The Royal Gamma (Gramma loreto) is a species of fish that is found naturally in the waters of the Bahamas, Venezuela, and the Lesser Antilles. It is widely popular in the aquarium trade. It is an ideal fish for most reef aquariums containing coral and other invertebrates. Although they can become aggressive towards other fish when kept in smaller tanks.
The Royal Gamma is dark purple which fades to yellow in the back. It is similar to the False Gamma, with the exception of the fins. False gamma has clear fins, whereas the Royal gamma does not. Also, the False gamma has a distinct color that does not fade. The Royal Gamma averages about 3 inches long and has been bred to live in tanks. It is a carnivorous fish and will eat most meat-based diets. 
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What is Royal Gamma?

Like parents passing down their distinctive nose or eye color to their children, young planets were thought to be formed after inheriting their chemical makeup directly from the swirling disks of gas and dust that gave birth to them. But nature, it seems, had other plans.



A remarkable study led by Chih-Chun "Dino" Hsu, a postdoctoral associate at Northwestern University's Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics (CIERA), suggests that we still have alot to learn about how planets form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-front-row-seat-to-planet-formation">Front row seat to planet formation</h2>



Most planets that we find outside of our solar system are already <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-planets-formed-in-the-harsh-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fully formed</a>, with their birth materials long since scattered to the cosmic winds.



That's what makes the PDS 70 system so special. Located 366 million light-years away in the constellation Centaurus, this stellar nursery gives scientists a "front-row seat" to planet formation in action.



The system features two baby gas giants, similar to Jupiter, that are still in their formative years. At just 5 million years old, these planetary toddlers - named PDS 70b and PDS 70c - are still surrounded by their natal disks, the very materials from which they are forming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-surprise-in-a-forming-planet">Chemical surprise in a forming planet </h2>



When the research team studied PDS 70b's atmosphere, they found something unexpected. The ratio of carbon to oxygen didn't match what they saw in the surrounding disk of gas and dust.



"For observational astrophysicists, one widely accepted picture of planet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formation</a> was likely too simplified," said Hsu.



"According to that simplified picture, the ratio of carbon and oxygen gases in a planet's atmosphere should match the ratio of carbon and oxygen gases in its natal disk - assuming the planet accretes materials through gases in its disk. Instead, we found a planet with a carbon and oxygen ratio that is much lower compared to its disk."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faint-planets-next-to-bright-stars">Faint planets next to bright stars </h2>



Studying a planet that is forming next to its bright parent star is no small feat. It's like trying to spot a firefly next to a spotlight.



Jason Wang is an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> who co-developed the technology used in the study.



"These new tools make it possible to take really detailed spectra of faint objects next to really bright objects. Because the challenge here is there's a really faint planet next to a really bright star. It's hard to isolate the light of the planet in order to analyze its atmosphere," explained Wang.



The experts used specialized photonics technologies to capture the planet's spectrum - which is essentially its chemical fingerprint. This allowed the team to measure the amount of carbon monoxide and water in the atmosphere of PDS 70b, and calculate the ratio of carbon to oxygen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-explanations-for-the-mismatch">Possible explanations for the mismatch</h2>



The mismatch between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-giant-planets-form/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's</a> composition and that of its natal disk poses an interesting puzzle. The research team proposes two possible explanations.



First, the planet might have formed before its disk became enriched with carbon. Think of it like baking a cake. The finished product's ingredients depend on what was available in your kitchen when you started baking - not what you added to your pantry later.



The second possibility involves solid materials. The planet might have grown by absorbing large amounts of ice and dust, not just gas. When these solid materials evaporated, they could have altered the final ratio of carbon to oxygen in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vega-star-system-discovery-forces-us-to-rethink-planet-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's atmosphere.</a>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-understanding-of-planet-formation">A better understanding of planet formation </h2>



This study marks the first time scientists have been able to compare information from an exoplanet, its natal disk, and host star. But it's just the beginning. The team plans to study PDS 70c next, hoping to understand better how this entire system formed.



"By studying these two planets together, we can understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newborn-planet-is-still-glowing-from-the-heat-of-its-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">system's formation</a> history even better," said Hsu. "But, also, this is just one system. Ideally, we need to identify more of them to better understand how planets form."



This discovery reminds us that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-of-water-vapor-may-be-involved-in-planet-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> often defies our expectations. As we continue to peer deeper into space, we are likely to find more surprises that challenge our understanding of how planetary systems come into existence.



The research was supported by the Heising-Simons Foundation, the Simons Foundation, and the National Science Foundation. The findings are published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad95e8">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



Image Credit: ESO/A. Müller et al.



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How planets form: It's much more complicated than we thought

Like parents passing down their distinctive nose or eye color...

Our teeth, the essential guardians of our oral health, are constantly subjected to the demands of chewing and grinding.



Their outer layer, enamel, is an exceptionally hard substance and the most durable material in the human body. While it provides vital protection, enamel lacks the ability to regenerate or self-repair, unlike other tissues in the body.



Unfortunately, this enamel isn't immune to the ravages of time. A team of researchers has recently explored how enamel morphs with age.



The ultimate goal of the research is to devise ways to maintain the strength and vigor of our teeth for as long as possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-contain-more-fluoride-with-age">Teeth contain more fluoride with age</h2>



The study, led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> and the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a>, scrutinized the atomic makeup of enamel samples taken from the teeth of a 22-year-old and a 56-year-old.



Interestingly, the older tooth harbored increased levels of ion fluoride - an element often added to our drinking water and toothpaste as a protective measure for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-holds-a-record-of-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enamel</a>.



The researchers investigated how fluoride integrates into enamel as we journey through life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-teeth-cracks-begin">Where teeth cracks begin</h2>



Study lead author Jack Grimm is a UW doctoral student in materials science and engineering and a doctoral intern at PNNL.



"We know that teeth get more brittle as people age, especially near the very outer surface, which is where cracks start. There are a number of factors behind this - one of which is the composition of the mineral content," said Grimm.



"We're interested in understanding exactly how the mineral content is changing. And if you want to see that, you have to look at the scale of atoms."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-structure-of-enamel">Microscopic structure of enamel</h2>



Enamel is composed mostly of minerals arranged in microscopic structures ten thousand times tinier than the width of a human hair, which makes it a challenge to study.



Earlier studies were conducted on a larger scale - about a tenth of the size of a human hair - which made it impossible to discern the relative distribution of minerals and organic portions in enamel's crystalline structure.



To investigate the microscopic structure of enamel more deeply, Grimm collaborated with Arun Devaraj, a materials scientist at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). Together, they used a sophisticated technique called "atom probe tomography."



This cutting-edge method enabled them to create a 3D map of each atom within a sample, revealing differences in element compositions across three key areas: the nanocrystal core, the shell coating the core, and the space between the shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-fluoride-as-teeth-age">The role of fluoride as teeth age</h2>



The team found that samples from the older tooth had enhanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/too-much-fluoride-in-tap-water-supply-might-lower-kids-iq-by-few-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluoride</a> levels, predominantly in the shell regions.



Study co-author Cameron Renteria is a postdoctoral researcher in oral health sciences at the University of Washington.



