The pharynx is situated directly after the mouth and nose and lies right before the esophagus.
<h2>Formation and Orientation</h2>
<h3>The pharynx is divided into three separate sections.</h3>
The nasopharynx is the first part of the pharynx that lies between the soft palate and the base of the skull. The pharyngeal tonsils are located on the back wall of the nasopharynx. This portion of the pharynx is connected to the middle easr by the Eustachian tubes. The nasopharynx is linked to the nasal cavities by choanae. On its outerwalls, there are triangle shaped pharyngeal ostia and the torus tubarius. There are two folds that come from this opening; the salpingopharyngeal fold and the salpingopalatine fold. The salpingopharyngeal fild contains the calpingopharyngeus muscle. The salpingopalatine fold is a small fold containing the levator veli palatine muscle and stretched from the torus to the palate.
The oropharynx also known as the mesopharynx, is from the uvula to the hyoid bone. It opens to the mouth while through the palatoglossal arch and the palatopharyngeal arch, the tonsil is introduced. The outer wall holds the bases of the tongue and the epiglottic vallecula while the opposing wall is made of the tonsil and its components, the top wallis made up of the soft palate and the uvula. The epiglottis is the part on the pharynx that separates food and air as it travels to take it to its respective tube (epiglottis or trachea).
The laryngopharynx is also known as the hypopharynx and connects the throat to the epiglottis. It is the part that introduces the epiglottis two separate pathways. The laryngopharynx continues all the way thtough the esophagus on the posterior wall. This part of the pharynx has three major parts; the pyriform sinus, postcricoid area and the posterior pharyngeal wall.
<h3>Function</h3>
The pharynx allows for food and drink holding nutritional value to begin its journey through the digestive tract by permitting it into the esophagus while also helping in respiration to deliver the air to the trachea. The pharynx also allows for an equalization of air pressure on the eardrum membrane.
Image Caption: Pharynx. Credit: Arcadian/Wikipedia

What is Pharynx?

Honey, often described as “liquid gold,” has captivated civilizations for millennia. Long prized for its sweetness, it has also been used in diverse cultures and traditions to soothe sore throats, support wound healing, and even address infections.&nbsp;



While honey’s anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties have earned it a place in both kitchens and home remedies, questions remain about the science behind these claims.&nbsp;



What exactly gives honey its therapeutic potential, and how do the microorganisms within it influence its benefits and safety?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-microbiology-of-honey">The microbiology of honey</h2>



When people think of honey, they usually picture a sticky, golden sweetener ready to drizzle on toast or stir into tea. Yet behind this simplicity lies a rich microbial community.&nbsp;



Honey carries a variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microorganisms</a> that together create a microscopic ecosystem. 



This local microbiome in honey prompts inquiries about its safety, particularly regarding how honey is produced, whether it’s consumed raw or pasteurized, and the risks it may pose for certain individuals, such as infants.



Honey primarily consists of sugars (mainly fructose and glucose), water, and organic compounds produced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-are-making-less-honey-and-five-decades-of-data-reveals-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>. 



While the western honeybee, Apis mellifera, is the dominant species in large-scale honey production, at least eight other bee species - including Apis cerana and Apis nigrocincta - are also known to produce honey. 



Each species, along with environmental and floral variations, can influence the composition of the honey they create.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-microbes">The role of microbes</h2>



Bees generate honey through a multifaceted process involving the collection of nectar and honeydew from flowers and subsequent enzymatic transformations within the hive.&nbsp;



During this process, microorganisms - such as Bacillus, Saccharomyces, and Aspergillus - are introduced to the honey via the bees’ digestive tracts and from external sources like air, soil, and plant matter.



Some microbes, particularly lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, are beneficial. They can contribute to honey’s acidity and preserve it against spoilage.&nbsp;



Conversely, certain yeasts, such as Candida and Saccharomyces, may thrive in honey that has excessive moisture, potentially causing fermentation or spoilage. 



Thus, honey’s microbial profile is shaped by the floral environment, geographic location, bee health, and other situational elements.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybee</a> gut microbiome itself plays a critical part in shaping honey’s characteristics. In addition to lactic acid bacteria, microbes like Enterobacter and Klebsiella help maintain bee health.&nbsp;



If this beneficial microbial community becomes unbalanced - due to factors such as disease or environmental stress - bees can become susceptible to infections, including fungal pathogens like Aspergillus fumigatus.&nbsp;



This fungus can harm both immunocompromised humans and bee larvae, emphasizing the shared health interests of bees and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-s-remarkable-self-preservation-abilities">Honey’s remarkable self-preservation abilities</h2>



Despite harboring an assortment of microbes, honey naturally resists spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. One central reason lies in the enzyme glucose oxidase, which worker bees secrete from their hypopharyngeal glands.&nbsp;



When bees combine this enzyme with glucose in the nectar, it produces hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and water. The resulting hydrogen peroxide remains encased in the honey, helping lower its pH to levels unfavorable for bacterial growth.



Additionally, honey’s high sugar content and minimal water availability (i.e., low moisture) create an osmotic environment hostile to many microorganisms. 



These traits together form a potent natural defense that helps honey avoid quick spoilage, even when stored at room temperature for extended periods.



Still, honey’s acidity can vary according to seasonal flora and the particular flowers the bees visit. More than 300 honey varieties exist around the world, each uniquely shaped by local botanical and environmental factors.&nbsp;



In the United States alone, one can find distinct honeys like buckwheat honey in the Midwest or citrus blossom honey in Florida and southern California.&nbsp;



Globally, the famed Manuka honey originates from Leptospermum scoparium flowers in New Zealand and Australia and is celebrated for its heightened antibacterial effects, often attributed to methylglyoxal (MGO).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medicinal-properties-of-honey">Medicinal properties of honey</h2>



Manuka honey is one of the most researched types, largely due to the presence of MGO, which is formed from dihydroxyacetone (DHA) in Manuka flower nectar.&nbsp;



Studies suggest that Manuka honey is more potent against certain bacteria, like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, than generic honeys. 



However, evidence shows that various constituents of Manuka honey, including hydrogen peroxide and an osmotic effect, work together to amplify its antimicrobial strength.



