The Apollo Space Program placed seismometers to measure the magnitude of the quakes. By the time the research project was retired in the late &#8217;70s, NASA had counted 28 moonquakes of varying magnitudes. Unfortunately, in addition to these lunar events, there are far more natural catastrophes to look out for. Photo Credit: NASA/Public Domain

9. Measuring Chaos

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features Messier 78 (M78), a reflection nebula located in the constellation Orion about 1,350 light-years away from Earth. 



This image was released as part of the initial series of observations from ESA's <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a>.&nbsp;



All data collected during these early observations, including a series of incredible <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid/Euclid_s_first_images_the_dazzling_edge_of_darkness" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new views</a> of the nearby universe, is available to the public. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-messier-78">Image of Messier 78</h2>



Featured here is a high-resolution, detailed segment of a larger image showcasing Messier 78, a dynamic region of star formation obscured by cosmic dust.&nbsp;



This specific view highlights how young stars generate winds of charged particles, carving out “cavities” in the molecular clouds around them.&nbsp;



The blue hues in the image represent ionized atomic hydrogen, which is a primary component of the cloud, while the red indicates the absorption and scattering of light by dust particles.



The image captures hundreds of stars varying in brightness, illuminating their nebulous, purple surroundings. A dark, arch-like structure stretches from the upper left to the bottom right of the frame, merging into the densest, darkest clouds at the image’s base.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-site-of-star-formation-nbsp">Active site of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



Messier 78 is not just a single nebula but part of a larger complex of stars and nebulous regions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a>, which includes various other objects like dark nebulae that are visible as patches blocking light from behind.



This region is an active site of star formation, featuring many young stars and protostars, which are stars in the early stages of formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-messier-78">Viewing Messier 78</h2>



M78 is easily observable with small telescopes, and it appears as a hazy patch of light with two prominent stars near its center, which illuminate the surrounding dust.&nbsp;



The nebula is also a favorite among amateur astronomers for its beauty and relatively bright appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subject-of-scientific-interest-nbsp">Subject of scientific interest&nbsp;</h2>



Messier 78 is fascinating not only for its visual beauty but also for its scientific interest, particularly in the study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> and interstellar matter.&nbsp;



The nebula consists of dense, cold gas and dust, which are essential ingredients for the birth of new stars.&nbsp;



The intense blue light that characterizes M78 is due to the reflection of starlight off these dust particles, a process known as scattering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-region-surrounding-messier-78-nbsp">Region surrounding Messier 78&nbsp;</h2>



The region surrounding M78 includes several other interesting features. For instance, there are Herbig-Haro objects within it, which are small patches of nebulosity associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">newly born stars</a>.&nbsp;



These objects are formed when gas ejected by young stars collides with clouds of gas and dust at high speeds, creating shock waves that glow brightly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earliest-stages-of-star-development-nbsp">Earliest stages of star development&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, infrared observations of M78 have revealed much about the dust and colder objects in the area, which are not visible in optical light.&nbsp;



The observations have helped astronomers identify numerous young stars and brown dwarfs (objects that are too large to be planets and too small to be stars) within the nebula. 



This makes M78 a critical area for studying the earliest stages of star development and the properties of the interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp-0">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-batch-of-brilliant-images-from-the-euclid-mission-live-up-to-the-hype/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid space mission</a> is a European Space Agency (ESA) mission designed to study the dark universe, particularly focusing on dark energy and dark matter, which are fundamental components that are believed to drive the accelerating expansion of the universe and shape its large-scale structure.&nbsp;



The mission aims to map the geometry of the dark universe and better understand the physics of the cosmos.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-billions-of-galaxies-nbsp">Observing billions of galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Euclid uses two primary scientific instruments: a visible light camera (VIS) and a near-infrared spectrometer and photometer (NISP).&nbsp;



These instruments will allow Euclid to measure the shapes and redshifts of galaxies at distances of up to 10 billion light-years. By surveying more than a third of the sky, the mission is expected to observe several billion galaxies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-dark-universe-nbsp">Studying the dark universe&nbsp;</h3>



The data collected will help astronomers in studying the effects of dark matter and dark energy in depth, testing cosmological models, and exploring new theories about the nature of the universe.&nbsp;



The mission, named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, seeks to address key questions related to the structure of the universe and the fundamental laws of physics governing its evolution and expansion.



Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Messier 78: Young stars shine through dense dust

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Cat's Eye Nebula (NGC 6543), located about 3,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Draco.&nbsp;



The nebula's name comes from its eye-like appearance when viewed through a telescope. This particular image, which reveals the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horsehead-nebula-webb-telescope-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> in stunning detail, was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae-nbsp">Planetary nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, the Cat's Eye Nebula is one of the most complex planetary nebulae that has ever been discovered.



“A planetary nebula forms when Sun-like stars gently eject their outer gaseous layers to form bright nebulae with amazing twisted shapes," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Until recently, it was thought that shells around planetary nebulae were a rare phenomenon. However, astronomers have instead shown that these rings are likely to be the rule rather than the exception."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-of-the-cat-s-eye-nebula-nbsp">Appearance of the Cat's Eye Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The central focus of the Cat's Eye is a hot, dying star that has shed its outer layers to form the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragons-egg-nebula-is-a-truly-stunning-sight-to-behold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a>. It is surrounded by concentric gas shells, jets of high-speed gas, and unusual shock-induced knots of gas.



“Although the rings may be the key to explaining the final ‘gasp’ of the dying central star, the mystery behind the Cat’s Eye Nebula’s nested ‘Russian doll’ structure remains largely unsolved,” noted ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rings-around-the-cat-s-eye">Rings around the Cat’s Eye</h2>



“This image, taken with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), reveals the full pattern of eleven or more concentric rings, or shells, around the Cat’s Eye. Each ‘ring’ is actually the edge of a spherical bubble seen projected onto the sky - which is why it appears bright along its outer edge.”



According to ESA, observations suggest that the star ejected its mass in a series of pulses at 1,500-year intervals. “These convulsions created dust shells that each contains as much mass as all of the planets in our solar system combined.”



Several explanations have been proposed for this phenomenon, including cycles of magnetic activity similar to our Sun's sunspot cycle, the influence of companion stars orbiting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dying-stars-may-be-a-source-of-gravitational-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dying star</a>, or stellar pulsations.&nbsp;



Another theory suggests that the material is ejected smoothly from the star, with the rings forming later due to the creation of waves in the outflowing material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-draco-nbsp">The constellation Draco&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extrasolar-ocean-planet-discovered-in-the-draco-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Draco</a> is a constellation in the northern sky that represents a dragon. It's one of the largest constellations, winding between the Big and Little Dippers.&nbsp;



In Greek mythology, Draco is often identified as the dragon Ladon, who guarded the golden apples in the garden of the Hesperides.



Draco is a circumpolar constellation for most northern hemisphere observers, meaning it never sets below the horizon and can be seen all year round.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-famous-planetary-nebulae">Famous planetary nebulae </h2>



Planetary nebulae are some of the most beautiful and intriguing objects in the universe.&nbsp;



One of the most famous is the Ring Nebula, or M57, located in the constellation Lyra. This nebula is renowned for its nearly perfect ring shape, which is the result of a dying star shedding its outer layers.&nbsp;



Another well-known planetary nebula is the Helix Nebula, or NGC 7293, often referred to as the "Eye of God" due to its eye-like appearance. The Helix Nebula is one of the closest planetary nebulae to Earth, making it a popular target for amateur astronomers.&nbsp;



The Dumbbell Nebula, or M27, in the constellation Vulpecula, is another striking example. It is named for its resemblance to a dumbbell and is notable for being the first planetary nebula ever discovered, by Charles Messier in 1764.&nbsp;



The Butterfly Nebula, or NGC 6302, is located in the constellation Scorpius. Its name comes from its distinctive bipolar structure, resembling the wings of a butterfly. The nebula's central star is one of the hottest known, with a surface temperature of around 250,000 degrees Celsius.&nbsp;



The Eskimo Nebula, or NGC 2392, in the constellation Gemini, is known for its resemblance to a face surrounded by a fur parka, which gives it its name. Its intricate structure, including filaments and bubble-like shapes, makes it a fascinating object of study. 