"We are getting exposed to fluoride through our toothpaste and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strict-pfas-limits-will-make-drinking-water-safer-for-100-million-americans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a>, and no one has been able to track that in an actual tooth at this scale," said Renteria. "Is that fluoride actually being incorporated over time? Now we're starting to be able to paint that picture."



According to the researchers, the strength of their work lies in its interdisciplinary nature. By combining the expertise of different scientific fields, they were able to uncover fascinating insights.



Going forward, the team plans to investigate how the protein composition of enamel evolves over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-enamel-changes-over-time">How enamel changes over time</h2>



Enamel, though resilient, undergoes subtle but impactful transformations as we age. The study revealed that the mineral composition in older enamel is more compact but also more brittle.



Over the years, cycles of demineralization and remineralization, influenced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a> and exposure to fluoride, lead to structural shifts.



Interestingly, these processes primarily affect the outermost shell of enamel’s nanocrystals, where increased fluoride levels were most evident in older teeth. This outer layer, while stronger against acid attacks, becomes more prone to cracks due to its rigid nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-strength-of-teeth">Preserving the strength of teeth </h2>



Such changes highlight the delicate balance between strengthening enamel and preserving its flexibility - a challenge that future dental treatments aim to address.



Dentistry offers a clear recommendation: fluoride and fluoridated products are effective in preventing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-water-fluoridation-still-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tooth decay</a>. But when it comes to how aging influences teeth overall, it seems the jury is still out.



The research highlights a key consideration as we grow older - our teeth may become more brittle, requiring us to chew with greater care.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43246-024-00709-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Materials</a>.



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What happens to our teeth as we age? New details have emerged

Our teeth, the essential guardians of our oral health, are...

The gentle murmurs of a baby's first sounds are much more than adorable expressions of joy. These early vocalizations signal the synchronization of an infant's heart and emerging speech abilities.



Research led by Jeremy I. Borjon, an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Houston, reveals a fascinating link between heart rate fluctuations and the development of language in infants. 



The findings shed light on the complex relationship between physical and cognitive growth in early life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heartbeats-and-infant-speech">Heartbeats and infant speech</h2>



Borjon’s research indicates that a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-hear-far-more-speech-at-home-than-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baby's earliest sounds</a> - those sweet coos, babbles, and even laughs - are directly tied to the rhythm of their heart.



These findings not only deepen our understanding of language development but also provide potential insights into early detection of speech and communication disorders.



“Heart rate naturally fluctuates in all mammals, steadily increasing then decreasing in a rhythmic pattern,” explained Borjon.



The study revealed that infants are most likely to vocalize when their heart rate reaches a local peak (maximum) or trough (minimum). The timing of these vocalizations appears to have specific outcomes:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Vocalizations at the peak: Longer than expected by chance.</li>



<li>Vocalizations before the trough: More likely to be recognized as words by naïve listeners.</li>
</ul>



This rhythm-driven coordination between heart and speech highlights the role of the autonomic nervous system in early language development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-as-a-motor-skill">Language as a motor skill</h2>



While we often think of speech as a cognitive ability, it also depends heavily on motor skills. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-babies-in-parentese-boosts-their-language-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Babies</a> must learn to coordinate a complex interplay of muscles across their body to produce recognizable sounds. Borjon’s study emphasizes how heart rate dynamics directly influence this coordination.



"Every sound an infant makes helps their brain and body learn how to coordinate with each other, eventually leading to speech," Borjon said. 



By observing 34 infants aged 18 to 27 months, his team measured 2,708 vocalizations, including laughs, babbles, and coos. Despite their limited vocabulary, some of these sounds were recognized as words by listeners, illustrating the early building blocks of language.



Notably, only 10.3% of the vocalizations were reliably identified as words, highlighting the gradual process of language acquisition. Yet every sound, whether or not it forms a word, plays a crucial role in helping infants align their physiological and neurological systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infant-speech-development">Infant speech development</h2>



The autonomic nervous system (ANS), responsible for regulating involuntary functions like heart rate and breathing, undergoes rapid growth during a baby’s first few years. 



The research from <a href="https://uh.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Houston</a> suggests that this development directly impacts an infant's ability to produce recognizable speech.



“The relationship between recognizable vocalizations and decelerating heart rate may imply that the successful development of speech partially depends on infants experiencing predictable ranges of autonomic activity through development,” explained Borjon.



The interplay between predictable heart rate patterns and vocalizations highlights a foundational aspect of speech development. As infants grow, their ability to coordinate autonomic functions and vocalizations improves, eventually leading to the production of more complex speech.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-and-implications">Future research and implications</h2>



Borjon emphasizes the need for continued research to better understand how the autonomic nervous system shapes speech development in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-talk-sets-the-stage-for-speech-production-in-infants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



“Understanding how the autonomic nervous system relates to infant vocalizations over development is a critical avenue of future research for understanding how language emerges, as well as risk factors for atypical language development,” he said.



The findings also hold promise for early intervention strategies. By identifying patterns in heart rate and vocalization timing, researchers could potentially detect speech or communication disorders earlier than current methods allow. 



This proactive approach could help provide timely support for children at risk of language delays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-first-sounds">Beyond the first sounds</h2>



Borjon’s work highlights the intricate connection between physical and cognitive growth during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-talk-more-when-interacting-with-artificial-objects-than-with-things-made-by-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infancy</a>. 



Speech development involves more than just learning words - it requires a harmonious interplay between the infants brain, body, and environment.



By studying the subtle rhythms of heartbeats and vocalizations, researchers are uncovering the remarkable processes that enable humans to communicate.



In the end, every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-need-quick-responses-to-their-babbling-to-learn-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babble</a> represents more than just a moment of cuteness. These early sounds serve as vital steps in the journey toward mastering language - a journey powered by the steady rhythm of a tiny heart.



The study is published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2419650121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Infant speech is driven by heart rate activity

The gentle murmurs of a baby's first sounds are much...

Those massive storms that drench the West Coast aren't going to stay the same. Recent research shows that climate change will reshape atmospheric rivers - but not in the way you might expect. 



While these storms will pack more punch everywhere, their evolution will look quite different in Seattle compared to San Diego.



The findings come from a team at the U.S. National Science Foundation National Center for Atmospheric Research (NSF NCAR), led by scientists Christine Shields and Hui Li. 



Their work reveals how these sky-high rivers of moisture will respond differently to warming, depending on where they make landfall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contrasting-impacts-of-atmospheric-rivers">Contrasting impacts of atmospheric rivers</h2>



The changes split the West Coast into two distinct stories. 



In Southern California, increasing ocean evaporation will drive the transformation of atmospheric rivers. Head north to Seattle and Portland, and it's a different ball game - there, warmer temperatures in both the ocean and air will call the shots.



These differences matter. By 2100, storms hitting the Pacific Northwest could push ocean waters three times higher than today's storms do. Southern California will see higher storm surges too, but not nearly as dramatic as their northern neighbors.



