drilling missions aimed at untouched seafloor vents could reveal communities whose lifestyles echo those first biochemical gambles, tightening links between geology and genetics.



The storyline is still unfolding, but one takeaway already stands firm: life did not tiptoe onto the stage. It sprinted, armed with a full toolkit, ready to spar with viruses, and eager to reshape its surroundings - leaving every organism alive today carrying a hint of that four‑billion‑year‑old spark.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02461-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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All life on Earth comes from one single ancestor, now we know what it was

Every plant leaf, eagle feather, and speck of pond scum...

Planet Mercury is scorched and easy to overlook, yet the innermost planet keeps tossing cosmic curveballs. Now researchers suggest an even wilder twist: a layer of diamond roughly 10 miles thick may sit inside the planet. 



For a world that spins three times on its axis for every two laps around the Sun and endures noon temperatures above 800 °F, that is a dazzling possibility.



Hints of carbon riches have been piling up since NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/messenger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MESSENGER spacecraft</a> mapped Mercury in detail. Graphite patches spattered across the crust - graphite, an “allotrope” of carbon - point to a bygone magma ocean loaded with carbon. 



When that ocean cooled, light carbon floated upward, darkening the ground, while denser metal sank inward. 



Heavier carbon, the new study argues, descended alongside the sinking metal and re‑crystallized into diamond, adding a fresh twist to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bepicolombo-spacecraft-captures-high-definition-images-of-mercury-during-close-flyby/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the planet’s story</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recreating-mercury-diamonds-in-the-lab">Recreating Mercury diamonds in the lab</h2>



The work comes from a joint team in China and Belgium led by planetary materials specialist Dr. Yanhao Lin of the Center for High Pressure Science and Technology Advanced Research (<a href="https://hpstar.ac.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HPSTAR</a>). 



MESSENGER’s chemical readings showed more carbon than any other rocky world, so Lin’s group recreated Mercury’s interior in a lab press, squeezing synthetic mantle rock to 7 GPa, roughly seven times the pressure at the bottom of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents-provide-clues-about-the-origin-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mariana Trench</a>, then heating it to nearly 3,600 °F.



“Many years ago, I noticed that Mercury's extremely high carbon content might have significant implications. It made me realize that something special probably happened within its interior.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-s-core-mantle-boundary">Mercury's core–mantle boundary</h2>



Under those conditions, graphite is not the only option. The experiments indicate that at the core-mantle boundary - about 5.575 GPa and enriched by roughly 11 percent sulfur - carbon flips into its harder sibling, building a sparkling shell up to 18 kilometers (11 miles) thick around the metallic core. 



Cooling calculations show a 358 K drop in the magma ocean once diamond begins to appear, helping the crystals sink and pile up.



“We use the large‑volume press to mimic the high‑temperature and high‑pressure conditions of Mercury's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bepicolombo-mission-captures-mercury-in-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">core‑mantle boundary</a> and combine it with the geophysical models and thermodynamic calculations,” Lin explained. 



“Sulfur lowers the liquidus of Mercury's magma ocean. If the diamond forms in the magma ocean, it can sink to the bottom and be deposited at the CMB." 



On the other hand, sulfur also helps the formation of an iron sulfide layer at the CMB, which is related to carbon content during planetary differentiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sturdy-magnetic-field">Sturdy magnetic field</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bepicolombo-spacecraft-reveals-mercurys-magnetic-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mercury’s magnetic field</a> is surprisingly sturdy for a world only slightly wider than the continental United States. Heat must flow out of the core to keep the dynamo churning, and diamond is an ace conductor that funnels energy upward faster than the surrounding rock.



“Carbon from the molten core becomes oversaturated as it cools, forming diamond and floating to the CMB," Lin continued.