These nebulae not only captivate us with their beauty but also provide valuable insights into the life cycles of stars and the processes that shape our galaxy.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope



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Cat's Eye Nebula in the constellation Draco

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 3783, which is located about 130 million light-years away in the constellation Centaurus. NGC 3783 is also the most prominent of a galaxy group (by the same name) that contains 47 galaxies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-groups">Galaxy groups</h2>



“Like galaxy clusters, galaxy groups are aggregates of gravitationally bound galaxies. Galaxy groups, however, are less massive and contain fewer members than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy clusters</a> do: where galaxy clusters can contain hundreds or even thousands of constituent galaxies, galaxy groups do not typically include more than 50,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The Milky Way is actually part of a galaxy group, known as the Local Group, which contains two other large galaxies (Andromeda and the Triangulum galaxy), as well as several dozen satellite and dwarf galaxies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hd-101274-a-blue-giant-star">HD 101274: A blue giant star</h2>



The bright object that appears to the right of the galaxy is the star HD 101274. “The perspective in this image makes the star and the galaxy look like close companions, but this is an illusion. HD 101274 lies only about 1,530 light-years from Earth, meaning it is about 85 thousand times closer than NGC 3783,” explained ESA.&nbsp;



The star is part of the NGC 3766 cluster, which is sometimes referred to as the Pearl Cluster, an open cluster known for its richness in bright stars and its relatively young age.



HD 101274 is categorized as a blue giant star, characterized by its high temperature and luminosity. 



Blue giants are massive stars that have left the main sequence phase of stellar evolution and are burning helium or heavier elements in their cores. These stars are known for their short lifespans relative to smaller stars due to their rapid consumption of nuclear fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-blue-giants">Significance of blue giants</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-stars-scientists-discover-a-new-type-of-star-powered-by-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stars</a> like HD 101274 are important for astronomers because they help in studying the properties of stellar populations in clusters and the dynamics of stellar evolution in different environments. 



The spectral and photometric observations of such stars can provide valuable insights into the characteristics of their atmospheres, internal structures, and the processes occurring within and around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bright-central-region-of-ngc-3783">Bright central region of NGC 3783</h2>



One of the most interesting aspects of NGC 3783 is that it harbors an active galactic nucleus, meaning its central region is exceptionally luminous, likely due to the presence of a supermassive black hole. This black hole is actively accreting material, which emits a substantial amount of radiation as it spirals inward and heats up.



The galaxy is particularly known for its bright central region and has been studied extensively in the ultraviolet and X-ray light spectra to understand better the properties of the accretion disk around the black hole and the complex dynamics of the material surrounding it. These studies are crucial for understanding the physics of active galactic nuclei and the role they play in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>.



According to ESA, NGC 3783 is a&nbsp;Type I Seyfert galaxy. “In this image it is recorded by Hubble in incredible detail, from its glowing central bar to its narrow, winding arms and the dust threaded through them, thanks to five separate images taken in different wavelengths of light," noted ESA.



“In fact, the galactic center is bright enough to Hubble that it exhibits diffraction spikes, normally only seen on stars such as HD 101274.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-ngc-3783-galaxy-group">More about the NGC 3783 galaxy group</h2>



The NGC 3783 group is part of the larger Hydra-Centaurus Supercluster, which itself is a massive collection of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and galaxy clusters located primarily in the constellations of Hydra and Centaurus.



The NGC 3783 group consists of several galaxies that are gravitationally bound and interact with each other. These interactions can influence the galaxies' evolution through mechanisms like tidal forces and merger events, which can trigger star formation, fuel central black holes, and reshape the galaxies' structures.



Studying groups like the NGC 3783 group helps astronomers understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> evolve together in a common gravitational environment, offering insights into the dynamics and evolution of structures on cosmic scales. 



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Luminous galaxy NGC 3783 and a blue giant star

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a 9.5-mile section of Pangong Lake on the western end of the Tibetan Plateau. The image was captured on by a crew member onboard the International Space Station.&nbsp;



“In this winter scene, a sheet of cracked ice tops part of the lake,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “On the left side, open water appears blue. Shallow water offshore of a delta, formed by a small, winding river, appears green."



"Parallel lines along the coastlines of bays are visible in the high-resolution version of this image. These lines indicate raised beaches, which formed in the past when lake levels were higher.”



NASA pointed out that several roads cut across the landscape, including one with switchbacks that ascends a steep slope. "These roads facilitate tourist travel from both India and China.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-birds-at-pangong-lake-nbsp">Migratory birds at Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake and its surroundings are home to numerous bird species, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-burn-unexpected-amounts-of-protein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>. Visitors can spot various waterfowl and waders that are rarely seen elsewhere.



“During the summer, species such as bar-headed geese and Brahminy ducks attract bird watchers to the lake, which is a major breeding ground for migrating birds,” said NASA.



Pangong Lake is one of the few places in India where the endangered black-necked crane is found during its breeding season. 



Ruddy shelduck and brown-headed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gulls-are-shifting-their-habitats-to-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gulls</a> are also frequently spotted around the lake. The ruddy shelduck is known for its striking orange-brown body and creamy white head, while the brown-headed gulls are often seen flying or swimming in the lake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangong-lake-nbsp">Pangong Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Pangong Lake is a stunning high-altitude lake situated in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-are-rising-unexpectedly-fast-on-the-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, extending from India to the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. It is renowned for its mesmerizing beauty and dramatic setting, with the lake lying at an elevation of about 4,350 meters.



One of the most distinctive features of Pangong Lake is its changing colors, ranging from shades of blue to green and even red, influenced by the sky's reflection and the lake's mineral content.



This saline water lake is approximately 134 kilometers long and 5 kilometers wide at its broadest point. Despite its considerable size, Pangong Lake is relatively shallow. 



The lake gained additional popularity after being featured in several Indian films - most notably the Bollywood hit "3 Idiots." Its remote location requires a permit for visitors, especially due to its proximity to the Line of Actual Control between India and China.



Despite the geopolitical sensitivities surrounding its location, Pangong Lake remains a favorite among tourists for its unparalleled natural beauty and serene environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-altitude-lakes">High-altitude lakes</h2>



High-altitude lakes are unique bodies of water found at elevations typically above 3,000 meters (about 10,000 feet) in mountain ranges like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-glaciers-retreating-threat-is-much-worse-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Himalayas</a>, Andes, and Rockies. 



These lakes are formed either by glacial activity, where glaciers erode the earth to create depressions that fill with melted snow and rainwater, or when natural dams created by landslides or moraines trap water in valleys.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-environments">Extreme environments</h3>



The conditions at high altitudes make these lakes distinct in several ways. The climate is typically colder and harsher, with significant temperature variations between day and night. 



This extreme environment affects both the physical characteristics of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> and the types of ecosystems they support. For example, due to lower atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water is reduced, which can affect the type of life that can survive in these regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-habitats">Critical habitats</h3>



Biologically, high-altitude lakes often have limited biodiversity because only certain types of plants and animals can tolerate the cold temperatures and lower oxygen levels in the water. 



Despite this, these lakes are crucial habitats for some unique species of fish, birds, and other wildlife. They also serve as important indicators of climate change, as variations in their water levels and temperatures can reflect environmental shifts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-high-altitude-lakes">Significance of high-altitude lakes </h3>



Lakes at high altitudes are often clear and pristine, due to the low density of human populations in these areas and minimal industrial activity, making them significant for ecological studies and attractive for tourism. 



However, they are sensitive ecosystems, and increased tourist activity brings challenges like pollution and habitat disruption.



High-altitude lakes are not only beautiful and scientifically significant but also hold cultural importance for local communities, often considered sacred and associated with historical and spiritual significance.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Pangong Lake on the Tibetan Plateau

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the aftermath of devastating floods in the Valencia region of Eastern Spain.&nbsp;



On October 29, 2024, torrential rainfall unleashed nearly a year’s worth of precipitation in just eight hours, leading to catastrophic flash floods that affected a vast area from Málaga to Valencia. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flash-floods-in-valencia">Flash floods in Valencia </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-floods-are-set-to-become-much-more-common-in-the-u-s/">Floodwaters</a> submerged entire neighborhoods and agricultural lands. Many roads and infrastructure were overwhelmed almost instantly, stranding vehicles and prompting widespread evacuations. Water levels rose faster than emergency services could respond.