"On the ground, people will see a different response between the Southern California coast and the Pacific Northwest," said Shields. "It's not a one-size-fits-all situation. You have these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-rivers-are-shifting-with-global-climate-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regional responses</a> that can be quite different."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-split">Science behind the split</h2>



The research team relied on advanced computing to understand how climate change will reshape atmospheric rivers. 



Using the powerful Derecho supercomputer at the NSF NCAR-Wyoming Supercomputing Center, they ran detailed climate simulations. 



The simulations captured atmospheric changes every 25 kilometers (15.5 miles) and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consecutive-atmospheric-rivers-cause-far-more-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean changes</a> every 10 kilometers (6.2 miles), offering high-resolution insights into the behavior of these storms.



The results were surprising. In Southern California, the well-known "Pineapple Express" storms, which transport moisture from Hawaii, are expected to intensify due to increased evaporation from the ocean in a warmer climate. This added evaporation provides more fuel for the storms, making them more powerful.



In the Pacific Northwest, however, the dynamics are different. The storms there will strengthen due to a combination of rising air and ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-disrupting-the-seasonal-flow-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a>. These warming effects will amplify the storms' intensity and lead to more dramatic impacts, such as higher sea levels and increased flooding. 



This regional variation highlights how atmospheric rivers respond differently to climate change, depending on their location.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-difference-matters">Why the difference matters</h2>



These aren't just academic distinctions. Communities along the entire West Coast need to prepare for stronger storms, but their specific challenges will vary by location. The stakes are high - atmospheric rivers already pack a serious punch.



"Atmospheric rivers are like tropical cyclones in that they pack powerful winds and carry enormous amounts of water that can devastate local infrastructure," noted Shields.



"Communities need to understand how they will change in the future so they can adapt and plan."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-impacts-of-atmospheric-rivers">Additional impacts of atmospheric rivers</h2>



The impacts don't stop when the rain does. These atmospheric rivers leave their mark on the ocean too, stirring up waters and potentially affecting marine ecosystems long after the storms pass.



"The strong winds and precipitation linked to atmospheric rivers can significantly impact the upper ocean, potentially impacting ocean dynamics and ecosystems over larger spatial scales and longer timescales than the present," said Li.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-the-future">Preparing for the future</h2>



This research gives coastal communities crucial information for planning their future. While all regions need to prepare for more intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/projected-atmospheric-rivers-could-drench-east-asia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>, their specific challenges will depend on location. 



Southern California needs to ready itself for storms supercharged by ocean evaporation, while the Pacific Northwest must prepare for even more dramatic changes driven by warming air and seas.



The study was conducted by researchers from <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF NCAR</a>, <a href="https://www.tamu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a>, and <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a>, with funding from the U.S. Department of Energy and NSF.



For West Coast residents, the message is clear: the atmospheric rivers they know today won't be the same ones their children will face. But now, at least, they have a better idea of what's coming their way.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01774-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Atmospheric rivers will become more intense as temperatures rise

Those massive storms that drench the West Coast aren't going...

Hydrothermal systems are gateways to some of the most fascinating processes shaping our planet. 



The Arctic Ocean’s Polaris hydrothermal field is a site that is rewriting what we know about vent diversity and the role of hydrothermal activity in sustaining life on Earth - and possibly beyond.



Recent studies have revealed a broader range of venting styles than experts had anticipated, recalibrating our understanding of these vents' origins and their larger impact on our oceans and planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-polaris-hydrothermal-field">The Polaris hydrothermal field</h2>



Our story unfolds at the Polaris <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/knipovich-ridge-new-hydrothermal-field-arctic-intense-geological-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrothermal field</a>, located in the Arctic Ocean on the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel Ridge. 



Initial studies painted a picture of Polaris as a classic "black smoker" system, caused by its proximity to a volcanic seamount and the temperature and turbidity anomalies in its hydrothermal plume.



But the story of the Polaris field has taken a surprising turn. After comprehensive seafloor surveys and geochemical analyses, scientists discovered that Polaris was not your average black smoker.



Instead, it discharges hydrogen- and methane-enriched fluids into the Arctic Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrothermal-life-more-diverse-than-we-knew">Hydrothermal life: More diverse than we knew</h2>



What's more, the deep-sea hydrothermal plumes detected along ultra-slow spreading mid-ocean ridges have revealed a diversity of venting styles beyond what was previously reported. 



According to scientists at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), this expansion of geodiversity has stretched even into the Arctic Ocean, broadening our understanding of the workings of our planet's oceans.



"Hydrogen-rich vents like Polaris have a lot more chemical potential energy available for life than any other kinds of vents," explained Chris German, senior scientist at WHOI. 



"The microbial diversity you get when there is that much energy available also is really quite impressive and distinct from most ordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-new-hydrothermal-vents-discovered-in-the-pacific-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrothermal vents</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-life-beyond-earth">Implications for life beyond Earth</h2>



These insights into the workings of our ocean hold not only earthly significance but also carry weight for the possibilities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-compound-suggests-that-life-beyond-earth-could-be-common/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life beyond our planet</a>. 



"The discoveries we have made here are particularly important because they reassure us that we could go and search for life on other ocean worlds in a credible and meaningful way, based on what we now know," said German.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-arctic-ocean-a-window-into-the-unknown">The Arctic ocean: A window into the unknown</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/additional-heat-is-being-transferred-to-the-arctic-ocean-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic Ocean</a>, one of the least-explored places on Earth, serves as a window into geological processes that would otherwise remain hidden. 



"The insights we gained from the Polaris hydrothermal system were unexpected, with major implications for hydrothermal exploration in other oceans. We are excited to learn what other surprises the Arctic holds in the future," noted Elmar Albers, a postdoctoral investigator at WHOI.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-life-on-earth-to-outer-space">Connecting life on Earth to outer space</h2>



Unraveling the mysteries of our home planet serves as a stepping stone toward understanding the distribution of life in the universe.



"What we learn here, in the Arctic or anywhere on Earth, is directly applied to our successful exploration at other worlds, like Europa and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-sparking-energy-source-found-on-saturns-moon-enceladus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Enceladus</a>, and beyond," said Becky McCauley Rench, Astrobiology Program Scientist at NASA headquarters.



This study was primarily supported by NASA’s PSTAR program at WHOI and the prestigious Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. 



As we continue to explore into the ocean's mysteries, we are reminded of the intricate connections between our own planet and the vast universe that exists beyond it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrothermal-systems-and-the-origins-of-life">Hydrothermal systems and the origins of life</h2>



The Polaris hydrothermal field stands out not only for its diversity but also for its unique chemical signatures. 



Unlike traditional black smoker systems that expel iron- and sulfur-rich fluids, Polaris emits hydrogen- and methane-enriched plumes. These gases fuel specialized microbial communities that thrive in the absence of sunlight, using chemical energy to sustain life.



These hydrogen-rich environments are hotspots for chemosynthesis, a process where microbes convert chemical energy into organic matter. 



The potential energy available in these systems makes them exceptional laboratories for studying how life could arise and persist under extreme conditions, both on Earth and on other ocean worlds.



This distinctive chemistry has implications for understanding how hydrothermal systems may have contributed to the origin of life. 



The chemical gradients observed at Polaris mirror the energy sources theorized to have supported early life on Earth, providing a compelling analog for extraterrestrial environments.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X24005983?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a>.