While Manuka honey has garnered attention for wound care and infection control, clinical research on its effectiveness for broader health issues - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-detects-changes-in-gut-health-to-help-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut health</a>, diabetes, or cancer - remains limited.&nbsp;



A few clinical trials point to Manuka honey’s potential to ease throat discomfort in chemotherapy patients, but these studies have not conclusively shown that honey surpasses existing treatments.&nbsp;



Further investigations are needed to determine whether honey’s properties can be harnessed reliably in mainstream healthcare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-benefits-and-safety">Balancing benefits and safety</h2>



One key distinction in honey is whether it’s raw or pasteurized. Raw honey undergoes minimal filtration and retains more of its natural microbes, including pollen particles and other hive components.&nbsp;



Some argue this confers extra health advantages, like enhanced antioxidant and probiotic qualities. However, raw honey also poses allergy risks to individuals sensitive to pollen or bee-derived proteins.



Pasteurized honey, processed at high temperatures to lower its microbial load, can be safer in terms of minimizing fermentation or spoilage. 



Yet pasteurization may also reduce honey’s beneficial enzymes and microbes, potentially lessening any therapeutic qualities. 



Regardless of processing, improper honey storage - especially exposure to moisture, heat, or air - can trigger spoilage or microbial growth, underscoring the need for careful handling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-consumption-risks">Honey consumption risks</h2>



While honey is generally considered safe, one well-known concern is the presence of Clostridium botulinum spores. Though relatively rare, these spores can produce a potent neurotoxin that induces botulism, a serious condition marked by muscle weakness and possible paralysis.&nbsp;



Infants under one year old are particularly vulnerable because their developing digestive tracts are ill-equipped to counteract C. botulinum spores. 



Consequently, pediatric and public health guidelines strongly advise against giving honey to infants less than 12 months of age. 



Although botulism risk in older children and adults is minimal, the possibility of contamination underscores the importance of following storage and processing recommendations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-s-role-in-health-and-research">Honey’s role in health and research</h2>



As scientists deepen their understanding of honey’s chemistry and the interplay of its microbial inhabitants, possibilities emerge for broader applications.&nbsp;



Honey’s mix of sugars, enzymes, and natural compounds could prove relevant in addressing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic-resistant</a> infections, improving wound healing, and perhaps even aiding in metabolic or gastrointestinal disorders. However, robust, large-scale clinical trials remain necessary to confirm many of these potential benefits.



Still, anecdotal evidence and limited studies already support honey’s use in alleviating mild conditions, like sore throats or minor cuts. Traditional medicine in many cultures has leveraged honey’s soothing properties for centuries.&nbsp;



Modern science is now trying to define these uses more precisely, distinguishing home remedies from evidence-based healthcare solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spectrum-of-varieties">A spectrum of varieties</h2>



Honey is incredibly diverse, owing to factors like bee species, local flora, and environmental conditions. Orange blossom honey from Florida, for example, differs not only in taste from avocado honey in California or buckwheat honey in New York, but also in antioxidant capacity and potential microbial composition.&nbsp;



Globally, Manuka honey remains the most studied, but dozens of specialty honeys in various regions hold cultural and medicinal significance, reflecting how nature’s subtleties shape each batch.



Understanding this variety can guide consumers seeking specific flavors or purported health benefits. It can also inform researchers studying how different nectar sources yield distinct antimicrobial or antioxidant properties in honey, potentially expanding its role in food science and medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-honey-s-future-as-a-resource">Looking ahead: Honey’s future as a resource</h2>



Honey stands as an intriguing intersection of biology, chemistry, ecology, and culinary art. While marketed primarily as a sweetener, its composition reveals a wealth of complex interactions among sugars, enzymes, microbes, and floral compounds.&nbsp;



These interactions contribute to honey’s distinctive flavor profiles, antimicrobial resilience, and prospective therapeutic potential.



Ongoing research into honey’s properties - including how it fights certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intestinal-bacteria-could-help-you-live-a-very-long-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, whether it can bolster wound healing, and its broader impact on human health - reflects a growing recognition of nature’s capacity to inspire and innovate.&nbsp;



As studies become more rigorous, honey’s status in modern integrative medicine and food science may continue to rise, provided that researchers address the gaps and ensure consumer safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-as-a-natural-marvel-nbsp">Honey as a natural marvel&nbsp;</h2>



Honey’s enduring popularity stems not only from its sweet taste but also from the remarkable benefits attributed to it over centuries of traditional use.&nbsp;



Contemporary investigations highlight how honey’s microbial makeup, enzymatic processes, and sugar chemistry coalesce to create a product that is both delicious and potentially health-affirming.&nbsp;



Although definitive scientific consensus on many of honey’s medical applications remains elusive, its low-risk nature and storied past suggest that honey will continue to delight and possibly heal.



By bridging knowledge from microbiology, beekeeping, environmental science, and clinical research, scientists stand poised to uncover additional facets of honey’s significance.&nbsp;



Whether stirred into tea or considered for more formal therapeutic roles, honey’s multifaceted profile ensures that it remains a subject of fascination in culinary, cultural, and medical contexts.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Nature's sweet remedy: Honey is a microbial marvel

Honey, often described as “liquid gold,” has captivated civilizations for...

Wish,To,Meet,Santa,Claus.,Merry,Christmas,And,Happy,New

Every December, colorful lights and festive tunes remind kids, and adults, that Santa Claus is on his way. Families fill their homes with decorations, children write wish lists, and a sense of anticipation hangs in the air. 



Parents have long told their kids that if they behave well, Santa will bring them just what they asked for. Until recently, few studies examined whether this belief actually influenced how kids act.



In a new project, researchers decided to see if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/irregular-bedtimes-disrupt-the-well-being-and-behavior-of-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a> truly become more considerate when they think Santa is watching. 



They explored whether kids act better because of the story of Santa or because of everything else going on during the holiday season. 



Professor Kapitány from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> led the investigation along with colleagues from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham</a>, <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Edinburgh</a>, and <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leeds</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kids-santa-and-surprises">Kids, Santa, and surprises</h2>



The study tracked 533 kids between ages four and nine over three separate Christmases and visits from Santa. Families <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-with-behavioral-issues-have-high-cortisol-levels-in-their-hair/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reported on behaviors</a> like sharing, helping others, and following rules. 