One resident of Paiporta, near Valencia, told the BBC that when the water started to rise it was "like a tsunami wave."



“In a matter of minutes, flash floods caused by heavy downpours in eastern Spain swept away everything in their path. With no time to react, people were trapped in vehicles, homes and businesses,” reported the Associated Press.



More than 200 people were killed and thousands of people were rescued. According to SOS Desaparecidos, as many as 1,300 people remained unaccounted for on Friday, three days after the floods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnitude-of-the-tragedy-nbsp">Magnitude of the tragedy&nbsp;</h2>



Ángel Víctor Torres, the Minister for Territorial Policy and Democratic Memory, said: “The fact that we can’t give a number of the missing persons indicates the magnitude of the tragedy.”&nbsp;



Some areas, including the Spanish town of Alfafar, are completely cut off from communication.&nbsp;



Juan Ramón Adsuara, the mayor of Alfafar, said the aid isn't nearly enough for residents trapped in an "extreme situation."



"There are people living with corpses at home. It's very sad. We are organizing ourselves, but we are running out of everything," Adsuara told reporters. "We go with vans to Valencia, we buy and we come back, but here we are totally forgotten."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-government-warning-was-not-issued-in-time">Government warning was not issued in time</h2>



On Tuesday morning, Spain's meteorological agency Aemet warned that torrential rains were forecast for the region of Valencia, before issuing a&nbsp; "maximum red alert.”



Carlos Mazon, Valencia’s regional president, said the government sent out an SMS alert reserved for the “worst possible scenario.” But according to a report from CNN, that alert was sent hours too late.



“By 5 p.m., Valencia’s emergency services were swamped by hundreds of pleas for help throughout the region,” wrote Atika Shubert, a CNN Senior International Correspondent.



“It was at 8 p.m. that cell phones finally buzzed with the public alert telling residents to stay indoors. Much too little, much too late, even for those downstream of the raging water who might otherwise have had time to prepare.”



The BBC also noted that many people have questioned the timing of the government's warning, which arrived more than 12 hours after Aemet issued its first red alert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-in-a-warming-climate">Extreme weather in a warming climate</h2>



The deadly floods in Valencia were primarily caused by an extreme weather event that brought record-breaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-events-are-interconnected-around-the-globe/">rainfall</a>. The intense downpour was fueled by unusually warm Mediterranean Sea temperatures, which increased moisture in the atmosphere and intensified the rainfall.&nbsp;



Climate experts link this phenomenon to climate change, as warmer seas lead to more frequent, severe storms. The combination of heavy rain and the region's limited drainage capacity led to flash flooding, overwhelming local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-floods-its-not-just-about-rainfall/">infrastructure</a>.



Rising ocean temperatures are largely driven by increased greenhouse gases that trap more heat in the atmosphere. Oceans absorb about 90% of this excess heat, leading to warmer waters, especially near the surface.&nbsp;



This warming disrupts marine ecosystems, contributing to coral bleaching and altering habitats for species like fish and marine mammals.



With the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/">climate crisis</a> intensifying, experts warn that warmer ocean temperatures will heighten the risk of rapid, destructive rainfall events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-second-deadliest-flood-in-europe-this-century-nbsp">Second-deadliest flood in Europe this century&nbsp;</h2>



Prime Minister Pedro Sanchez said the disaster was the second-deadliest flood in Europe this century and that Spain was carrying out its largest deployment of army and security force personnel in peacetime. The country was sending 5,000 soldiers and 5,000 police officers to the eastern region of Valencia on Saturday.



Four days after the devastating floods, rescuers are still searching for bodies. Thousands of volunteers are helping to clean up the thick mud that covers streets, homes, and businesses in the hardest-hit towns.&nbsp;



Prime Minister Sanchez responded to people who expressed they feel abandoned with no help or communication in the days following the tragic flooding.



“I am aware the response is not enough, there are problems and severe shortages… towns buried by mud, desperate people searching for their relatives.”



"For those who at this moment are still looking for their loved ones, the whole of Spain weeps with you."



According to <a href="https://www.esa.int/">ESA</a>, the Copernicus Emergency Rapid Mapping Service has been activated to provide satellite imagery that can support rescue and recovery efforts.



Image Credit: USGS, processed by ESA&nbsp;



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Valencia floods: A tragedy fueled by extreme weather

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a brilliant stellar nursery located about 163,000 light-years away.



According to ESA, the image is one of the most photogenic examples of the many stellar nurseries observed by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope during its 30-year lifetime. 



“The portrait features the giant nebula NGC 2014 and its neighbor NGC 2020 which together form part of a vast star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-stellar-nursery">What is a stellar nursery?</h2>



Stellar nurseries are regions in space where new stars are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">born</a> - often within vast clouds of gas and dust called molecular clouds.&nbsp;



These areas are fascinating because they are cradles of stellar evolution, where gravity causes clumps of gas to collapse, eventually forming protostars.&nbsp;



Over time, the protostars will heat up and start the nuclear fusion process that powers a star.



One of the most well-known stellar nurseries is the Orion Nebula, which is visible to the naked eye and located about 1,350 light-years from Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-a-stellar-nursery-nbsp">Dynamic nature of a stellar nursery&nbsp;</h2>



Within these nurseries, the balance between gravity and pressure determines the types of stars that form, from massive, luminous stars to smaller, cooler ones like our Sun.&nbsp;



The environment is incredibly dynamic, with powerful winds from young stars shaping the clouds and triggering the birth of even more stars.



These regions are often illuminated by the light from massive newborn stars - creating stunning, colorful displays. The light reveals the intricate structure of the dust and gas, sculpted by the energy of young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-stellar-nurseries-nbsp">Significance of stellar nurseries&nbsp;</h2>



Stellar nurseries are essential for understanding the early stages of planetary formation, as protoplanetary disks (the material from which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets form</a>) are often found around young stars in these regions.



Stellar nurseries play a crucial role in the ongoing evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>. They are responsible for the continuous birth of new stars that enrich the interstellar medium with heavier elements. This constant recycling of material is key to the development of future generations of stars and planets.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the study of these regions helps astronomers understand the fundamental processes that govern the life cycles of stars and the overall dynamics of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-local-group">The Local Group</h2>



The Local Group is a collection of over 80 galaxies that includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and the Triangulum Galaxy, along with numerous smaller dwarf galaxies. These galaxies are bound together by gravity and span a region roughly 10 million light-years across.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> and Andromeda are the dominant members, with their respective satellite galaxies orbiting them.&nbsp;



The Local Group is part of a larger structure known as the Virgo Supercluster, and its galaxies are moving toward the gravitational center of the Local Group, contributing to its dynamic nature.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-magellanic-cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</h2>



The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is the fourth largest galaxy in the Local Group and can be seen with the naked eye from the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



This irregular dwarf galaxy is home to the Tarantula Nebula, one of the most active star-forming regions in our cosmic neighborhood.&nbsp;



The Large Magellanic Cloud played a key role in astronomical history, particularly when the supernova SN 1987A was observed, providing valuable insights into stellar evolution.&nbsp;



The LMC's interaction with the Milky Way, along with its own companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud, is believed to influence its shape and star formation activity. Its proximity and unique properties make it a crucial object of study for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy evolution</a>, star formation, and the dynamics of interacting galaxies.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and STScI



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Hubble captures a stunning stellar nursery

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory (ESO) features the Dark Wolf Nebula, located around 5,300 light-years from Earth in the constellation Scorpius.



According to ESO, this image of the dark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-the-ring-nebula-as-it-has-never-been-seen-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> creates the illusion of a wolf-like silhouette against a colorful cosmic backdrop. 



“This image takes up an area in the sky equivalent to four full Moons, but is actually part of an even larger nebula called Gum 55. If you look closely, the wolf could even be a werewolf, its hands ready to grab unsuspecting bystanders,” noted <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-nebulae-nbsp">Dark nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



Dark nebulae are dense regions in space filled with gas and dust that absorb visible light, making them appear as dark patches against brighter backgrounds.&nbsp;



Unlike emission or reflection nebulae, dark nebulae do not glow on their own. Instead, they obstruct and obscure the light from stars and other objects lying behind them.&nbsp;



This characteristic makes them challenging to observe using visible-light telescopes, as they absorb and scatter light rather than reflecting or emitting it.&nbsp;



However, when viewed in infrared, where their obscuring effect is reduced, dark nebulae reveal intricate details about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-the-perseus-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular clouds</a> they contain.