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Hydrothermal vents: Earth’s blueprint for finding alien life

Hydrothermal systems are gateways to some of the most fascinating...

Has anyone ever told you, "You don't look your age!" While it's usually a flattering compliment for us, it seems this is not just the case for our physical appearance. It turns out, our brains too can look older or younger, and artificial intelligence (AI) is helping us understand why.



In a recent study that bridges artificial intelligence and neuroscience, researchers at Karolinska Institutet have uncovered fascinating insights into brain aging. 



The research suggests that the key to maintaining a youthful brain might lie in the health of our blood vessels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-brain-age-matters">Why brain age matters</h2>



With dementia affecting thousands of new patients each year in Sweden alone – over 20,000 to be precise, with Alzheimer's disease accounting for roughly two-thirds of cases – <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding brain aging</a> has never been more crucial. 



This new study offers practical insights into how we might maintain our cognitive health as we age.



The study's innovative approach utilized artificial intelligence to analyze brain images from 739 cognitively healthy 70-year-olds, with women making up slightly more than half of the participant group. 



The research team developed a sophisticated AI algorithm that could estimate the biological age of brains from MRI scans.



"The algorithm is both accurate and robust, yet easy to use," explained Professor Eric Westman, the study's principal investigator and professor of Neurogeriatrics at <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institutet</a>.



He noted that while it's currently a research tool requiring further evaluation, the experts hope to eventually implement it in clinical settings, particularly for dementia investigations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vascular-connection-to-brain-age">Vascular connection to brain age</h2>



Perhaps the most striking finding from the study is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-habits-may-age-the-brain-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strong connection</a> between vascular health and brain age. 



The research team discovered that several factors harmful to blood vessel health were associated with brains that appeared older than the participants' chronological age. These factors included diabetes, previous strokes, cerebral small vessel disease, and inflammation.



"A take-home from the study is that factors that adversely affect the blood vessels can also be related to older-looking brains, which shows how important it is to keep your blood vessels healthy, to protect your brain, by making sure, for instance, that your blood glucose level is kept stable," noted study lead author Anna Marseglia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-lifestyle-choices">Power of lifestyle choices</h2>



The research wasn't all about risk factors – it also revealed some encouraging news about the power of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy lifestyle choices</a>.



 Regular exercise emerged as a significant factor associated with younger-looking brains, suggesting that staying physically active might be one of our best defenses against cognitive aging.



This finding is particularly important because it emphasizes that we have some control over our brain's aging process. 



While we can't change our genetics or completely prevent all health conditions, we can make lifestyle choices that promote better vascular health and, by extension, better brain health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-based-differences-in-brain-aging">Sex-based differences in brain aging</h2>



Intriguingly, the study uncovered potential sex-based differences in brain aging. 



The research team found that factors contributing to older- or younger-looking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/financial-decisions-are-not-as-reliable-in-the-aging-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> varied between men and women, suggesting that the pathways to building brain resilience might differ between sexes.



This discovery has prompted further research initiatives. 



"Next year, we'll launch a study to understand how social health – including social engagement, connectedness, and support – in middle and older age, along with sleep and stress, influence brain resilience, with a focus on women's health factors," said Marseglia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boosting-the-brain-s-resilience">Boosting the brain's resilience </h2>



The timing of this research is particularly significant. 



"Despite the recent introduction of new Alzheimer's drugs, they will not work for everyone with dementia, so we want to study what can boost the brain's resilience against pathological aging processes," notes Marseglia.



This perspective highlights the importance of prevention and understanding the factors that contribute to brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hobbies-keep-the-brain-sharp-and-slow-cognitive-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>. 



While medical treatments for cognitive decline continue to advance, maintaining good vascular health through lifestyle choices might be our best first-line defense against accelerated brain aging.



The study's findings suggest several practical steps we can take to promote brain health:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Maintain stable blood glucose levels through diet and regular check-ups</li>



<li>Engage in regular physical exercise</li>



<li>Control inflammation through diet and lifestyle choices</li>



<li>Pay attention to vascular health through regular medical check-ups</li>



<li>Consider sex-specific factors in brain health maintenance</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-brain-age">Future research on brain age</h2>



The research team's next steps - focusing on social health factors, sleep, and stress - promise to add another layer of understanding to how we can protect our cognitive health as we age.



This holistic approach to brain health research could lead to more personalized recommendations for maintaining cognitive function throughout our lives.



Understanding brain aging is becoming increasingly important as our global population ages. 



This research from Karolinska Institutet not only provides valuable insights into the factors affecting brain age but also offers hope that through proper vascular health maintenance and lifestyle choices, we might be able to keep our brains younger for longer.



For now, the message is clear: taking care of your blood vessels isn't just good for your heart – it's essential for maintaining a youthful, resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-develop-faster-in-space-than-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>. 



As we await further developments in this field, including the potential clinical implementation of AI-based brain age assessment tools, we can all take steps to protect our vascular health and our cognitive future.



The study is published in <a href="https://alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/alz.14435" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's &amp; Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association</a>. 



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AI reveals the secret to keeping your brain young

Has anyone ever told you, "You don't look your age!"...

Whales continue to astonish us with the surprises they reveal, and the most recent discovery is nothing short of extraordinary.



A comprehensive new study reveals that right whales have been underestimated in terms of their longevity. This discovery not only overturns long-standing beliefs but also highlights the remarkable resilience and mysterious nature of these marine giants.



These magnificent creatures, once thought to live only 70 to 80 years, are now known to surpass 130 years, with some nearing the age 150 - far outliving humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-right-whales-astonishing-lifespans">Right whales' astonishing lifespans</h2>



This incredible discovery surfaced in an in-depth study that painstakingly analyzed photos of individual whales spanning four decades. 



The researchers spotlighted two specific species - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-right-whales-have-shifted-their-foraging-grounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern right whale</a>, found in the oceans below the equator, and the North Atlantic right whale, native to the Atlantic coast of North America.



The experts used the photographic data to build survivorship curves - a statistical tool similar to what is used by insurance companies - to calculate these remarkable lifespans.



The data revealed that Southern right whales can live for more than 130 years, with some speculated to reach the ripe old age of 150.



On the other hand, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-stop-the-extinction-of-north-atlantic-right-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Atlantic right whales</a> were found to have an average lifespan of a mere 22 years, with very few surviving beyond 50 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-impact-on-north-atlantic-whales">Human impact on North Atlantic whales</h2>



According to Greg Breed, the study's lead author at the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a>, this longevity gap between two closely related species is primarily attributable to human interference.



"North Atlantic whales have unusually short lifespans compared to other whales, but this isn't because of intrinsic differences in biology, and they should live much longer," said Breed. 



"They're frequently tangled in fishing gear or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ships-are-disregarding-efforts-to-protect-north-atlantic-right-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">struck by ships</a>, and they suffer from starvation, potentially linked to environmental changes we don’t fully understand.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-efforts">Implications for conservation efforts</h2>



These findings will not only rewrite biology textbooks but will also recalibrate the scales on which we measure conservation efforts for these creatures.