"Diamond's high thermal conductivity helps transfer heat effectively from the core to the mantle, causing temperature stratification and convection change in Mercury's liquid outer core, and thus affecting the generation of its magnetic field."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mercury-got-so-much-diamond">How Mercury got so much diamond</h2>



Mercury’s graphite veneer - described as a “primordial crust” in MESSENGER papers - already set the planet apart. If diamond truly lurks below, it widens the chemical gulf between Mercury and other rocky worlds. 



Earth, Mars, and Venus lost most of their carbon to space or locked it in carbonates; Mercury appears to have hoarded it, first as floating graphite, then as sinking diamond.



“It also could be relevant to the understanding of other terrestrial planets, especially those with similar sizes and compositions. The processes that led to the formation of a diamond layer on Mercury might also have occurred on other planets, potentially leaving similar signatures,” Lin concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The discovery leans heavily on laboratory insight because no probe has yet peered inside Mercury. <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/BepiColombo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BepiColombo</a>, a joint European–Japanese mission cruising toward the planet, will slip into orbit in 2030. 



Its instruments will refine gravity maps and look for twists in the magnetic field that betray a thin, superconductive layer. 



A modestly thick diamond shell may leave a clear fingerprint that confirms or refutes the laboratory predictions.



Future researchers may also revisit carbon‑rich metallic asteroids. 



If Mercury managed to forge diamond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-mercury-is-still-shrinking-and-now-has-more-wrinkles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">under modest pressure</a>, smaller bodies could follow suit, spicing up asteroid‑mining dreams - even if any gems are locked beneath iron skins, not loose pebbles ripe for harvest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The tale is not about jewelry; it is a lesson in planetary evolution. Carbon’s behavior - floating, sinking, switching structure - shapes heat flow, crust makeup, and even the shielding field that deflects solar wind.



By tracing carbon’s journey on Mercury, scientists sharpen models that apply to worlds circling distant stars. A planet baked dry and loaded with carbon might look lifeless at first glance, yet deep interiors could dance with diamond phases that keep cores alive. 



Mercury, often written off as a scorched ball of rock, shows that worlds can host exotic physics, hiding secrets worth chasing.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-49305-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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NASA spacecraft finds a layer of diamonds 10-miles thick on planet Mercury

Planet Mercury is scorched and easy to overlook, yet the...

NASA is preparing to send a quantum sensor into orbit to measure subtle shifts in Earth’s gravity. The implications of this effort reach far beyond academic curiosity because these measurements could reveal hidden phenomena, from changes in global water availability to pockets of oil and gas beneath the surface.



After two decades of planning, a group of researchers is set to integrate this sensor with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desi-gravity-study-new-discovery-proves-einstein-right-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite</a> and launch it by the end of the decade. 



The team includes private companies, academic partners, and NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.jobs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>, where Jason Hyon serves as chief technologist for Earth Science and also directs the <a href="https://www.dlr.de/en/rb/research-operation/research-projects/quantum-technology/qsoc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum Space Innovation Center</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-hidden-gravity-shifts">Detecting hidden gravity shifts</h2>



A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/gravity-gradiometers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity gradiometer</a> is a tool that picks up tiny variations in how hard gravity pulls on objects. These changes are often invisible to everyday perception, yet they help paint a detailed picture of what lies under land or ocean.



Experts who track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-theory-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>’s shifting mass rely on high-precision satellites for data on water supplies, ice sheets, and other large systems. 



This mission, called Quantum Gravity Gradiometer Pathfinder (<a href="https://esto.nasa.gov/files/quantum/Chiow.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">QGGPf</a>), could be a major step toward refining those measurements and making them more accurate. A more precise view of our planet’s gravity may benefit efforts to manage natural resources on a global scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-earth-s-gravity-with-frozen-atoms">Measuring Earth’s gravity with frozen atoms</h2>



The heart of the mission relies on <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/~maelabs/mae324/glos324/rubidium.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rubidium atoms</a> that are chilled to extremely low temperatures. They are placed in free fall within the instrument, creating test masses that respond to gravity’s pull in ways that the device can measure with fine precision.&nbsp;



By monitoring the difference in how two atomic clouds accelerate, the team gains insights into subtle <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1140/epjqt/s40507-025-00338-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity shifts</a>.