According to ESO, astronomers study these clouds of frozen dust because they often contain new stars in the making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-wolf-nebula-nbsp">Dark Wolf Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Dark Wolf Nebula is part of a larger complex known as the Lupus Molecular Cloud, one of several significant star-forming regions close to Earth.&nbsp;



Inside of dark nebulae, the conditions are prime for star formation. The dense gas and dust clump together under gravitational forces, and as the clouds contract, they heat up, eventually igniting nuclear fusion and forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new stars</a>.



The Dark Wolf Nebula is known for revealing young, low-mass stars, or T Tauri stars, which are in the early stages of their evolution. These stars are still surrounded by disks of material that may eventually form new planets.



This nebula is typically studied in infrared, which allows scientists to look beyond the obscuring dust to observe the processes of star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-scorpius-nbsp">The constellation Scorpius&nbsp;</h2>



Scorpius is one of the most recognizable constellations in the sky. It resembles a scorpion with a long, curved tail and stinger.&nbsp;



Located in the southern sky, Scorpius is especially visible during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere and winter in the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



The constellation is often associated with the story of Orion in Greek mythology. According to legend, the scorpion was sent by the goddess Artemis to kill Orion, the great hunter, either as punishment for his arrogance or to protect her animals, depending on the version of the tale.&nbsp;



The gods later placed both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion</a> and Scorpius in the sky, but in opposite parts of the heavens so they would never be seen together - as Scorpius rises in the east and Orion sets in the west.



Scorpius contains several notable stars and deep-sky objects. Its brightest star, Antares, is a red supergiant often referred to as the "Heart of the Scorpion" due to its reddish hue and central position.&nbsp;



Antares is one of the largest visible stars in the sky and has a luminosity tens of thousands of times greater than that of our Sun.&nbsp;



Scorpius is located close to the core of the Milky Way, making it a rich region for star clusters and nebulae. Among these are the Butterfly Cluster and the Ptolemy Cluster, both of which are visible to the naked eye under dark skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-dark-wolf-nebula">Image of the Dark Wolf Nebula </h2>



“This image shows in spectacular detail how the dark wolf stands out against the glowing star-forming clouds behind it,” noted ESO.



“The colorful clouds are built up mostly of hydrogen gas and glow in reddish tones excited by the intense UV radiation from the newborn stars within them.”



The picture was created from images taken at different times. Each of the images has a filter that makes a different color of light visible.&nbsp;



Observations of the Dark Wolf Nebula provide astronomers with valuable information about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of stars</a> and the environments in which they form.



The image was captured by the VLT Survey Telescope (VST) at ESO’s Paranal Observatory in Chile.



Image Credit: ESO/VPHAS+ team



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Dark Wolf Nebula in the constellation Scorpius

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features an incredible new image of the Crab Nebula in bright neon colors. 



“The unusual image was produced by combining data from telescopes spanning nearly the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to X-rays,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



Colored in red, the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) provided information about the nebula gathered in the radio regime.



NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope took infrared images, which appear yellow, while the NASA/ESA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-captures-another-cosmic-masterpiece-in-galaxy-ngc-2217/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope provided images made in optical wavelengths, colored in green.&nbsp;



Blue colors represent ultraviolet observations made by ESA’s XMM-Newton telescope, and the purple colors are X-ray radiation data from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-about-the-crab-nebula-nbsp">About the Crab Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Crab Nebula, located in the constellation Taurus, contains the remnants of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosion</a> first observed on Earth in 1054 AD. This explosion was recorded by Chinese astronomers and possibly by Native American rock art.&nbsp;



The nebula spans about 11 light-years across and lies approximately 6,500 light-years away from Earth. It is one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied objects</a> in the sky, largely due to its status as a bright and dynamic supernova remnant.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-crab-pulsar">The Crab Pulsar</h2>



The Crab Nebula contains a pulsar at its center, which is a rapidly rotating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-spinning-neutron-star-completely-defies-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> that emits pulses of radiation. This pulsar, known as the Crab Pulsar, spins about 30 times per second and is a significant source of gamma rays and other forms of high-energy radiation.&nbsp;



The nebula itself is a complex structure of filaments and synchrotron radiation. The filaments are remnants of the original star's outer layers, while the synchrotron radiation emerges from electrons spiraling in the magnetic fields produced by the pulsar.



“Surrounding the pulsar lies a mix of material; some of it was originally expelled from the star before it went supernova, and the rest was ejected during the explosion itself,” explained ESA.&nbsp;



“Fast-moving winds of particles fly off from the neutron star, energizing the dust and gas around it. These different layers and intricacies of the nebula can be observed in all of the different wavelengths of light.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crab-nebula-observation-nbsp">Crab Nebula observation&nbsp;</h2>



Throughout its history, the Crab Nebula has provided critical insights into the processes of stellar death, the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pulsars-are-helping-astronomers-pinpoint-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pulsars</a>, and the mechanics of supernova remnants.&nbsp;



Its continuous observation has revealed changes over time, such as the expansion of its filaments and variations in its brightness, offering a dynamic laboratory for astrophysical studies.



Overall, the Crab Nebula is a highly energetic and object, providing valuable insights into the processes following a supernova explosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-facts-about-nebulae">Fascinating facts about nebulae</h2>



Nebulae are some of the most breathtaking and intriguing structures in the universe. They are vast clouds of gas and dust, often considered stellar nurseries where new stars are born. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-of-nebulae">Colors of nebulae </h3>



One of the most fascinating aspects of nebulae is their ability to glow in different colors. This occurs because they either reflect the light of nearby stars or emit light due to the ionization of gases within them, particularly hydrogen. 



Some nebulae, like the famous Orion Nebula, are visible to the naked eye and serve as one of the nearest regions of active star formation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae">Planetary nebulae </h3>



Stars are born in dense regions of nebulae, and when they die, some will expel their outer layers, creating stunning structures known as planetary nebulae. The colorful clouds left behind can shine brightly for thousands of years. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-size">Massive size</h3>



Another amazing fact is that some nebulae are so vast that light can take years to travel from one side to the other, stretching across hundreds of light-years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-remnants">Star remnants </h3>



Perhaps even more mind-boggling is the fact that nebulae are the remnants of previous generations of stars. Supernova explosions of massive stars can create these glowing clouds of gas and dust, seeding the cosmos with the elements necessary for the formation of new stars and planets.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, G. Dubner (IAFE, CONICET-University of Buenos Aires) et al.; A. Loll et al.; T. Temim et al.; F. Seward et al.; VLA/NRAO/AUI/NSF; Chandra/CXC; Spitzer/JPL-Caltech; XMM-Newton/ESA; and Hubble/STScI



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Crab Nebula: The remains of a massive star explosion

The MODIS instrument, short for Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, is a key instrument aboard the Terra and Aqua satellites. MODIS is playing a vital role in the development of Earth ecosystem models, able to predict global changes, which then assist policy makers in making informed decisions about the protection of the global environment.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps are seen in this Image of the day&nbsp;from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at heavy snow and low clouds in the Alps. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Heavy snow and cloud cover in the Alps

Monitoring Earth Changes with MODIS

Aqua is a NASA scientific research satellite that studies precipitation, evaporation, and water cycles. Terra and Aura make up the Earth Observing System. It's the second component of the system.

A frozen Lake Erie in February Today’s Image of the Day comes from the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at a frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/icy-lake-erie/">Lake Erie</a>, which is currently 93.3 percent iced over. A frozen Lake Erie in February
This false-color image was created using data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Aqua satellite to differentiate between snow, ice, and clouds.
Lake Erie /ˈɪəri/ (French: Lac Érié) is the fourth-largest lake (by surface area) of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the eleventh-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area.It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet (64 metres) deep. 
Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie&#8217;s northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, specifically the Ontario Peninsula, with the U.S. states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern, and eastern shores. These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries. 
The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native American people who lived along its southern shore. The tribal name &#8220;erie&#8221; is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word erielhonan, meaning long tail
&#8212;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

A frozen Lake Erie in February

Aqua Earth Observing Satellite

This beautiful photo gallery contains 50 incredible images of Earth from Space. These images were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station, as well as by a multitude of NASA satellites orbiting the earth.