"To attain healthy populations that include old animals, recovery might take hundreds of years," noted Breed. "For animals that live to be 100 or 150 and only give birth to a surviving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-ever-footage-of-a-blue-whale-nursing-its-calf-captured/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calf</a> every 10 years or so, slow recovery is to be expected.”



This slow recovery trajectory highlights the critical need for sustained conservation measures and global collaboration to protect these iconic marine mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wisdom-of-the-whales">The wisdom of the whales</h2>



The research also emphasizes the significance of cultural knowledge among whale clusters. 



“There’s a growing recognition that recovery isn’t just about biomass or the number of individuals. It’s about the knowledge these animals pass along to the next generation," said Breed. 



The loss of older whales disrupts this critical transfer of knowledge and could potentially jeopardize the survival of younger individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-study-to-other-species">Expanding the study to other species</h2>



With this breakthrough discovery under their belts, the scientists plan to extend their research to other whales.



The objective is to determine if species currently believed to have an average lifespan of around 80 years might also be hiding centennial secrets. 



Furthermore, the team is eager to understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/echoes-of-the-past-whalings-long-term-impact-on-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whaling</a> has impacted the number of aged whales in today's populations and predict when their numbers might rebound to match their pre-whaling glory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-whaling">The role of whaling </h2>



The dramatic difference in lifespans between Southern and North Atlantic right whales demonstrates the long-lasting consequences of historical and modern whaling practices.



Southern right whales, which faced significantly less hunting pressure in recent decades, are now showcasing their potential for remarkable longevity. 



In contrast, North Atlantic right whales bear the scars of centuries of exploitation, compounded by ongoing threats such as fishing gear entanglements and ship strikes.



Whaling not only reduced populations but also eliminated many of the oldest individuals, robbing populations of cultural knowledge that is vital for survival.



These findings emphasize the importance of creating safer ocean environments and reducing human interference to allow whales to reach their full lifespans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq3086" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Right whales live nearly twice as long as we thought

Whales continue to astonish us with the surprises they reveal,...

As the holiday season approaches, homes worldwide are decorated with evergreen conifers like spruce and pine. Beyond spreading warmth and joy as Christmas trees, these resilient conifers thrive in harsh natural environments - enduring everything from frigid winters to intense sunlight in boreal forests.



Scientists at Umeå University are shedding light on how these remarkable trees endure such adversities and remain lush and green year-round.



The experts found that conifers possess unique adaptations that allow them to thrive in some of the planet's most challenging environments.



The findings not only deepen our understanding of conifers but also hint at potential applications in conservation and crop resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photosynthesis-strategies-of-conifers">Photosynthesis strategies of conifers</h2>



The process of photosynthesis is conserved across most plants, yet conifers exhibit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distinct strategies</a> that set them apart. 



One such adaptation is a structural change in their thylakoid membranes - the sites where photosynthesis occurs. During winter, Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII), typically separated in most plants, come closer together in a phenomenon known as spill-over.



"This helps them to safely dissipate extra energy and avoid damage from too much sunlight in the cold," explained Stefan Jansson, a professor in the <a href="https://www.upsc.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå Plant Science Center</a>.



This mechanism prevents excess light from overwhelming their photosynthetic machinery, enabling them to survive harsh winters unscathed.



Previously, researchers referred to this process as "sustained quenching," likening it to a photosynthetic lockdown. However, the precise mechanism remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-electron-flow">Alternative electron flow</h2>



In addition to spill-over, conifers possess a second survival strategy: alternative electron flow - a key aspect of their resilience in harsh winter environments.



This method involves the use of&nbsp;flavodiiron proteins, which redirect electrons during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-cleverly-adapt-to-withstand-storms-and-high-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. This redirection ensures that the photosynthetic system remains balanced, even when faced with intense sunlight and freezing temperatures.



Alternative electron flow acts as a backup mechanism to handle excess energy, preventing the photosynthetic machinery from becoming overloaded and damaged. This is particularly critical in winter when sunlight can be strong but the freezing conditions make energy dissipation challenging.



Together with&nbsp;spill-over, where Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII) collaborate to dissipate extra energy, these strategies form a dual defense system. 



Spill-over reduces the risk of light-induced damage, while alternative electron flow maintains the system's stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-adaptations-of-conifers">Unique adaptations of conifers</h2>



Conifers' photosynthetic apparatus also diverges from that of flowering plants (angiosperms) in other significant ways. 



For instance, they lack certain light-harvesting proteins found in angiosperms. This unique configuration might explain why conifers thrive in nutrient-poor, cold, and water-scarce environments.



"All together, this can explain why conifers are the dominant species in boreal forests, thriving where few others can, perhaps at the expense of advantages during less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-in-the-wrong-place-can-make-cities-hotter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenging conditions</a>," noted Pushan Bag, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-crop-resilience">Implications for crop resilience </h2>



Understanding the survival mechanisms of conifers goes beyond academic curiosity. As the climate changes, insights into how conifers adapt to extreme conditions may inform conservation strategies and predict forest responses to new environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-diversity-makes-forests-more-resilient-against-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a>.



These findings could also guide the development of crops that are resilient to extreme weather, ensuring food security in an unpredictable future.



"This paper highlights the intricate adaptations of conifers to extreme winter conditions. By combining structural, molecular, and evolutionary insights, it advances our understanding of how these trees have come to dominate some of the harshest ecosystems on Earth," said study co-author Alexander Ivanov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incredible-resilience-of-conifers">Incredible resilience of conifers</h2>



Conifers’ ability to adapt and thrive in severe conditions is a proof of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-in-big-trouble-and-scientists-are-sounding-the-alarm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature's ingenuity</a>. Their unique photosynthetic strategies, refined over millennia, ensure their survival in environments where most plants would falter.



As researchers continue to explore these mechanisms, they uncover not only the secrets of these hardy evergreens but also pathways to address pressing challenges like climate change and food insecurity.



This festive season, as you admire the beauty of a Christmas tree, take a moment to appreciate the incredible resilience and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary brilliance</a> of conifers. 



They are not just symbols of joy and celebration but also living proof of nature's ability to overcome adversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/fulltext/S1360-1385(24)00300-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Plant Science</a>.



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Christmas trees have unique strategies to survive freezing winters

As the holiday season approaches, homes worldwide are decorated with...

Northern,Lights,Over,Forest,With,Sunset,In,The,Horizon

The Northern Lights, also called the Aurora Borealis, have long fascinated people around the world. They appear as vibrant ribbons of green, pink, purple, and red that seem to move and shift across dark skies. 



Scientists attribute this mesmerizing sight to charged particles from the sun interacting with Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere. 



These displays have typically been seen in northern regions such as Norway, Iceland, Canada, and Alaska, and they have sometimes surprised <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-southern-united-states-this-week-huge-solar-storm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observers farther south</a> when solar activity ramps up.



Increased solar output toward the end of our star’s current cycle has allowed sightings in places like Texas. That has brought new urgency to research efforts aimed at understanding the precise steps behind the aurora’s appearance. 