Chilling atoms to near absolute zero is tricky to do on Earth because they need sustained free fall conditions. In space, these atoms remain in microgravity, offering a longer window to track tiny shifts in their movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-atoms-to-track-earth-s-gravity">Using atoms to track Earth's gravity</h2>



Today’s space-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> missions rely on multiple satellites that track their positions relative to each other. The QGGPf mission proposes a compact, single-satellite approach.



The sensor takes up about 0.3 cubic yards (0.2 cubic meters) and weighs roughly 275 pounds (125 kilograms). That size is manageable for launch yet still big enough to house complex laser and vacuum systems.



The ability to see variations at smaller scales may assist with identifying underground aquifers or regions where geological shifts threaten infrastructure. This is especially significant for communities that need to track freshwater availability.



“We could determine the mass of the Himalayas using atoms,” noted Hyon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-instrument-s-sensitivity">Testing the instrument's sensitivity </h2>



NASA’s Earth Science Technology Office supports QGGPf, which highlights how agencies sometimes partner with smaller businesses and laboratories to advance the development of cutting-edge instruments.



Key roles in this project come from companies that develop the compact laser systems for cooling and trapping atoms. The synergy between government and private enterprise speeds up <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-pulls-earth-closer-to-the-sun-warming-our-climate-scientists-say/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">innovation</a>.



“We need to fly it so that we can figure out how well it will operate,” said Ben Stray, a postdoctoral researcher at JPL. He and others anticipate that the data collected will confirm whether the instrument truly achieves the sensitivity required for future missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atoms-reveal-secrets-of-earth-s-gravity">Atoms reveal secrets of Earth's gravity </h2>



Gravity is stronger where there is more mass. A system able to detect even minor mass differences could deliver maps of rock density or water distribution beneath the surface. By comparing local gravity over time, scientists can also spot changes linked to <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20210025840/downloads/2021JB023024_Loomis.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting glaciers</a> or draining groundwater basins.



Much of this detail is absent from current measurements, which are already beneficial for climate scientists and geologists. QGGPf aims to build on that success and produce data at a higher resolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-the-data-accurate">Keeping the data accurate</h2>



The sensor depends on lasers that cool atoms until they behave like overlapping waves. If any vibration or misalignment disrupts this setup, the data may lose accuracy. 



The team has focused on stabilizing <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0605-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">optical components</a> and ensuring that the vacuum system holding the atoms remains in the best possible condition.



A robust spacecraft attitude control system will keep the device oriented so that random movements in orbit don’t blur the results. Plans also include methods to guard against minor temperature fluctuations that could shift laser alignment or disturb the sensor’s vacuum chamber.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravitational-fields-of-other-planets">Gravitational fields of other planets</h2>



Knowing exactly how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-electric-field-discovered-surrounding-earth-nasa-says-its-as-crucial-as-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> changes can help with more than resource management. These measurements could enhance the understanding of fault lines and the structure of Earth’s crust.



The approach could also be applied to studies of gravitational fields on other planets, where future missions might carry versions of the same sensor to help map the inner layers.



“The QGGPf instrument will lead to planetary science applications and fundamental physics applications,” said Hyon. Teams worldwide are <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00325375" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching</a> to see if QGGPf’s technology can move quantum sensing from laboratory floors into reliable, orbit-based instruments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-generation-of-quantum-sensors">New generation of quantum sensors </h2>



If this project meets its goals, it will open the door to more sensitive tools that may someday detect subtle gravitational signals from even smaller hidden features. 



There is growing hope that a new generation of quantum sensors will transform how we explore everything from mining and energy reserves to the biggest questions about planetary formation.



Scientists from many disciplines are eager to see how a single craft can gather detailed insight into Earth’s gravitational puzzle. That data could indicate both risks and resources that might otherwise be missed.