Parents also described whether their kids believed in Santa and took part in festive traditions. According to the data, there was no direct link between Santa belief alone and an increase in kindness.



Instead, good behavior rose as Christmas neared when families engaged in activities such as decorating their homes, singing carols, and enjoying special treats.&nbsp;



The study noted that these experiences led to small but consistent boosts in generous and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kindergarten-conduct-childhood-behavioral-problems-will-cost-society-later/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">respectful actions</a>. 



This shift also came with a bump in more rowdy moments, highlighting that heightened excitement can show up in many ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-festive-rituals">The power of festive rituals</h2>



For many families, hanging ornaments or baking Christmas cookies is more than just a fun holiday pastime. 



These rituals offer children a chance to feel a sense of togetherness and excitement that breaks up their usual routine. 



The study suggests that these shared activities have a greater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-consider-their-own-past-actions-before-judging-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effect on kindness</a> than the idea of being judged by a mysterious gift-giver in a red suit.



Parents often say they remind kids to be on their best behavior so Santa will reward them. Yet the findings show it’s the holiday atmosphere itself that has the strongest pull. 



One researcher described it by saying “the magic is in the time of year, so to speak, not in the claim over the supernatural big man.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supernatural-beliefs-and-morality">Supernatural beliefs and morality</h2>



Some scholars point out that Santa is often placed on the same pedestal as other powerful beings in certain cultures. 



Parents treat him as a figure who can watch children from afar, keep track of good deeds, and decide on gifts. 



This study adds to conversations about how belief in unseen forces might shape moral choices.



Other work shows that religious ideas can sometimes bring out prosocial behavior. Hearing about rules or promises of rewards can prompt more cooperation.&nbsp;



In the case of Santa, though, the results suggest that the presence of traditions might play a bigger role in guiding kids toward friendly, generous actions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contrasting-philosophies-on-kids-and-santa">Contrasting philosophies on kids and Santa</h2>



Philosophers have different views on whether parents should even promote Santa’s story. 



Dr. Joseph Millum from the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of St. Andrews</a> worries it “breaches trust,” calling Santa a “preposterous lie.” Others feel that Santa can be a healthy way to bring joy into children’s lives. 



Tom Whyman, a lecturer in philosophy at the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liverpool</a>, says that “kids need Santa.” 



These opinions highlight the varying attitudes people have toward a figure whose influence has become an enduring feature of holiday culture.



When parents choose whether to encourage this tale, they grapple with how it shapes their children’s sense of wonder and truth. 



Some families see Santa as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pretend-play-builds-the-foundation-for-learning-and-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harmless make-believe</a>, while others wonder if creating a magical visitor might later undermine a child’s trust. 



The study reminds us that cultural myths carry weight, yet they may not fully explain shifts in children’s behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-holiday-traditions">Implications for holiday traditions</h2>



The research shows that singing festive songs, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/christmas-trees-have-unique-strategies-to-survive-freezing-winters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">placing ornaments on a tree</a>, or preparing traditional foods creates a distinct environment. That environment is linked with both extra kindness and occasional bursts of negative behavior. 



While the belief in Santa himself did not correlate directly with improved conduct, the coordinated celebration of the season proved to be more powerful.



Families can consider how these moments <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-traits-are-not-strongly-inherited-from-parents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bring the household closer</a>. Children who help bake cookies or watch a classic Christmas movie often feel a greater sense of involvement. 



This sense of participation aligns with the study’s findings that holiday events can be a driving force behind thoughtful gestures, cooperation, and cheer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-questions-about-childhood-and-culture">Bigger questions about childhood and culture</h2>



Santa’s modern image traces back to a blend of folklore, marketing campaigns, and traditions inspired by Saint Nicholas. 



For countless children, the idea of a kindhearted figure traveling the skies in a single night is a highlight of December. 



This study encourages us to think about how such stories fit into broader questions about parenting approaches and cultural myths. 



Many communities celebrate special figures who reward the nice and ignore or punish the naughty. 



In each case, children experience stories they can hold onto, if only for a few magical years. The current research suggests that these stories may matter less than the rituals and music, but they still add color to the season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Plenty of families continue to share the Santa story, watch Christmas movies, and maintain lively traditions. 



The researchers point out that more studies could explore how different cultural celebrations, and the potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holiday-stress-is-higher-this-year-compared-to-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress levels surrounding them</a>, ultimately help shape child development. 



From the outside, it might seem obvious that gatherings, songs, and decorations encourage bright and kind behavior, yet measuring these elements takes careful planning.



Some psychologists are curious about whether similar patterns show up around other holidays or special events with strong rituals.&nbsp;



The core message remains that communal practices, family bonding, and joyful anticipation often spark gentler and more considerate behavior in children. 



The Santa myth is part of that puzzle, but it may not be the only factor making kids play nicely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-we-learn-about-kids-and-santa">What did we learn about kids and Santa?</h2>



The takeaway here is that Christmas is a powerful backdrop for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-parents-use-threats-to-discipline-children-but-its-not-effective-in-the-long-run/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shaping how children behave</a>. 



A lively household filled with festive foods, carols, and colorful decorations can steer kids toward more thoughtful choices, even if the well-known Santa story doesn’t stand alone as a motivator. 



Traditions that families share appear to matter more than the promise of presents under the tree.



These observations offer a new way to think about how myths and rituals come together to create a meaningful holiday experience.&nbsp;



Children may still look forward to Santa’s arrival each year, but the real spark for positive behavior lies in those precious moments spent enjoying the season.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://osf.io/preprints/osf/e8jm6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSF Pre-prints</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Does believing in Santa make kids behave better? A new study found out

Every December, colorful lights and festive tunes remind kids, and...

NASA’s Parker Solar Probe touched the Sun's atmosphere, flying within 3.8 million miles (around 6.1 million kilometers) from the surface of the Sun on Tuesday, Dec. 24, at 6:53 a.m. EST. 



During its closest approach, also called perihelion, mission operations will be out of contact with the spacecraft. 