Today’s Image of the Day comes thanks to the <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a> and features a look at Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean just south of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-blue-chrysanthemums-created/">Japan</a>.
This image was captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on July 31, 2017. 
At the time the photo was taken, Typhoon Noru was located just 250 kilometers south of Iwo Jima. Maximum sustained winds hit 150 miles per hour.
The storm briefly became a category 5 on July 30, before being downgraded to a category 4 one day later.
&#8211;
By <a href="mailto:rarnold@earth.com">Rory Arnold</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Source: <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=90654&amp;eocn=home&amp;eoci=iotd_readmore">NASA Earth Observatory</a>

Super Typhoon Noru in the Pacific Ocean

Incredible Images of Earth from Space

Photos from the International Space Station are found in this awesome Earth.com image gallery. Flat-earthers won't agree, but these incredible photos of the Earth were taken by astronauts onboard the International Space Station. The International Space Station is a modular space station in low Earth orbit.

Northern Italy from the space station is seen here in this Image of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA). The view includes the top half of the Italian Peninsula, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/wildfires-burn-northern-corsica/">Corsica</a> and Sardinia off the coast. This image was captured by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on his third and final mission to the Space Station.

Northern Italy from the Space Station

Photos from the International Space Station

Satellite,Photo,Of,Ice,Pattern,,Aerial,Top,View,Of,Blue

About 650 million years ago, during the last global ice age, Earth was a giant frozen snowball. As the ocean chemistry started to change and the ice began to melt, Earth's surface transformed into what scientists are calling a "slushy" planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-last-global-ice-age">Understanding the last global ice age</h2>



During a period of time ranging from 635 million to 650 million years ago, Earth went through an intense global ice age known as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-snowball-earth-conditions-drove-evolution-complex-multicellular-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Snowball Earth</a>." 



During this time, glaciers covered almost the entire planet, from the poles all the way to the equator. The oceans were capped with thick layers of ice, and the continents were buried under massive ice sheets. 



It was so extreme that if you were looking at Earth from space, it would have looked like a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant snowball</a>, hence the nickname.



Life back then was pretty simple, mostly microscopic organisms living in the oceans. These tiny life forms had to survive under the ice, where some sunlight could still filter through. 



Volcanic activity continued beneath the icy surface, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-was-a-giant-snowball-700-million-years-ago-and-now-scientists-know-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tens of millions of years</a>, this buildup of greenhouse gases eventually warmed the planet enough to start melting the ice. 



That's how Earth reached the "slushy" planet phase, which is the topic of this research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slushy-earth-and-plumeworld-ocean">Slushy Earth and "plumeworld ocean"</h2>



Thankfully, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-records-shatter-2024-set-to-be-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, much like its current inhabitants, has a knack for adaptation and survival.



A recently concluded study led by <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> has given us an icy peek into the past, one that unveils a fascinating era known as the "plumeworld ocean" epoch.



This time slot on our planet's timeline marked a significant moment. Imagine high levels of carbon dioxide acting like an invisible blowtorch, coaxing the frozen Earth into a vast, rapid meltdown. 



“Our results have important implications for understanding how Earth's climate and ocean chemistry changed after the extreme conditions of the last global ice age,” said lead author Tian Gan, a former Virginia Tech postdoctoral researcher. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-before-turning-slushy">Earth before turning slushy</h2>



Let's shift our attention back to the Snowball Earth period of around 635 to 650 million years ago. As mentioned, this was the time when our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-temperature-has-changed-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth was deep-frozen</a>, and polar ice caps started encircling the planet like an icy belt.



This expansion of ice had a reflective effect, bouncing sunlight away from Earth and sending our temperatures on a downward spiral.



“A quarter of the ocean was frozen due to extremely low carbon-dioxide levels,” said co-author <a href="https://news.vt.edu/articles/2024/04/science-nas-xiao-rock-reader.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shuhai Xiao</a>, who recently was inducted into the National Academy of Sciences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effect-of-inactivity">Effect of inactivity</h2>



Imagine someone pressing the pause button on the planet. That's pretty much what happened. 



The surface ocean sealed up, and a chain reaction of inactivity followed. First, the water cycle locked up -- no evaporation, not much precipitation.



Without water, a fundamental carbon-dioxide consuming process known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-marine-mass-extinctions-millions-of-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical weathering</a>, which essentially involves rocks eroding and disintegrating, slowed down dramatically. 



The result? <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carbon dioxide</a> began to pile up in the atmosphere, turning into a thermal blanket of sorts.



Like a tightly wound spring, pressure built until the high levels of carbon dioxide were enough to shatter this ice age. When that happened, it wasn't just a slow thaw -- it was a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/report-earth-is-headed-for-an-irreversible-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climatic catastrophe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plumeworld-ocean-epoch">"Plumeworld ocean" epoch</h2>



The Earth took a sudden U-turn and became "slushy". 



As the heat built up, the ice caps began retreating, and our climate started shifting back towards the warmer side. 



And when we say warmer, we're talking about a scorching swing from minus 50 to 120 degrees Fahrenheit (that's minus 45 to 48 degrees Celsius).



The ice didn't gently melt into the sea. Instead, think of it as reverse tsunamis of glacial water charging from land into the sea, creating vast pools over the extra salty, extra dense ocean water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-we-know-this-is-true">How do we know this is true?</h2>



How did the researchers uncover this prehistoric tale of the slushy Earth? The answer lies in a set of carbonate rocks that formed as the global ice age was wrapping up. 



Upon analyzing the relative abundance of lithium isotopes within these rocks, a geochemical signature was found that supported the "plumeworld ocean" theory.



The data showed that the signatures of freshwater were stronger in rocks formed under nearshore meltwater than those formed offshore, deep under the salty sea. 



This finding falls perfectly in line with what our researchers had theorized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slushy-earth-s-resilience">Slushy Earth's resilience</h2>



To sum it all up, these findings bring the limits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-days-getting-longer-rotation-slows-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental change</a> into sharper focus, as Xiao mentions.



They also shed light on the frontiers of biology and the incredible resilience of life under extreme conditions -- be it hot, cold, or slushy.



In the end, probing into Earth's slushy past isn't a mere indulgence in nostalgia. It's a way to understand our present and prepare for our future. 



In understanding how our planet has weathered past climatic earthquakes, we can better equip ourselves to navigate the potentially stormy climate shifts in our future.



Can the lessons from our past guide us towards a more resilient future? Let's hope so.



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Collaborators include Ben Gill, a Virginia Tech associate professor of sedimentary geochemistry; Morrison Nolan, a former graduate student now at <a href="https://denison.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Denison University</a>; and other significant contributors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2407419121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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"Slushy" Earth: The slightly warmer cousin of the infamous Snowball Earth

About 650 million years ago, during the last global ice...

The flea toad, a tiny marvel smaller than a fingernail, resides deep within the heartlands of the Atlantic Rainforest.



Known for its diminutive size and unique characteristics, this intriguing amphibian has recently gained another member in its genus - a newly discovered species known as Brachycephalus dacnis.



The toad was named in honor of Project Dacnis, an NGO dedicated to conservation, research, and education.



Project Dacnis significantly contributes to the preservation of private regions within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-number-of-tree-species-threatened-in-the-atlantic-rainforest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atlantic Rainforest</a>, including the area where B. dacnis was spotted. This particular area lies within the charming coastal city of Ubatuba in the state of São Paulo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flea-toad-brachycephalus-dacnis">Flea toad Brachycephalus dacnis</h2>



These small toads are nothing short of exceptional in the world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>. They possess a unique set of traits that set them apart from their larger counterparts.



"There are small toads with all the characteristics of large toads except for their size. This genus is different," noted study co-author, Luís Felipe Toledo, a professor at the <a href="https://www.ib.unicamp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Biology</a>.



"During its evolution, it underwent what we biologists call <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-some-animals-evolve-to-become-miniature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">miniaturization</a>, which involves loss, reduction and/or fusion of bones, as well as fewer digits and absence of other parts of their anatomy."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-diversity-amidst-the-leaves">Unearthing diversity amidst the leaves</h2>



Researchers have always found the genus Brachycephalus fascinating, particularly due to its colorful species and unique venom.