The study was published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1140/epjqt/s40507-025-00338-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPJ Quantum Technology</a>.



Image Credit: NASA



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Scientists can map subtle shifts in Earth's gravity using atoms

NASA is preparing to send a quantum sensor into orbit...

A narrow slice of starlight has raised suspense about the possibility of company in the cosmos. While the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) watched the exoplanet K2-18b glide across its parent star, sulfur‑bearing gases appeared in the planet’s airborne haze.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-k2-18-b-studied-again-confirm-presence-dms-gas-only-produced-by-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dimethyl sulfide</a> and dimethyl disulfide - molecules tied to biological activity on Earth - leave unmistakable fingerprints in the data.



No telescope had ever hinted at these compounds beyond our neighborhood, so the finding instantly climbed toward the top of every astrobiologist’s wish list.



The signal meets the three‑sigma bar, which means there is only a&nbsp;0.3&nbsp;percent chance it popped out of random noise. 



Scientists need five&nbsp;sigma - less than&nbsp;0.00006&nbsp;percent probability - to declare a discovery. Yet getting this close with a planet&nbsp;124&nbsp;light‑years, or roughly&nbsp;730&nbsp;trillion&nbsp;miles, away stands out as today’s sharpest clue that life might thrive elsewhere. 



Those numbers alone for K2-18b promise a lively debate in laboratories around the globe for months to come. They also focus attention on the interplay between ocean chemistry and atmospheric circulation on watery worlds that orbit small, dim suns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-k2-18b-has-room-for-an-ocean">K2‑18b has room for an ocean</h2>



Discovered in&nbsp;2015,&nbsp;K2‑18b weighs about&nbsp;8.6&nbsp;times as much as Earth and spans&nbsp;2.6&nbsp;times our planet’s diameter - big enough to keep a thick hydrogen atmosphere yet small enough to support a surface ocean. 



The world sits inside the habitable zone of a cool red dwarf, where sunshine could keep water liquid and the hydrogen atmosphere could retain heat.



“We didn’t know for sure whether the signal we saw last time was due to DMS, but just the hint of it was exciting enough for us to have another look with JWST using a different instrument,” said Professor Nikku Madhusudhan of Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Astronomy</a>, who led the research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-signals-in-stardust">Sulfur signals in stardust</h2>



Astronomers tease out atmospheric chemistry by watching a planet dim its star during transit. As K2‑18b moves across the stellar face, a sliver of light filters through the gas envelope, and <a href="https://webbtelescope.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a> shows which wavelengths are absorbed. 



Earlier passes with its <a href="https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/01FA0T0WM3X65FFXM0JBR4C5ZB" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIRISS</a> and <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/nirspec/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIRSpec</a> cameras suggested sulfur compounds; the fresh visit used the Mid‑Infrared Instrument, which covers longer wavelengths and overlaps with neither camera.



“This is an independent line of evidence, using a different instrument than we did before and a different wavelength range of light, where there is no overlap with the previous observations,” said Madhusudhan. “The signal came through strong and clear.”



“It was an incredible realization seeing the results emerge and remain consistent throughout the extensive independent analyses and robustness tests,” added co‑author Måns Holmberg of the <a href="https://www.stsci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Telescope Science Institute</a> in Baltimore, USA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-dimethyl-sulfide-matters">Why dimethyl sulfide matters</h2>



On Earth, marine phytoplankton exhale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dimethyl sulfide</a>, giving seaside air its faint whiff of cabbage. Levels rarely rise above one part per billion here, yet the telescope sees more than ten parts per million on K2‑18b - thousands of times stronger. 



At that concentration, even a thin soup of microbes churning beneath global clouds could recharge the atmosphere in short order.



“Earlier theoretical work had predicted that high levels of sulfur‑based gases like DMS and DMDS are possible on Hycean worlds,” Madhusudhan said. 