Parker will transmit another beacon tone on Friday, Dec. 27, to confirm its health following the close flyby.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-going-where-no-human-made-object-has-gone">Going where no human-made object has gone</h2>



This approach is unlike anything previously accomplished by a human-made spacecraft, marking a landmark in solar science that may rewrite much of what we know about our star.



Arik Posner, <a href="https://parkersolarprobe.jhuapl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parker Solar Probe</a> program scientist at NASA Headquarters in Washington, sees this effort as a new window into solar research. “This is one example of NASA’s bold missions, doing something that no one else has ever done before to answer longstanding questions about our universe,” said <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/people/dr-arik-posner/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arik</a>. The Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APL</a>) in Laurel, Maryland, manages mission operations and is keeping a watchful eye on every step as Parker speeds by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breathtaking-pace-of-the-parker-solar-probe">Breathtaking pace of the Parker solar probe</h2>



The spacecraft is moving at approximately <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/parker-solar-probe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">430,000 miles per hour</a>. At that velocity, Parker could zip from New York to Los Angeles in about 20 seconds. 



By <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parker-solar-probe-will-fly-through-suns-atmosphere-tomorrow-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaching the Sun</a> so closely, mission teams hope to retrieve data that no earlier craft could access. Particles in the corona -- where temperatures can exceed a few million degrees -- tend to behave in puzzling ways. 



Scientists aim to see how these intense conditions might shape <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/sun/what-is-the-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a>, which jets out at more than one million miles per hour.



Engineers designed Parker’s trajectory with careful flybys of Venus to shrink its orbit gradually around the Sun. This path has taken years to perfect since launch in 2018. 



Each loop demanded detailed calculations to ensure the craft can survive the approach, collect the right measurements, and keep sending updates back to Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-probe-battling-extreme-heat">Solar probe battling extreme heat</h2>



Because the Sun’s heat is punishing at such a short distance, Parker Solar Probe relies on a <a href="https://parkersolarprobe.jhuapl.edu/Spacecraft/index.php#Extreme-Environments" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon-composite shield</a> 4.5 inches thick.



This protective layer keeps sensitive instruments near room temperature while the shield’s front side can face extreme temperatures above 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit.



Sophisticated cooling systems also channel heat away from the core of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-the-fastest-human-made-object-ever-nasas-parker-solar-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacecraft</a>, helping to sustain the electronics that record measurements of plasma, magnetic fields, and solar wind particles.



Inside, the instruments are scanning for clues to explain the corona’s unusual temperatures, which skyrocket to levels far higher than the Sun’s visible surface. 



Those same instruments are also watching for charged particle bursts and fluctuations in magnetic fields that might help answer big questions about what accelerates the solar wind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crucial-timing-and-limited-contact">Crucial timing and limited contact</h2>



Today’s perihelion means Parker is currently skimming the outer atmosphere of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-orbiter-spacecraft-sees-the-sun-through-three-different-lenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun</a> while in autonomous mode, out of immediate radio contact.



This window of silence is standard because powerful solar emissions prevent reliable communication. Mission operators anticipate a beacon tone on December 27, which should confirm Parker has survived.



Scientists believe that data from this flyby could provide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parker-solar-probe-will-fly-through-suns-atmosphere-tomorrow-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unprecedented detail on solar activity</a>. Periods of heightened activity, known as solar maxima, produce more flares and coronal mass ejections. These events can spawn auroras at unexpected latitudes and threaten satellites with bursts of charged particles. 



By collecting data from close range, Parker might reveal new insights into how these explosive happenings form and evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visionary-behind-the-parker-solar-probe">Visionary behind the Parker solar probe</h2>



This trailblazer of solar research is named after <a href="https://news.uchicago.edu/story/eugene-parker-legendary-figure-solar-science-and-namesake-parker-solar-probe-1927-2022" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Eugene N. Parker</a>, the late astrophysicist from the University of Chicago who proposed the existence of the solar wind back in the 1950s.



He changed our understanding of how stars interact with their surroundings. In 2018, he became the first person to witness the launch of a spacecraft bearing his name. 



Though he passed away in 2022, his legacy lives on in every close pass the probe completes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-solar-wind">A closer look at solar wind</h2>



One of the main motivations behind Parker Solar Probe mission is to figure out how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-solar-storm-warning-issued-as-two-cmes-will-hit-earth-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a>, that stream of charged particles racing from the Sun, accelerates to incredible speeds. Scientists hope Parker will pinpoint where and how energy is transferred to these particles. Such information could refine space weather forecasts, which are critical for protecting satellites, power grids, and astronauts in orbit.



<a href="https://www.plasmacoalition.org/plasma_writeups/solar_plasmas.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plasma</a> behavior at these altitudes can also inform theories about stellar physics beyond the Sun. 



Many stars release similar particle streams, so unraveling the inner workings of the solar wind could offer a template for understanding events happening light-years away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-stakes-data-for-space-weather-predictions">High-stakes data for space weather predictions</h2>



Operators know that space weather can have major effects here on Earth. Sudden geomagnetic storms have been known to disrupt radio signals, damage satellites, and even cause power outages. By studying the Sun’s activity from the inside, Parker could lead to more accurate warnings for regions of the world vulnerable to blackouts. 



Air traffic, GPS services, and communication infrastructure may all benefit from improved predictions of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/space-weather/solar-flares/what-is-a-solar-flare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar flares</a> and <a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/phenomena/solar-radiation-storm#:~:text=Solar%20radiation%20storms%20occur%20when,of%20the%20speed%20of%20light." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particle storms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-milestone-for-parker-solar-probe">A milestone for Parker Solar Probe</h2>



Now that the probe is at perihelion, mission managers will hold their breath for a few days.



“No human-made object has ever passed this close to a star, so Parker will truly be returning data from uncharted territory,” explained <a href="https://parkersolarprobe.jhuapl.edu/News-Center/Show-Article.php?articleID=205" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nick Pinkine</a>, Parker Solar Probe mission operations manager at <a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APL</a>. 



He added that the team is eager to see how Parker managed the flyby when the link reopens.



This moment is a milestone for solar science. If everything goes as planned, Parker will maintain its orbit for future close passes, each offering a renewed chance to investigate the corona’s strange properties.