The recent focus, however, is on the puny stature of the flea toads belonging to the seventh species to be described in this genus.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/flea-toad_Brachycephalus-dacnis_smallest_credit-Lucas-Machado-Botelho_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/flea-toad_Brachycephalus-dacnis_smallest_credit-Lucas-Machado-Botelho_1s.webp" alt="New miniature species on researcher's palm. Credit: Lucas Machado Botelho/Projeto Dacnis" class="wp-image-1949690"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New miniature species on researcher's palm. Credit: Lucas Machado Botelho/Projeto Dacnis</figcaption></figure>



The tiny toadlets of Brachycephalus share a unique quality. They are unable to hear their own vocalizations due to the absence of a tympanic middle ear. 



This intriguing fact was uncovered in a 2017 article by Toledo and his team. The study, focused on pumpkin toadlets, indicated that visual&nbsp;communication&nbsp;has replaced acoustic communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brachycephalus-dacnis-as-a-new-species">Brachycephalus dacnis as a new species</h2>



Upon analyzing B. dacnis, the team found that it shares a lot of morphological similarities with another species - B. hermogenesi.



Both have a yellowish-brown skin, share the same habitat in leaf litter, lack a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-tadpole-vision-changes-from-water-to-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tadpole</a> stage, and are found in the same region. However, the uniqueness lies in their calls -- they are distinctly different.



DNA testing further confirmed their suspicion and identified B. dacnis as a new species that is found in the same region as B. hermogenesi.



Discussing the likelihood of the existence of B. dacnis among the specimen that aided in describing B. hermogenesi in 1998, Toledo suggested the use of historical DNA sequencing tools to clear up uncertainties.



These tools are crucial in gathering DNA from zoological museum and herbarium specimens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-focused-conservation-efforts">Need for focused conservation efforts</h2>



The discovery of B. dacnis reveals the rich and possibly underestimated variety within the world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-flea-toad-worlds-smallest-vertebrate-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">miniature frogs</a>.



"The diversity of these miniature frogs may be far greater than we think. Hence the importance of describing as many traits and features as possible, to expedite the description process and get to work on conservation as quickly as possible," Toledo said. 



Advancing our understanding of these tiny amphibians is essential for their preservation and highlights the need for focused conservation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-significance-of-flea-toads">Ecological significance of flea toads</h2>



Flea toads, despite their tiny size, play a significant role within their ecosystem. Their presence in the Atlantic Rainforest highlights the importance of even the smallest creatures in maintaining ecological balance.



As insectivores, these diminutive amphibians help regulate insect populations, including species that may become pests if left unchecked. 



By thriving within the leaf litter, they also contribute to the nutrient cycle, enriching the soil as they forage and interact with other organisms. 



Understanding the ecological contributions of B. dacnis and similar species highlights why conservation efforts are vital - not only to protect the toads themselves but also to preserve the broader environmental health of this rich habitat.



The research received funding and support from FAPESP, a prominent research foundation, as part of the thematic project “From the natural history to the conservation of Brazilian amphibians."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/18265/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



Image Credit: Lucas Machado Botelho/Projeto Dacnis



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Newly discovered 'flea toad' is the world’s second smallest vertebrate

The flea toad, a tiny marvel smaller than a fingernail,...

Life has a natural rhythm: day and night, sleep and wakefulness, work and play. What if the rhythmic choreography of life is strongly influenced by your gut microbes? 



In an intriguing new study, researchers have identified a solid connection between your gut microbiota and body's stress hormone routines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-bacteria-and-stress-hormones">Gut bacteria and stress hormones</h2>



Researchers from University College Cork and APC Microbiome Ireland have uncovered a fascinating connection between your gut microbes and your body's day-night rhythms. The data reveals that the gut microbiota tunes the body's diurnal (day-night) rhythms in stress hormones.



Depletion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/balancing-gut-microbes-could-protect-us-from-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiota</a>, however, throws a spanner in the works. This disrupts the brain's core circadian system and is associated with altered stress hormone rhythms.



Moreover, the research has pinpointed the role of gut microbes in regulating key stress-responding brain regions throughout the day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-they-verify-this-discovery">How did they verify this discovery?</h2>



The research team used a strategy involving microbe transplantation to establish oscillations of gut microbes as a critical factor in regulating stress hormone secretion.



This pioneering study gives us a unique perspective on the vital role our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-detects-changes-in-gut-health-to-help-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiota</a> plays in managing our stress responses and interacting with the body's circadian rhythms.



The research paves the way for new microbial-based therapies that could help manage stress-related mental health conditions, such as anxiety and depression, often linked with alterations in circadian and sleep cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-microbes-that-influence-stress">Gut microbes that influence stress</h2>



The study, published in the journal Cell Metabolism, exposes the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilience-is-surprisingly-linked-to-gut-and-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationship</a> between gut microbes and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis - the body's central stress response system.



The researchers found evidence that depletion of gut microbiota leads to an overactive HPA-axis that, along with alterations to the brain's stress and circadian responding regions, results in altered stress responses throughout the day.



But here's the interesting part - the study also identifies specific gut bacteria, including a Lactobacillus strain (Limosilactobacillus reuteri), as key influencers of this circadian-regulated stress mechanism.



L. reuteri appeared as a candidate strain that modulates glucocorticoid secretion (stress hormones), linking the microbiota's natural diurnal oscillations with altered stress reactivity.



This opens up new opportunities for psychobiotic interventions that focus on improving mental health outcomes by targeting gut bacteria that influence stress regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-reacts-to-stress">How the brain reacts to stress</h2>



In today's world, where high stress, poor diet and irregular sleep patterns have become the norm, this research underlines the importance of gut microbiota in maintaining the body's stress-regulation processes.



“Our research has revealed an important link between the gut microbiota and how the brain responds to stress in a time-specific way," said principal Investigator Professor John Cryan.



"The gut microbiome doesn’t just regulate digestion and metabolism; it plays a critical role in how we react to stress, and this regulation follows a precise circadian rhythm. These findings underscore the importance of maintaining a healthy microbiome, particularly for those living in today’s stressful and fast-paced environment.”



"Our work demonstrates that exploring the relationship between the gut microbiota and circadian rhythms will be key in the development of microbiota based therapies for stress-related disorders in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



“This study is a significant leap forward in our understanding of how the microbiome shapes our mental health,” said Professor Paul Ross, director of APC Microbiome Ireland. 



“At <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/apc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APC</a>, we are committed to unravelling the many ways in which our gut microbiome impact human health, and this research provides crucial insight into how targeting specific bacteria may help manage or even prevent stress-related conditions." 



"The potential to improve mental health through microbiome-based interventions is very real, and this study takes us one step closer to that goal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-to-manage-stress">Microbes to manage stress</h2>



The research from <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College Cork</a> and APC Microbiome Ireland has revealed the connection between gut bacteria and stress, leading to promising treatments like psychobiotics, which can influence mood through neurotransmitters and hormones. 



Specific strains, such as Limosilactobacillus reuteri, may help manage stress hormones, offering personalized solutions for mental health care. 



As we continue to explore this field, leveraging gut microbes could enhance mental well-being for many individuals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550413124003991?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Metabolism</a>.



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Gut microbes affect how we handle everyday stress

Life has a natural rhythm: day and night, sleep and...

In an incredible feat that redefines biological boundaries, scientists have successfully engineered animal cells capable of photosynthesis.&nbsp;



This breakthrough, led by Professor Sachihiro Matsunaga at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a>, could transform medical research and aid in advancing lab-grown meat production. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photosynthesis-in-animal-cells">Photosynthesis in animal cells</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photosynthesis</a>, traditionally exclusive to plants, algae, and certain bacteria, is a process that uses sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and sugars - essentially “feeding” the organism.



“All living organisms on Earth, including humans, are able to live thanks to photosynthesis,” Matsunaga said. “Animal cells consume oxygen, eat and break down sugars, and emit carbon dioxide. This reaction is completely opposite to photosynthesis.”&nbsp;



By introducing photosynthetic properties into animal cells, the team hopes to create cells that consume less oxygen and emit less carbon dioxide - essentially turning them into mini oxygen producers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-a-50-year-challenge">Overcoming a 50-year challenge</h2>



Attempts to create photosynthesizing animal cells date back to the 1970s. “If we can get even part of photosynthesis to occur in animal cells, we can reduce the amount of oxygen consumed, reduce the amount of sugar eaten, and reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> emissions,” Matsunaga said.