“And now we’ve observed it, exactly as predicted. Given everything we know about this planet, a Hycean world with an ocean that is teeming with life is the scenario that best fits the data we have.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-k2-18b-and-the-five-sigma-milestone">K2-18b and the five‑sigma milestone</h2>



The team’s analysis already meets the community’s three‑sigma standard, but only five sigma counts as confirmation. 



Simulations show that between 16 and 24 hours of additional JWST time should push the statistics over the line, provided the telescope secures enough clear transits in the months ahead.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/exoplanet_K2-18b_life-evidence_spectrum-graph_credit-UCambridge_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/exoplanet_K2-18b_life-evidence_spectrum-graph_credit-UCambridge_1s.webp" alt="The graph shows the observed transmission spectrum of the habitable zone exoplanet K2-18 b using the JWST MIRI spectrograph. The vertical shows the fraction of star light absorbed in the planet's atmosphere due to molecules in the planet's atmosphere. The data are shown in the yellow circles with the 1-sigma uncertainties. The curves show the model fits to the data, with the black curve showing the median fit and the cyan curves outlining the 1-sigma intervals of the model fits. The absorption features attributed to dimethyl sulphide and dimethyl disulphide are indicated by the horizontal lines and text. The image behind the graph is an illustration of a hycean planet orbiting a red dwarf star. Credit: A. Smith, N. Madhusudhan (University of Cambridge)" class="wp-image-1965978"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The graph shows the observed transmission spectrum of the habitable zone exoplanet K2-18 b using the JWST MIRI spectrograph. The vertical shows the fraction of star light absorbed in the planet's atmosphere due to molecules in the planet's atmosphere. The data are shown in the yellow circles with the 1-sigma uncertainties. The curves show the model fits to the data, with the black curve showing the median fit and the cyan curves outlining the 1-sigma intervals of the model fits. The absorption features attributed to dimethyl sulphide and dimethyl disulphide are indicated by the horizontal lines and text. The image behind the graph is an illustration of a hycean planet orbiting a red dwarf star. Click image to enlarge. Credit: A. Smith, N. Madhusudhan (University of Cambridge)</figcaption></figure>



“The inference of these biosignature molecules poses profound questions concerning the processes that might be producing them,” said co‑author Subhajit Sarkar of <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a>. 



“Our work is the starting point for all the investigations now needed to confirm and understand the implications of these exciting findings,” added co‑author Savvas Constantinou, also of Cambridge’s Institute of Astronomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-skepticism">Overcoming skepticism</h2>



Researchers remain cautious because exotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-rely-on-quantum-mechanics-to-transfer-energy-from-sunlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photochemistry</a> or interior geologic vents could, in principle, forge the same molecules without biology. 



Laboratory experiments, improved climate simulations, and careful comparisons with other exoplanets will probe those alternative pathways while new telescope time gathers stronger data.



“It’s important that we’re deeply skeptical of our own results, because it’s only by testing and testing again that we’ll reach the point where we’re confident in them,” Madhusudhan said. “That’s how science has to work.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next-for-k2-18b">What happens next for K2-18b?</h2>



Webb’s sensitive eye was built for this kind of measurement, yet even sharper tools lie on the horizon. 



Planned observatories such as the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/programs/habitable-worlds-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitable Worlds Telescope</a> and the European Extremely Large Telescope will study smaller, cooler planets with richer spectra, expanding the growing catalog of possible biospheres and giving scientists the ability to cross‑check signs of life across many worlds.



“Decades from now, we may look back at this point in time and recognize it was when the living universe came within reach,” Madhusudhan said. 



“This could be the tipping point, where suddenly the fundamental question of whether we’re alone in the universe is one we’re capable of answering.”



These sulfur‑scented hints from K2‑18b remind us how quickly the search for life is moving from speculation to evidence.



If the signal holds, K2‑18b will stand as the first concrete clue that life can bloom under unfamiliar skies, turning a distant red dwarf’s faint light into a global ocean’s worth of metabolism.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0004-637X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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"Signature of life" detected on another world by the Webb telescope, study suggests

A narrow slice of starlight has raised suspense about the...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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