Researchers anticipate more discoveries that will fill in knowledge gaps about the Sun’s extreme environment.



Far from being an isolated phenomenon, the Sun’s behavior plays a significant role in shaping conditions on Earth. 



Today’s brush with solar fury signals the continuing progress of human exploration -- and the promise of deeper insight into the star that illuminates our world.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mission accomplished? Solar Probe just touched the Sun, but we don't know if it survived

NASA’s Parker Solar Probe touched the Sun's atmosphere, flying within...

Every holiday season, Americans buy nearly 30 million live Christmas trees. Many households cherish the scent of pine that drifts through their halls. The fragrance, which is often described as crisp and woodsy, can set a cheerful tone. Yet there is much more to this refreshing aroma.



That <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-gives-pine-trees-fresh-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fresh smell</a> comes from substances known as volatile organic compounds, or VOCs. These are airborne chemicals that can be released by a wide range of items inside a home.



Fresh paint, cleaning solutions, and newly purchased furniture all have distinct VOC profiles that contribute to the atmosphere we breathe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-and-its-driving-force">Research and its driving force</h2>



"Our nose is a good chemical sensor," said Dustin Poppendieck, an environmental engineer at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). 



"We know that these trees are emitting something, and the question then becomes: How big of a source is it? We wanted to explore which chemicals are emitted and how much, and to put that into the context of other sources of chemicals in a house."



In a recent study, he and his colleagues took a Douglas fir and enclosed it in a specialized chamber. The team wanted to gauge which compounds lingered and how they might shift in a controlled environment. They kept track of the emissions for 17 days to gather a clear picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocs-in-the-home">VOCs in the home</h2>



VOCs appear in many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">household products </a>and activities. They come from cleaners, new carpeting, varnishes, personal care items, and similar sources. Some have a pleasant smell that appeals to people, while others cause throat irritation and watery eyes for those who are sensitive.



Many manufacturers now produce items with fewer VOCs, including paint labeled as low-emission. People are also more aware of how indoor air quality impacts overall well-being, so they weigh their choices when buying scented or chemical-based goods. Even simple habits, like regularly airing out rooms, can help manage exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-christmas-tree-in-a-chamber">Christmas tree in a chamber</h2>



In the experiment, the researchers placed a decorated tree inside a chamber designed to mimic typical indoor conditions. The lights switched on and off every 12 hours, outside air came in at a realistic pace, and the tree was watered each day.



A specialized instrument called proton-transfer reaction mass spectrometry tracked airborne compounds in real time. This method offers a detailed look at changing levels of chemicals in the air. 



The researchers observed which specific compounds were released during the first few days and how quickly they dropped as time went on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-the-scent">A closer look at the scent</h2>



Monoterpenes emerged as the primary source of the tree’s signature <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-gives-pine-trees-fresh-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aroma</a>. These molecules also show up in fragrant products such as certain air fresheners and scented candles. They spiked early in the study, before tapering off within the first 72 hours.



According to the measurements, the initial concentration of monoterpenes equaled levels found in a freshly built house or a newly opened plug-in air freshener. From there, the emissions dropped by nearly tenfold. 



The scientists noted that 52 different types of monoterpenes appeared, illustrating how varied these natural compounds can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-christmas-trees-and-ozone">Christmas trees and ozone</h2>



The team also introduced ozone to see if it would interact with the tree’s emissions. Ozone near ground level can form through chemical reactions triggered by light. Outdoors, it has been linked to coughing and throat irritation when levels become elevated.



In the chamber, ozone caused monoterpenes to transform into new byproducts. One of these compounds was formaldehyde, measured at about one part per billion in this setup. That number is much smaller compared to the 20 to 30 parts per billion typically found in U.S. houses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indoor-air-perspectives">Indoor air perspectives</h2>



For some individuals, the rush of VOCs from a freshly displayed tree can lead to mild respiratory responses. The watery eyes or runny nose often show up during the initial phase when emissions peak. Opening a window can help if these symptoms arise.



Outside of that, the changes in indoor air chemistry did not reach levels likely to raise alarms. The data indicated that although there was a clear spike in certain compounds, normal ventilation methods were effective at dispersing them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-steps-to-avoid-issues">Simple steps to avoid issues</h2>



People who prefer a newly cut tree might consider leaving it outside or in a garage for about three days before setting it up indoors. The intensity of monoterpene emissions falls naturally during that waiting period, which can lessen any initial surge.



Keeping doors or windows ajar, especially when first moving the tree into a living area, also allows any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-household-products-expose-people-to-dangerous-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lingering chemicals</a> to escape. These small adjustments may help families enjoy a traditional tree without worrying about minor discomforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-context-for-the-season">Context for the season</h2>



The investigators pursued this research to fill knowledge gaps about how natural decorations might affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioengineered-super-plant-acts-as-natural-indoor-air-purifier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">indoor air</a>. The study, published in the journal Indoor Environments, highlights the dynamic relationship between conifer emissions and everyday living spaces.



Beyond Douglas fir trees, many items in our homes give off VOCs that shape the air we breathe. Recognizing the major sources can guide practical ways to manage them, whether through better ventilation or careful selection of household products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awareness-of-indoor-air-quality">Awareness of indoor air quality </h2>



For those concerned about VOCs, the biggest wave of tree-related emissions occurs early on. Poppendieck advises airing out the living area if irritation becomes noticeable. He also notes that storing the tree for a bit in a cooler spot often eases the transition.



"But for most people, this shouldn't be a major concern. I'm still going to have a Christmas tree in my house," said Poppendieck.



For some, the fresh scent of a real tree remains a part of the season. Awareness of indoor air quality tips can keep the experience enjoyable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2950362023000024?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indoor Environments</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Christmas trees and VOCs: The source of that fresh, clean holiday smell

Every holiday season, Americans buy nearly 30 million live Christmas...

Star formation takes center stage this holiday season as space telescopes unveil breathtaking images of stellar nurseries. Among these discoveries is a dazzling star cluster known as NGC 602, which resembles a festive wreath floating in the cosmos.