However, the challenge lies in convincing animal cells to accept chloroplasts, the cellular structures where photosynthesis happens in plants.&nbsp;



Previously, animal cells would destroy chloroplasts, recognizing them as foreign invaders, like bacteria or viruses.&nbsp;



After a decade of unsuccessful attempts, research in this field was abandoned, and it became widely accepted that chloroplasts could not function within animal cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-cells-ingesting-chloroplasts">Animal cells ingesting chloroplasts </h2>



Matsunaga’s team took two major steps to achieve this scientific breakthrough. First, they searched for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chloroplasts-play-an-unexpected-role-in-plant-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chloroplasts</a> that could survive the warmer environment of animal cells, which are usually cultured at around 37 degrees Celsius - significantly higher than the temperatures that most plant chloroplasts can endure. 



After finding suitable chloroplasts, the team had to prevent animal cells from rejecting them as foreign material.



“Chloroplasts eaten as food could be maintained in the animal cell for at least two days, during which time the initial reaction of photosynthesis could be detected,” said Matsunaga.&nbsp;



By allowing animal cells to ingest chloroplasts as “food” rather than forcibly implanting them, the team managed to bypass the immune response that typically destroys the chloroplasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-source-of-energy-and-growth">New source of energy and growth</h2>



The initial results surprised Matsunaga and his colleagues. Not only did the animal cells tolerate the chloroplasts, but they also showed an increased growth rate, suggesting that the chloroplasts provided an additional energy source.&nbsp;



“I was surprised because we were able to do something that no one had been able to do for 50 years and that all biological researchers had given up on,” Matsunaga said.&nbsp;



This achievement may have broad implications, particularly for medical applications and artificial meat production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-of-animal-photosynthesis">Applications of animal photosynthesis </h2>



While human photosynthesis remains a distant goal, Matsunaga believes the immediate applications lie in medical research and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/company-introduces-lab-grown-fish-that-is-served-up-by-3-d-printers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lab-grown meat</a> production. 



One major obstacle in growing tissue for medical use or artificial meat is ensuring oxygen delivery to densely packed cells.&nbsp;



As Matsunaga explained, “when cells become multilayered, the interior of the cell mass [doesn't get enough oxygen]; cell division stops, and size increase is not possible.”&nbsp;



By embedding chloroplasts, these cell clusters can generate their own oxygen if exposed to light, potentially resuming cell division and growth.



Looking further into the future, Matsunaga envisions medical applications that would deliver oxygen to specific organs, such as the heart. For instance, implanting a small LED near the heart could provide light to photosynthetic cells, improving oxygen delivery in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crucial-discoveries-will-improve-cardiovascular-disease-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a> patients. 



However, extending the chloroplasts' lifespan within animal cells remains a challenge. “In the future, we will improve our technique so that chloroplasts can carry out photosynthesis in animal cells for as long as possible,” Matsunaga said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-in-biological-engineering">New era in biological engineering</h2>



Matsunaga's study marks a paradigm shift, showcasing how engineering animal cells to photosynthesize could lead to numerous innovations, from lab-grown meat production to enhanced medical treatments.&nbsp;



While there is still work to be done to extend chloroplast function within these cells, Matsunaga’s team has opened the door to a new realm of possibilities, challenging long-standing beliefs in biology and pushing the boundaries of what cells can achieve.&nbsp;



This breakthrough underscores the transformative potential of photosynthesis beyond plant life, offering a unique and versatile tool for addressing human challenges in food production, medicine, and possibly even climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/pjab/advpub/0/advpub_pjab.100.035/_article" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Japan Academy, Series B</a>.



Image Credit: R. Aoki, Y. Inui, Y. Okabe et al. 2024



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Animal cells capable of photosynthesis created for the first time

In an incredible feat that redefines biological boundaries, scientists have...

There’s an eerie beauty and mystery in the dark depths of the Gulf of Mexico, where bacteria thrive alongside coral reefs. 



These are not the colorful, sunlit corals we are most familiar with, but corals that flourish in the ocean’s abyss - devoid of sunlight - at depths ranging from 300 to 900 meters.



This mysterious underwater world is home to two soft coral species, Callogorgia delta and Callogorgia americana. Within the tissues of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-corals-more-resilient-to-climate-change-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a>, scientists recently discovered two peculiar bacterial species previously unknown to science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-bacteria-in-coral-tissues">Unique bacteria in coral tissues</h2>



The study was led by Professor Iliana Baums, a renowned scientist from the <a href="https://hifmb.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity at the University of Oldenburg</a> (HIFMB).



She collaborated with Dr. Samuel Vohsen from Lehigh University in the United States and other esteemed scientists from various institutions across the globe.



The research, published in the journal Nature Communications, creates a new frontier for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-biodiversity-could-shift-rapidly-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine biodiversity</a> discoveries.



The unique bacterial species, found in the corals' tissue layer that forms part of their immune defense system and transports nutrients, belong to the mollicutes class of bacteria. 



Mollicutes are known to live as parasites either in or on the cells of plants, animals, and humans. In some cases, these bacteria cause diseases.



The scientists have proposed a new family for the two bacteria species called the Oceanoplasmataceae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extraordinary-bacterial-species">Extraordinary bacterial species</h2>



The existence of the newly discovered bacteria presents a puzzle - a mystery that scientists have yet to unravel.



“These species are impressive examples of how few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-animals-steal-genes-from-bacteria-to-produce-antibiotics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> are needed for a functional organism,” noted Professor Baums.



The Oceanoplasma callogorgiae contains only 359 genes that encode protein for metabolic functions, while the Thalassoplasma callogorgiae has 385 genes.



When compared with around 4,000 in the intestinal bacterium, Escherichia coli, and approximately 21,000 in humans, the difference is stark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-s-energy-source">Bacteria's energy source</h2>



The question that begs to be answered is, how can the metabolism of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-microbes-eat-a-different-diet-that-affects-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> function with such a significantly reduced genome?



The answer is as astonishing as it is simple. Their energy source is not the typical carbohydrate metabolism found in most living organisms but the amino acid arginine.



The breakdown of arginine provides very little energy, leaving scientists confused about the bacteria's survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interdependent-or-parasitic-relationship">Interdependent or parasitic relationship?</h2>



Uncertainty remains about whether the bacteria function solely as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-parasites-are-vulnerable-to-warming-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parasites</a> or if there is a potential symbiotic relationship.



Genetic analysis revealed that these bacterial species use various defense mechanisms called CRISPR/Cas systems to get rid of foreign DNA. This process is also used to edit genes.



The bacteria could potentially be assisting the corals in fighting off pathogens. Alternatively, the host corals could be receiving nitrogen while the bacteria break down arginine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-symbionts">The role of symbionts </h2>



“I always find it amazing that corals can colonize so many different habitats despite being very simple animals in terms of their genetic blueprint,” said Braum. 



She noted that symbionts are crucial for the ability of corals to adapt to different environmental conditions. “They provide metabolic functions that the corals themselves lack.”



This discovery brings us one step closer to understanding the intricate and beautiful complexity of life that thrives in the obscure depths of our oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-bacteria-and-coral-health">Deep-sea bacteria and coral health</h2>



Beyond their unusual genomes and survival strategies, the bacteria raise intriguing questions about their potential roles in the deep-sea ecosystem.



While researchers have uncovered that the bacteria rely on the amino acid arginine for energy, they still do not fully understand how these microorganisms interact with their coral hosts in such extreme, nutrient-scarce environments.



One theory suggests that the bacteria might contribute essential nutrients or provide defense against other pathogens, potentially forming a mutually beneficial relationship with the corals. 



Alternatively, they could act purely as parasites, exploiting their coral hosts' resources to survive. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Further research aims to explore these possibilities, investigating whether this unique microbial partnership could shed light on how deep-sea corals endure environmental pressures - and possibly how they might adapt to changing ocean conditions.



This ongoing work emphasizes the intricate interdependencies in deep-sea ecosystems and highlights the resilience of life in Earth’s most extreme habitats.



Understanding these relationships could provide insights into the fundamental principles of symbiosis and survival in the ocean's depths.



image Credit: ECOGIG Consortium, Creative Commons CC0 1.0



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53855-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Highly unusual bacteria discovered in deep-sea corals

There’s an eerie beauty and mystery in the dark depths...