Professor Peter Delamere, from the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a>, has led a study to explore what happens at the particle level when these lights dance in rapid, shape-shifting arcs. His recent analysis was published on November 19 in Physics of Plasmas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-particles-in-aurora-lights">Studying particles in aurora lights</h2>



Until not long ago, many details about the particle processes that produce these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flickering lights</a> remained elusive. 



“The dazzling lights <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-lights-called-steve-are-challenging-what-we-thought-we-knew-about-auroras/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">are extremely complicated</a>,” Delamere explained. “There’s a lot happening in there, and there’s a lot happening in the Earth’s space environment that gives rise to what we observe.”



He explained that these processes are difficult to track. 



“Understanding causality in the system is extremely difficult, because we don’t know exactly what’s happening in space that’s giving rise to the light that we observe in the aurora,” he continued. “KiNET-X was a highly successful experiment that will reveal more of the aurora’s secrets.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kinet-x-takes-flight">KiNET-X takes flight</h2>



This project, known as the Kinetic-scale Energy and momentum Transport experiment -- <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/sounding-rockets/nasa-wallops-may-rocket-launch-exploring-energy-transport-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KiNET-X</a> -- launched on May 16, 2021, from NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia. 



The mission lifted off just before the end of a nine-day launch window and headed over the Atlantic Ocean. 



One of NASA’s largest sounding rockets soared to roughly 249 miles above Earth, then released two canisters of barium thermite. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/KiNET-X_rocket-launch_May16-2021_credit-UAlaska-Fairbanks_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/KiNET-X_rocket-launch_May16-2021_credit-UAlaska-Fairbanks_1s.webp" alt="A BlackBrant XII sounding rocket carrying the KiNET-X experiment launches from NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia on May 16, 2021. NASA photo by Terry Zaperach" class="wp-image-1954364"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A BlackBrant XII sounding rocket carrying the KiNET-X experiment launches from NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia on May 16, 2021. NASA photo by Terry Zaperach</figcaption></figure>



About 90 seconds later, on a downward path near 186 miles high, it released the second set of canisters near Bermuda.



Observers on the ground, as well as a NASA research aircraft, watched as the barium clouds formed. Sunlight caused the barium to transform into ionized plasma, creating conditions similar to those seen in natural auroras. 



Researchers sought to see if the environment created during the rocket’s flight would help them understand the way low-energy particles from the solar wind gain the energy that powers the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aurora-borealis-seen-as-far-south-as-the-equator-after-largest-known-solar-storm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">swirling curtains of light</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aurora-lights-and-alfven-waves">Aurora lights and Alfvén Waves</h2>



The experiment attempted to form an Alfvén wave, a type of wave found in magnetized plasmas, including the sun’s outer atmosphere and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s magnetosphere</a>. 



Plasmas consist of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-linked-to-electrons-traveling-at-millions-of-miles-per-hour/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">charged particles</a> that can conduct electricity. When something disturbs a magnetic field inside a plasma, the resulting ripple travels through the charged environment as an Alfvén wave.



KiNET-X introduced barium into the upper atmosphere to generate such a disturbance, which then caused electric fields to align with Earth’s magnetic field. 



That alignment, as expected, accelerated electrons in much the same way they are sped up in real auroras. 



“We generated energized electrons,” Delamere said. “We just didn’t generate enough of them to make an aurora, but the fundamental physics associated with electron energization was present in the experiment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brief-encounter-with-barium-plasma">Brief encounter with barium plasma</h2>



“It showed that the barium <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-issues-severe-geomagnetic-storm-watch-first-time-since-2005/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plasma cloud</a> coupled with, and transferred energy and momentum to, the ambient plasma for a brief moment,” Delamere said. 



The result was a small beam of electrons moving along the planet’s magnetic field line. Because the total amount of energized electrons was small, no visible display formed in the sky. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/KiNET-X_green-barium-cloud_credit-UAlaska-Fairbanks_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/KiNET-X_green-barium-cloud_credit-UAlaska-Fairbanks_1s.webp" alt="Ionization by the sun turns the green barium cloud of the KiNET-X experiment to purple over the Atlantic Ocean on May 16, 2021. Photo courtesy Don Hampton" class="wp-image-1954362"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Ionization by the sun turns the green barium cloud of the KiNET-X experiment to purple over the Atlantic Ocean on May 16, 2021. Photo courtesy Don Hampton</figcaption></figure>



Still, in data readouts, scientists identified the beam as a pattern of green, blue, and yellow pixels showing up in the experiment’s magnetic field line information.



“That’s analogous to an auroral beam of electrons,” Delamere said. This finding has given researchers a key indicator for studying those invisible steps that turn free-floating solar wind into streaks of light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-physics-fits">How the physics fits</h2>



“It’s a question of trying to piece together the whole picture using all of the data products and numerical simulations,” Delamere said. 



Through detailed analysis, KiNET-X has helped clarify the link between solar particles, magnetic fields, and those fast-moving streams that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storm-triggered-stunning-auroras-worldwide-october-11-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light up the night</a>. 



Investigators can also draw on past experiments in new ways, comparing data sets to see how electrons behave under similar conditions.



The KiNET-X findings suggest that a small dose of carefully placed energy can trigger large, complex interactions in plasma. 



Although the rocket mission produced only a tiny pulse of enhanced particles, the core physics may be similar to the process that unleashes dancing lights above Earth’s poles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aurora-lights-and-future-studies">Aurora lights and future studies</h2>



Early results confirm that KiNET-X was successful. Researchers expect to keep analyzing the experiment’s data for fresh insights. 



Many are eager to see if this approach can be adjusted or repeated to capture even more details about electron acceleration.



Scientists continue to study these brilliant illuminations from many angles. As the solar cycle progresses, the Northern Lights may appear in locations far from the poles. 



Researchers hope that future missions like KiNET-X, combined with ongoing modeling, will fill more gaps in our understanding of nature’s most captivating light show.



The possibilities are wide open, and each discovery brings us closer to a full explanation of how our planet interacts with the sun’s energetic winds.



-----



The success of KiNET-X relied on a diverse team of researchers and students. 



<a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UAF</a> doctoral students Matthew Blandin, Kylee Branning, and Nathan Barnes played key roles, from supporting optical operations to operating cameras and assisting with computer modeling. 



Collaborators from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a>, the <a href="https://www.unh.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New Hampshire</a>, and <a href="https://www.clemson.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clemson University</a> also contributed their expertise and equipment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pop/article/31/11/112108/3321344/Alfven-wave-generation-and-electron-energization" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics of Plasmas</a>.



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How are auroras made? Space rocket takes a closer look at the Northern Lights

The Northern Lights, also called the Aurora Borealis, have long...

Every time we think we're close to fully understanding the human body, something fresh and unexpected shows up. Recently, a team of researchers stumbled upon strange entities, or obelisks, living inside of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-chemicals-from-food-production-pass-into-the-human-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human bodies</a> that had escaped notice until now.



Their surprising presence challenges assumptions and raises pressing questions about what else might be lurking unseen inside us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-presence">Hidden presence</h2>



These new visitors appear smaller than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-viruses-hold-clues-to-earth-past-future-climate-and-microbial-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> most people learn about in basic biology classes. Rather than behaving like familiar microbes, they introduce themselves as something different.