Made up of stars, dust, and cosmic gases, this celestial formation offers not only visual splendor but also a unique opportunity to study the processes that shaped the early universe. 



Scientists at NASA and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory combined data from the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the James Webb Space Telescope to reveal the intricate details of this stunning cluster that is nestled within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/open-star-cluster-in-the-small-magellanic-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Small Magellanic Cloud</a>, a neighboring galaxy located 200,000 light-years away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-laboratory-for-star-formation">A natural laboratory for star formation</h2>



This cosmic wreath isn't just pretty to look at - it's a treasure trove of scientific insights that teaches us about the intricate processes behind <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/serpens-nebula-image-reveals-how-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how stars are born</a> and develop over time.



The stars in NGC 602, with their significantly lower heavy element content (when compared to our Sun), closely resemble the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient stars</a> that existed billions of years ago in the early universe.



This unique characteristic makes the cluster an unparalleled natural laboratory for astronomers, allowing them to study early star formation under conditions that mirror those of a much younger cosmos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-wreath-made-of-stars">Cosmic wreath made of stars</h2>



The wreath shape comes from dense clouds of dust that are visible in the Webb telescope data as orange, yellow, green, and blue colors.



The <a href="https://chandra.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandra X-ray Observatory</a> adds another layer to our view, showing young, massive stars in red. 



These stars send powerful winds and high-energy light into space, creating an extended cloud that glows with X-rays from thousands of young, low-mass stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-holiday-double-feature-the-christmas-tree-cluster">Holiday double feature: The Christmas tree cluster</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-telescopes-can-directly-detect-signs-of-alien-life-in-exoplanet-atmospheres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space telescopes</a> didn't stop with the festive wreath visual. They also captured fresh images of NGC 2264, which is nicknamed the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-christmas-tree-captured-by-nasas-chandra-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Christmas Tree Cluster</a>."



This stellar grouping is much closer to Earth - just 2,500 light-years away - and contains stars that are between one and five million years old.



To put that in perspective, these stars are babies compared to our sun, which is about 5 billion years old.



The new view of NGC 2264 combines Chandra's X-ray data (shown in red, purple, blue, and white) with optical observations in green and violet. 



These optical images were taken by astrophotographer Michael Clow using his telescope in Arizona in November 2024.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-technology-behind-the-discovery">The technology behind the discovery</h2>



These observations showcase the power of combining different types of telescopes. 



While the Chandra X-ray Observatory operates under NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, its science operations are managed by the Chandra X-ray Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with flight operations running from Burlington, Massachusetts.



These stellar formations remind us that, even in the cold vastness of space, we can find familiar shapes that connect with our human experience and help us understand the universe around us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-and-evolving-galaxies">Star formation and evolving galaxies</h2>



Star formation is one of the most&nbsp;basic&nbsp;processes&nbsp;for astronomers to understand. It is this process that helps shape evolving galaxies.



Stars are&nbsp;formed&nbsp;in dense clouds of gas and dust, commonly&nbsp;referred to as stellar nurseries, where gravitational forces cause the materials to collapse and instigate nuclear fusion in their cores.



This process not only&nbsp;produces&nbsp;light and heat but also forges the&nbsp;heavy elements that will become building blocks for planets and life itself.



By studying star formation in clusters like NGC 602, scientists can trace the cosmic history of element creation and distribution throughout the universe. 



Observing these processes in regions with varying conditions, such as low-metallicity environments, allows astronomers to refine their models of how stars form, evolve, and influence their surroundings over time.



All&nbsp;this&nbsp;helps&nbsp;in&nbsp;understanding&nbsp;how, during their life cycles, the&nbsp;stars&nbsp;evolve&nbsp;into supernovae, black holes, or neutron stars and assume&nbsp;a&nbsp;very&nbsp;important&nbsp;role in the dynamic interplay of cosmic forces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



The insights gained from such research go beyond astronomy, influencing other scientific fields like physics and chemistry. 



Understanding how stars and their planetary systems develop can even inform our search for life on other worlds. 



Star formation, therefore, is not just about the birth of stars - it’s a key to unlocking the broader story of the universe itself.



Image Credit: Chandra X-ray Center



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dazzling star cluster creates a cosmic holiday wreath

Star formation takes center stage this holiday season as space...

Picture a landscape on Mars where frost covers the ground, and the crisp sound of icy surfaces breaking underfoot fills the air. Above, sunlight filters through clouds mixed with ice and dust, creating a warm, golden glow. This is the Australe Scopuli region, located at the southern pole of Mars.



It offers a striking contrast - its alien features are shaped by the Red Planet's unique environment, yet its serene beauty evokes scenes that feel almost Earth-like.



This blend of the otherworldly and the familiar makes it a captivating subject for scientific exploration and visual fascination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-australe-scopuli-unique-polar-landscape-on-mars">Australe Scopuli: Unique polar landscape on Mars</h2>



The High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) aboard the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Express</a>&nbsp;captured stunning images of Australe Scopuli, displaying its distinctive polar deposits.



This region lies near the "cryptic terrain," a puzzling area previously explored by few scientists. Here, layers of carbon dioxide ice and dust swirl together, creating a white, frosty terrain that contrasts sharply with the iconic red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mars-became-uninhabitable-after-being-life-supporting-ocean-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian soil</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_south-pole_Australe-Scopuli-region_frost_ice_Mars-Express_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_south-pole_Australe-Scopuli-region_frost_ice_Mars-Express_1s.webp" alt="Swirls of light and dark layers mark the boundaries between ice and dust layers exposed in this icy scene from the Australe Scopuli region of Mars. The right side of the image has a lot of ice coverage compared with the left hand side that has numerous dark fan-shaped deposits tracing the horizontal layers. Credit: Mars Express/ESA" class="wp-image-1954353"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Swirls of light and dark layers mark the boundaries between ice and dust layers exposed in this icy scene from the Australe Scopuli region of Mars. The right side of the image has a lot of ice coverage compared with the left hand side that has numerous dark fan-shaped deposits tracing the horizontal layers. Credit: Mars Express/ESA</figcaption></figure>



These layered polar deposits result from seasonal cycles, with ice forming and trapping varying amounts of dust. 



The contrasting light and dark layers are particularly visible on hills and in valleys, painting the landscape with striking textures.