Ever heard of a rule that's been around for so long, everyone just assumes it's unbreakable? Well, a team of scientists is turning that notion on its head by proving wrong a key rule of organic chemistry.



Neil Garg, a distinguished professor of chemistry and biochemistry, is leading the charge to rewrite a fundamental principle that's been part of organic chemistry for the past hundred years.



In a recent study published in Science, Garg and his colleagues at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> revealed that Bredt's rule -- a staple in chemistry textbooks since 1924 -- might not be as ironclad as we've been led to believe. 



But before we get into how they're shaking things up, let's take a step back and understand what this rule is all about.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-bredt-s-rule">What exactly is Bredt's rule?</h2>



According to Bredt's rule, you can't have a double bond at the bridgehead position of a small, bridged ring system -- a kind of molecular structure that looks like two rings sharing some atoms. 



Imagine trying to fit a double bond in a tight space -- it just doesn't work because the molecule becomes too strained and unstable.



In these small ring systems, the atoms are connected in such a way that there's not enough room for the flat shape of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capturing-carbon-directly-from-the-air-is-now-much-more-efficient-thanks-to-new-material/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">double bond</a>. 



The angles get all messed up, and the molecule would be forced into an awkward position. It's kind of like trying to bend a straight stick into a circle without breaking it -- it just doesn't work that way.



Bredt's rule has been a guiding principle for chemists studying organic molecules, especially those known as olefins.



Olefins are compounds featuring a double bond between two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-detect-molecules-that-store-carbon-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon atoms</a>, and they usually have a flat, planar structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-bredt-s-rule-upside-down">Turning Bredt's rule upside down</h2>



"People aren't exploring anti-Bredt olefins because they think they can't," Garg pointed out. 



His team decided to challenge that assumption. Instead of accepting the limitations imposed by this long-standing rule, they set out to prove that these molecules, called anti-Bredt olefins (ABOs), can indeed be created and used.



Using a clever approach, the researchers treated certain molecules known as silyl (pseudo)halides with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-water-fluoridation-still-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluoride source</a>. This reaction was designed to produce the elusive ABOs. 



Since these molecules are highly unstable and tend to fall apart quickly, the team included another chemical to "trap" them. 



This way, they could capture the ABOs long enough to study them and even use them to make new, valuable compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



"There's a big push in the pharmaceutical industry to develop chemical reactions that give three-dimensional structures like ours because they can be used to discover new medicines," Garg explained. 



By showing that ABOs can be generated and utilized, the team is opening up new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drug discovery</a>. 



The ability to create these unique molecular structures means scientists can explore a whole new realm of compounds that were previously off-limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-rules-need-to-be-challenged">More "rules" need to be challenged</h2>



Garg's work doesn't just break a rule -- it invites the entire scientific community to rethink how we approach long-held beliefs. 



"We shouldn't have rules like this -- or if we have them, they should only exist with the constant reminder that they're guidelines, not rules. It destroys creativity when we have rules that supposedly can't be overcome," he said.



By challenging Bredt's rule, the team is advocating for a more flexible and innovative approach to chemistry. 



They're reminding us that science is always evolving, and what we consider impossible today might just be tomorrow's breakthrough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-needs-more-creativity">Science needs more creativity</h2>



What does this mean for budding chemists and researchers? 



It's a call to question assumptions and push boundaries. If a century-old rule can be upended, who knows what other "impossible" feats are within reach?



"What this study shows is that contrary to one hundred years of conventional wisdom, chemists can make and use anti-Bredt olefins to make value-added products," Garg noted. 



It's not just about breaking a rule; it's about expanding the toolkit scientists have to tackle some of the world's most pressing challenges, like developing new medications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-garg-and-bredt-s-rule">What's next for Garg and Bredt's rule?</h2>



This discovery is a stepping stone to numerous possibilities in organic chemistry, pharmaceuticals, and basically any other field of study.



By demonstrating that ABOs can be both generated and trapped effectively, Garg's team has laid the groundwork for future research that could lead to significant advancements in medicine.



So, the next time you hear someone say, "You can't do that," remember that sometimes, all it takes is a fresh perspective and a willingness to challenge the status quo. 



Who knows? You might just be the one to rewrite the next chapter in the science books.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq3519" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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100-year-old chemistry rule proven false, updating textbooks comes next

Ever heard of a rule that's been around for so...

Meat production has become a focal point in the fight against climate change, with some proposals calling for drastic cuts by wealthier nations. But is such an extreme approach necessary to make a meaningful impact?



New insights suggest that carefully tailored strategies could help tackle climate change effectively without major lifestyle overhauls. The research was led by experts in the <a href="https://as.nyu.edu/departments/environment.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Environmental Studies</a> at New York University.



The team found that by achieving a moderate reduction in meat production, we could potentially keep 125 billion tons of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. This figure exceeds the total number of global fossil fuel emissions from the past three years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-win-for-forests-and-climate">A win for forests and climate</h2>



A slight pullback in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-could-slash-meat-production-expenses-by-90-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat production</a>, particularly in higher-income countries, could have profound effects on the climate.



The researchers suggest a cutback of around 13% of total meat production could free up vast tracts of land earlier earmarked for cattle grazing, allowing for natural regrowth of forests.



Why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/single-degree-temperature-warming-boreal-forests-wreak-havoc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>? Trees are nature’s best carbon absorbers. The return of forests on these lands could drastically reduce fossil fuel emissions. 



"Globally, ruminant grazing - including cattle for beef production - is the most extensive human land use. Removing cattle from pastures represents a meaningful opportunity to sequester carbon into regrowing vegetation and soils," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-reduction-and-climate-change">Meat reduction and climate change </h2>



"We can achieve enormous climate benefits with modest changes to the total global beef production," said study lead author Matthew N. Hayek.



"By focusing on regions with potentially high carbon sequestration in forests, some restoration strategies could maximize climate benefits while minimizing changes to food supplies."



The study suggests that pasturelands, particularly those which were formerly forests, could immensely aid in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fighting climate change</a>. 



Removing livestock from these “potential native forest” areas could allow ecosystems to naturally revert to their original forested state, hence storing carbon in trees and soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wealthy-nations-and-meat-production">Wealthy nations and meat production </h2>



The researchers see wealthier nations as suitable candidates for reducing meat production to combat climate change. Their current pasture areas yield little grass per acre or only during a short growing season, making climate-focused strategies more feasible.



In contrast, these areas could potentially nurture sprawling, verdant forests which act as efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a> sites.



This approach is distinct from that taken by regions such as sub-Saharan Africa and South America, where lush pastures grow year-round, hence providing more food per acre for animals. 



The research team sees potential in these lower-income regions to increase <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/livestock-production-could-be-hit-hard-by-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">livestock</a> feeding efficiency on grass, thereby compensating for the slight dip in meat production by wealthier nations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tailoring-meat-reduction-by-region">Tailoring meat reduction by region</h2>



The team also found potential to immensely mitigate climate change effects by broadening the scope of restoration.



The researchers discovered that eliminating grazing livestock from all potentially forested areas worldwide could sequester a staggering 445 gigatons of CO2 by the end of this century. 



This amount of carbon sequestration is equivalent to over a decade of global fossil fuel emissions. However, Hayek emphasizes that this approach needs to be tailored to individual regions.



"Our findings show that strategic improvements in the efficiency of cattle herds in some areas, coupled with decreased production in others, could lead to a win-win scenario for climate and food production," said Hayek.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-reduction-supports-climate-goals">Meat reduction supports climate goals</h2>



The authors also emphasized that restoration efforts should not replace endeavors to reduce fossil fuel emissions. Instead, these efforts should work hand in hand to fight climate change.



“In many places, this regrowth could occur by seeds naturally dispersing and trees regrowing without any human involvement,” noted Hayek.



Swift action is needed to meet climate goals, and ecosystem restoration on converted pasturelands is a critical part of these plans.



"Our study’s findings could offer paths forward for policymakers aiming to address both climate mitigation and food security concerns," concluded Hayek.



In a time when many countries are committing to ambitious reforestation targets, balancing meat production with climate mitigation efforts becomes paramount. This research nudges us closer to that equilibrium.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2405758121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Meat reductions could cut billions of tons of CO2 emissions

Meat production has become a focal point in the fight...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...