Their discovery came about when researchers began analyzing massive genetic libraries, searching for patterns that did not match any known organisms. 



This unusual find was led by Nobel Prize winner in Medicine <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/andrew-fire">Andrew Fire</a>, from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calling-them-obelisks">Calling them obelisks</h2>



What the researchers uncovered are entities they have chosen to call "obelisks." They do not resemble typical life forms, and their name comes from their distinctive shape. 



“The more we look, the crazier we see,” said <a href="https://www.med.unc.edu/cellbiophysio/directory/mark-peifer-phd/">Mark Peifer</a>, a cell and developmental biologist at the <a href="https://www.northcarolina.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a>.



They resemble what scientists call viroids, which are infectious loops of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a> known for their effects on plants. 



Obelisks share certain traits with these plant pathogens, yet they appear in human-associated bacteria. 



According to <a href="https://microbiology.osu.edu/people/sullivan.948">Matthew Sullivan</a>, an integrative biologist at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a>, the health implications for humans remain unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-rna-the-basics">Understanding RNA -- the basics</h2>



RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a vital molecule that plays several important roles in all living cells. Think of it as the messenger that helps turn the genetic instructions stored in DNA into the proteins that build and repair your body. 



Unlike DNA, which usually forms a double helix, RNA is typically single-stranded and can fold into different shapes to perform various functions. 



There are different types of RNA, such as messenger RNA (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-vaccines-linked-to-neurological-blood-and-heart-related-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mRNA</a>), transfer RNA (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-diet-impacts-the-health-of-his-future-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tRNA</a>), and ribosomal RNA (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecular-fingerprints-could-be-key-to-early-cancer-detection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rRNA</a>) which is a key component of ribosomes, the cell’s protein factories.



But RNA isn’t just about making proteins -- it also helps regulate how genes are expressed and can even act as a catalyst in certain chemical reactions. 



For example, some RNA molecules can turn genes on or off, controlling what proteins are made and when. This regulation is crucial for everything from development to responding to changes in your environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-rna-loops">Strange RNA loops</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-are-1-5-billion-years-old/">Viruses</a> often have protective shells made of proteins. Obelisks seem to lack that familiar coat. Instead, they carry RNA instructions around in tiny loops.



Unlike standard viruses, they do not appear to encode protein shells. These differences suggest that life’s definitions might need some rethinking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-obelisks-throughout-human-bodies">Obelisks throughout human bodies</h2>



It is not just a single type of obelisk. Thousands of unique varieties have turned up when scientists comb through genetic datasets.



Discoveries have emerged from multiple locations around the world, indicating that these intruders are not rare oddities tucked away in one place.



Not only are these obelisks found far and wide, they also appear in different parts of the human body. They have cropped up in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-your-mouth-multiply-in-a-very-unique-way/">bacteria from the mouth</a> and in those dwelling in the intestinal tract.



The genetic signatures hint that distinct types prefer particular regions. This suggests an intricate relationship with our internal ecosystems, though it is too soon to say what they are doing there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-puzzles">Evolutionary puzzles</h2>



Their unusual nature stirs questions about how viruses, viroids, and these newcomers might be related. 



A persistent puzzle has always been whether today’s viruses originated from simpler <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-cells-communicate-with-each-other-through-rna/">RNA forms</a> or if they started out more complex and shed traits over time.



Entities like obelisks add color to these debates, leaving scientists wondering how ancient these forms might be and how they took shape during the planet’s biological history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-categorizing-human-obelisks">Categorizing human obelisks</h2>



Obelisks do not slide neatly into existing categories. They are not standard viruses, not classic bacteria, and not exactly viroids either.



Their discovery hints that we may be missing entire classes of RNA-based life that challenge current textbooks. This complicates efforts to catalog and understand the full range of microbial life.



This investigation involved scanning colossal gene catalogs derived from human-associated microbes. Researchers used new computational tools to spot circular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-molecular-orientation-new-discovery-deepens-the-mystery/">RNA molecules</a>. 



These approaches required careful filtering to ensure what they found was not just random noise. The effort paid off, revealing a strange world that had gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fresh-perspective">A fresh perspective</h2>



“This is one of the most exciting parts of being in this field right now,” said <a href="https://biosciences.lbl.gov/profiles/simon-roux/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Simon Roux</a>, a computational biologist at the <a href="https://jgi.doe.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DOE Joint Genome Institute</a> at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.



These sentiments reflect a general feeling among experts who are sifting through molecular data and finding surprises. 



The study that introduced obelisks was posted on January 21st on bioRxiv, sparking interest among scientists who study microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-so-many-unknowns">Still so many unknowns</h2>



While researchers piece together the story of obelisks, the potential impact on humans remains uncertain. They know these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/">RNA circles</a> live inside bacterial cells that, in turn, inhabit our bodies.



If these entities influence bacterial behavior, they could, by extension, shape aspects of our own biology. Nobody can say yet what the long-term implications will be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-human-obelisks">What's next for human obelisks?</h2>



The human body is more than organs and tissues; it is a crowded universe of tiny creatures, many of them strangers we have not fully met before.



Obelisks may be just one example of what can happen when scientists look at genetic data in new ways. There could be more discoveries ahead, each one forcing us to adjust how we describe life and its building blocks.



Until then, researchers continue to watch, learn, and puzzle over these miniature visitors that have managed to hide in plain sight.



The full study was published in <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a> and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>. 



Current research on circular RNA:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li><a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.30.596730v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Circular RNA in human microbiomes</a>.</li>



<li><a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.03.24.586467v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Circular RNA in microbiomes</a>.</li>



<li><a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.01.20.576352v1.full.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Classes of Replicating RNAs</a>.</li>
</ul>



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New forms of life discovered inside human bodies

Every time we think we're close to fully understanding the...

In our modern world, food waste remains a significant problem. A shocking revelation from ReFed, a food waste nonprofit, informs us that in 2022, a staggering 5 million tons of food had been wasted by U.S. grocers.



Ultimately, 35% of this discarded food ended up in landfills. What's even more concerning is that over half of that waste - around 2.7 million tons - were only discarded for having passed their labeled expiration dates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-technological-solution-to-food-waste">A technological solution to food waste</h2>



Every problem presents an opportunity for innovation and solutions, and food waste is no exception. New research from Texas McCombs suggests a transformative solution: transitioning from paper shelf <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-could-be-greatly-reduced-with-better-labels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">labels</a> to digital ones.



This shift allows supermarkets to easily lower prices on items nearing their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-develop-smart-food-packaging-show-contamination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expiration dates</a>, moving them off the shelves and into consumers’ homes, reducing waste and emissions.



Ioannis Stamatopoulos, associate professor of information, risk, and operations management, elaborated on the potential benefits of digital food labels.



“Everyone is better off when dynamic pricing is enabled,” said Stamatopoulos. “There’s less food waste and less emissions from food ending up in landfills.”