When viewed through 3D glasses, the region’s topography resembles Earthly ski resorts, with smooth slopes, sharp turns, and steep hillsides.



But skiing on Mars would require preparation for extreme cold: temperatures here plunge to a bone-chilling -125°C (-193°F).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-seasons-and-martian-spiders">Changing seasons and Martian "spiders"</h2>



The images, taken on June 16, 2022, during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-water-found-on-mars-would-cover-the-planet-over-one-mile-deep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> summer solstice, showcase how Mars’s southern pole transitions with the changing seasons.



Dark patches in the imagery reveal areas where carbon dioxide ice has sublimated, a process where the ice turns directly from solid to vapor without melting.



This sublimation is driven by sunlight, which warms the ice. As the ice evaporates, it leaves behind trails of dark dust spread across the surface. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_south-pole_Australe-Scopuli-region_perspective_Mars-Express_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_south-pole_Australe-Scopuli-region_perspective_Mars-Express_1s.webp" alt="Perspective view across undulating terrain at the Australe Scopuli region of Mars, with exposed layers of ice and dust. Numerous dark dusty fan-shaped features follow the pattern of the layers. Credit: Mars Express/ESA" class="wp-image-1954355"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Perspective view across undulating terrain at the Australe Scopuli region of Mars, with exposed layers of ice and dust. Numerous dark dusty fan-shaped features follow the pattern of the layers. Credit: Mars Express/ESA</figcaption></figure>



These fan-shaped patterns, sculpted by prevailing winds, provide a remarkable look at the seasonal dynamics in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-pulls-earth-closer-to-the-sun-warming-our-climate-scientists-say/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>'s polar regions.



As summer progresses, sunlight penetrates the translucent carbon dioxide ice, heating the ground beneath it. This leads to the formation of gas pockets as the underlying ice sublimates. 



When the gas pressure becomes too high, the ice cracks, releasing bursts of gas and dust into the atmosphere. These jets create fan-shaped deposits that can stretch for hundreds of meters.



This process resembles the formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marss-space-debris-should-be-regarded-as-historical-artifacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> "spiders," another fascinating feature observed in recent&nbsp;Mars Express imagery, where similar sublimation mechanisms create spider-like patterns on the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-australe-scopuli-of-mars">Dynamic Australe Scopuli of Mars</h2>



A detailed look at Australe Scopuli shows that the dust jets typically emerge along the edges of layered polar deposits. These boundaries may act as fragile zones, allowing the jets to break through with less resistance.



This phenomenon, shaped by seasonal temperature changes and the region’s topography, creates a dynamic and evolving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-samples-from-mars-could-reveal-fascinating-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> landscape. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_south-pole_Australe-Scopuli-region_topography_Mars-Express_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mars_south-pole_Australe-Scopuli-region_topography_Mars-Express_1s.webp" alt="A topography map of Australe Scopuli region of Mars color-coded according to relative heights. The scale goes from red (highest terrain) through yellow, green, blue and purple (lowest terrain). Credit: Mars Express/ESA" class="wp-image-1954357"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A topography map of Australe Scopuli region of Mars color-coded according to relative heights. The scale goes from red (highest terrain) through yellow, green, blue and purple (lowest terrain). Credit: Mars Express/ESA</figcaption></figure>



The interplay between the shifting ice and dust patterns highlights the complexity of Mars’s natural processes.



Although building a snowman on Mars might not be possible, the Australe Scopuli region captures the essence of the planet’s unique beauty. 



It offers scientists and explorers a fascinating glimpse into the changing polar environment of the Red Planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-images">Science behind the images</h2>



The HRSC on&nbsp;Mars Express&nbsp;is a remarkable piece of engineering, designed and developed by the German Aerospace Center (DLR).



After the camera captured detailed images of Mars, the <a href="https://www.dlr.de/en/pf/about-us/departments" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DLR Institute for Planetary Research</a> in Berlin-Adlershof processed the data. 



Using this data, the Planetary Science and Remote Sensing group at <a href="https://www.fu-berlin.de/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Freie Universität Berlin</a> created the stunning final images we see today.



In conclusion, the images of Australe Scopuli offer much more than just stunning visuals of the Martian southern pole. 



They serve as powerful proof of the intricate and ever-changing processes that sculpt the Red Planet's icy polar regions.



Every layer of ice and dust preserved in these photographs tells a unique story about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-makes-surprising-find-under-martian-rock-sulfur-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>'s geological and climatic history. 



By studying these features in detail, researchers can piece together the planet's evolving climate and uncover the mysteries of its geological past.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

White Christmas on Mars and its changing polar landscapes

Picture a landscape on Mars where frost covers the ground,...

The solar system, billions of years old, holds many secrets about its formation. Among its fascinating residents is Chiron, a centaur orbiting between Jupiter and Neptune. 



New findings by scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) shed light on this hybrid of comet and asteroid, revealing unprecedented insights into its surface chemistry and activity.



The study was led by Dr. Noemí Pinilla-Alonso of the University of Oviedo and Dr. Charles Schambeau from the University of Central Florida (UCF). Their findings could reshape our understanding of centaurs and the solar system’s early history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-capsules-of-the-solar-system">Time capsules of the solar system </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-objects-called-centaurs-29p-continue-to-perplex-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centaurs</a> are objects with dual characteristics, straddling the line between asteroids and comets. 



Chiron, discovered in 1977, is unique even among centaurs. It exhibits comet-like behavior, including a coma - a cloud of gas and dust - alongside distinct surface and interior features.



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso emphasizes that centaurs act as “time capsules,” preserving information about the solar system’s formation. "All small bodies in the solar system talk to us about how it was back in time,” she explained. 



Chiron’s activity, driven by solar heating, offers a rare opportunity to explore these preserved secrets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-chemical-diversity-in-a-centaur">Unprecedented chemical diversity in a centaur</h2>



Using <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>, the team discovered that Chiron's surface hosts carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide ice. Its coma contains methane and other gases, marking the first detection of such diversity in a centaur. 



“These results are like nothing we’ve seen before,” noted Dr. Schambeau from <a href="https://www.ucf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCF</a>.