Grocers also benefit from the technology, saving time and money. “They can change digital labels - also called electronic shelf labels - with a few keystrokes on a tablet, compared with printing physical labels and sticking them onto shelves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digital-food-labels-and-inventory-management">Digital food labels and inventory management </h2>



To understand the impact of dynamic pricing, Stamatopoulos collaborated with Naveed Chehrazi of <a href="https://washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a> in St. Louis and Robert Sanders of the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Diego</a> to analyze two European grocery chains adopting digital labels.



At a United Kingdom-based chain, digital labels were introduced for 940 perishable items, displaying discounts as products neared expiration. 



This resulted in a 54% increase in price changes, proving how the technology encourages proactive inventory management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adding-more-dimensions-to-barcodes">Adding more dimensions to barcodes</h2>



Another supermarket chain in the European Union not only embraced electronic labels but took it a step further by introducing expanded barcodes. 



These barcodes are not your typical barcodes. They hold crucial inventory details such as packaging dates, lot numbers, and expiration dates. 



As inventory nears its "sell-by" date, the store can conveniently lower prices to encourage buying. After implementing these two technologies, the EU stores witnessed an astonishing increase of 853% in price change frequency.



The researchers observed that adopting such rapid price changes is beneficial for shoppers. “If you’re a consumer who really, really cares about price, then you can buy the blueberries that will expire two days later and consume them today," said Stamatopoulos.



These technologies also improve stores’ profitability. "Because the grocery store can put things on discount when they’re about to expire, they can afford larger orders, so they take advantage of economies of scale in ordering,” explained Stamatopoulos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-dynamic-pricing">Challenges of dynamic pricing</h2>



However, despite the long-term benefits of dynamic pricing, it does face some short-term challenges. One major concern is consumer apprehension, as seen when Wendy’s faced backlash in February over its dynamic pricing announcement.



Though the fast-food chain clarified it would only reduce prices during slow periods, the fear of price hikes lingers.



However, Stamatopoulos noted that grocers face a unique limitation. “For retailers to estimate demand very finely and dynamically respond accordingly, so as to squeeze every dollar out of it, I think that’s kind of impossible.”



Another hurdle is the upfront cost. Implementing digital labels, tablets, and daily data updates for thousands of products requires significant investment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-transition-to-digital-food-labels">The transition to digital food labels</h2>



While Europe leads the adoption of these technologies, the U.S. is catching up. Walmart plans to transition to digital price labels in 2,300 stores by 2026, with other retailers like Amazon Fresh and Schnuck’s following suit.



To accelerate adoption, Stamatopoulos suggests government subsidies, akin to those for solar panels or electric vehicles. 



"Somebody needs to break this equilibrium,” said Stamatopoulos. “Then things will move to a new era where everybody’s using the additional information.”



By embracing digital innovation, the grocery industry can turn the tide on food waste, paving the way for a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-inspires-solutions-for-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable future</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mksc.2023.0473" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marketing Science</a>.



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Digital labels help grocers cut food waste

In our modern world, food waste remains a significant problem....

Patience is often regarded as a noble virtue, but its true essence may stem from how we handle life's relentless challenges and frustrations.



Kate Sweeny, a psychology scientist at <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Riverside</a>, suggests that patience might be less about our moral standing and more about how we handle the everyday irritations that life throws at us.



"Philosophers and religious scholars call patience a virtue, yet most people claim to be impatient," said Sweeny. "That made me wonder if maybe patience is less about being a good person and more about how we deal with day-to-day frustrations."



Sweeny conducted a study that was focused on defining what encompasses patience and impatience, and the factors that contribute to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-patience-and-impatience">Interpreting patience and impatience</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-humans-hate-to-wait-and-what-our-impatience-says-about-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Impatience</a>, according to Sweeny, is the emotion experienced when encountering delays that seem unfair, unreasonable, or inappropriate - like heavy traffic during off-peak hours or a meeting dragging on well past its scheduled time.



In contrast, patience is how individuals cope with these feelings of impatience. Psychologists often refer to "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-pinpoints-the-brain-regions-that-regulate-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotion regulation</a>" as the range of strategies people use to adjust the intensity of their emotions.



In a companion theoretical paper, Sweeny emphasizes that patience represents a specific subset of these strategies, focusing on managing feelings of impatience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-perfect-storm-for-impatience">The "perfect storm" for impatience</h2>



The researchers identified three scenarios that form the ideal recipe for impatience: a critical situation (like a traffic jam on the way to a favorite band's concert), an uncomfortable waiting state (like a packed waiting room at the DMV), and when there's an obvious person to blame for the delay (such as the lab forgetting to process your medical tests).



People felt more impatient when a delay lasted longer than expected, although the actual length of the delay did not significantly impact their feelings of impatience.



To explore these frustrations, participants were asked to imagine their reactions to everyday aggravations, such as being stuck in traffic, enduring a tedious meeting, or waiting in a crowded room.



The individuals assessed how impatient these situations would make them feel and identified strategies to temper their impatience, including distraction techniques, deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-exercises-improve-focus-in-children-with-adhd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breathing exercises</a>, or finding a silver lining in the situation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-spectrum-of-patience">The spectrum of patience</h2>



Interestingly, not everyone responded to these irritation-causing situations in the same way. Some were more patient than others. For instance, individuals who were more adaptable to open-ended situations and more emotionally stable displayed less impatience.



Moreover, those who had higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotional-intelligence-may-be-secret-to-academic-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional intelligence</a> and were better at self-regulation were also more patient, even if they initially felt impatient.



"Our initial findings support many of our ideas about patience and impatience. We have a lot still to learn, but our approach is quite promising in terms of helping people to manage feelings of impatience and ultimately become more patient in their daily lives," noted Sweeny.



These findings present a fresh perspective on patience and impatience - not as intrinsic qualities of a person, but as responses and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-who-are-connected-with-nature-have-better-coping-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coping</a> strategies we embrace when faced with the inevitable irritations of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patience-and-personality-traits">Patience and personality traits</h2>



The research sheds light on how personality traits influence an individual's ability to remain patient. People who demonstrate greater emotional stability and adaptability in uncertain situations are less likely to feel overwhelmed by impatience.



Additionally, individuals with high emotional intelligence, who excel in self-regulation and empathy, tend to manage feelings of impatience more effectively. 



Traits like agreeableness also play a crucial role in encouraging patience, as such individuals often approach frustrating scenarios with a calm and understanding mindset.



These findings highlight that patience is not just situational but also deeply rooted in personal characteristics, offering a promising avenue for developing interventions to cultivate patience in daily life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-modern-life">Implications for modern life</h2>



In an increasingly fast-paced world, the study’s findings have significant applications.



The ability to manage impatience effectively is crucial in both personal and professional settings. For instance, workplaces can benefit from training programs focused on emotion regulation techniques, helping employees cope with stress and maintain productivity during challenging times.



Moreover, understanding the psychology of patience can aid in conflict resolution by promoting empathy and cooperation. 



On an individual level, strategies like mindfulness, reframing negative situations, and practicing gratitude can be integrated into daily routines to enhance emotional well-being and cultivate a more patient approach to life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/01461672241284028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin</a>.



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Patience isn’t a virtue - it’s a coping strategy

Patience is often regarded as a noble virtue, but its...