JWST’s advanced capabilities allowed the researchers to study Chiron even at its farthest point from the Sun. This distance usually limits the activity of similar objects, such as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs).



Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comet-will-be-visible-for-the-first-time-in-50000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a> closer to the Sun, Chiron’s thinner coma offers clearer insights into its surface chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chiron-s-ice-and-gas-dynamics">Chiron's ice and gas dynamics</h2>



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso noted that Chiron’s dual nature makes it invaluable for studying processes in both comets and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-large-asteroids-will-pass-near-earth-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroids</a>. 



"What is unique about Chiron is that we can observe both the surface and the coma,” she said.



This dual observation provides critical information about the ice layer's thickness, porosity, and chemical properties.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2060-Chiron_coma_asteroid-comet-hybrid_credit-USF_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2060-Chiron_coma_asteroid-comet-hybrid_credit-USF_1s.webp" alt="Artist's impression of 2060 Chiron, an active centaur, surrounded by a faint disc of debris. Bright icy deposits and active areas are visible on its surface. Credtis: William D. González Sierra of the Florida Space Institute, University of Central Florida." class="wp-image-1954508"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artist's impression of 2060 Chiron, an active centaur, surrounded by a faint disc of debris. Bright icy deposits and active areas are visible on its surface. Credtis: William D. González Sierra of the Florida Space Institute, University of Central Florida.</figcaption></figure>



JWST’s observations revealed the coexistence of primordial ices, such as methane and water, and newer compounds formed through surface processes. 



“Every active centaur we observe shows some peculiarity,” said Dr. Pinilla-Alonso. Understanding these peculiarities may uncover patterns across these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-lifetime-comet-will-be-easily-visible-this-month/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enigmatic objects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-oddball-among-centaurs">An oddball among centaurs</h2>



Chiron stands out due to its unusual behavior, including comet-like activity and potential rings of debris. 



Dr. Schambeau describes it as “an oddball” with a unique thermophysical process. He analyzed methane in Chiron’s coma, linking its outflow to sun-heated regions on its surface.



These findings deepen our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2060-chiron_debris-disk_asteroid-comet-hybrid_credit-USF_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">centaurs’ evolution and behavior</a>. 



Chiron’s dynamic environment provides clues about how solar heating influences its surface and subsurface, offering a glimpse into processes shaping similar bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-and-future-of-chiron">Origins and future of Chiron</h2>



Chiron likely originated in the TNO region before moving into its current orbit. Gravitational interactions with giant planets alter the paths of centaurs, exposing them to varied environments.



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso explained that centaurs typically remain in the giant planets’ region for about a million years before being ejected. “They may end their lives as Jupiter Family comets or return to the TNOs region."



Chiron’s journey across the solar system exposes it to solar radiation, driving surface changes and creating its unique chemical composition. 



Understanding this evolution provides valuable insights into the early solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-chiron-s-discovery">Broader implications of Chiron’s discovery</h2>



The study’s implications extend beyond Chiron. Identifying gases and ices on distant objects enhances our understanding of the solar system’s building blocks. 



These findings could also inform future research on centaurs and other icy bodies.



Dr. Pinilla-Alonso noted that JWST’s spectra revealed intricate details about Chiron’s ices and their interactions. "Based on our new JWST data, I’m not so sure we have a standard centaur."



Further studies may uncover shared traits among centaurs, offering a clearer picture of their origins and diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-more-about-centaurs">Learning more about centaurs</h2>



The researchers from <a href="https://www.uniovi.es" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oviedo</a> and UCF plan to continue observing Chiron as it approaches the Sun.



Closer proximity will enable more detailed studies of its surface and coma, potentially uncovering new chemical and physical properties.



Future research may also explore seasonal variations and illumination effects on Chiron’s ice reservoir. Such studies could refine our understanding of how centaurs interact with their environments and evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-mysteries-of-the-solar-system">Unveiling the mysteries of the solar system</h2>



The JWST, an international collaboration led by NASA, has revolutionized space science. 



Its ability to observe distant objects like Chiron is solving long-standing mysteries about the solar system and beyond. These discoveries highlight the telescope’s transformative impact on planetary science.



“JWST has made these detections accessible. These results enhance our understanding of Chiron’s interior composition and its unique behaviors,” concluded Dr. Schambeau.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-solar-system-exploration">New chapter in solar system exploration</h2>



Chiron’s unique chemistry and activity mark a significant milestone in understanding the solar system’s origins. 



The ongoing research, powered by JWST’s capabilities, promises to unravel more secrets about this enigmatic centaur and its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">counterparts</a>.



Through Chiron, scientists are not just uncovering the past - they are laying the groundwork for future exploration of icy bodies across the solar system.



“The analysis of Chiron’s gases and ices opens new frontiers and opportunities for exciting research,” said Dr. Pinilla-Alonso.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/12/aa50124-24/aa50124-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Asteroid-comet hybrid named "Chiron" is unlike anything ever seen before

The solar system, billions of years old, holds many secrets...

Looks,Like,Reversed,Infinity,Time,Spiral,,Digital,Generated,Image,With

It is widely known among scientists that light sometimes appears to exit a material before it has even entered. This odd "negative time" phenomenon was long seen as an illusion caused by the way waves become distorted by matter. 



Over time, many considered it a harmless quirk of physics, dismissed without much further investigation. Now, fresh experiments suggest that this behavior might carry deeper implications related to "negative time."



Researchers recently posted findings on the preprint server arXiv, drawing global interest and some reservations about what it all means.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-time-is-no-longer-theoretical">"Negative time" is no longer theoretical</h2>



Aephraim Steinberg, a <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a> professor in experimental quantum physics, has seen how people can misunderstand discussions about negative time.



"This is tough stuff, even for us to talk about with other physicists. We get misunderstood all the time," he said. His team contends that negative time is not just theoretical but may exist in a measurable way.



They remain cautious in describing their experiments, emphasizing that the results reflect a subtle effect in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a>. 



"That time turned out to be negative," Steinberg explained. Their data points to strange interactions between light and matter that defy everyday assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-quirks">Quantum quirks</h2>



Their basement lab brims with mirrors, wires, and delicate lasers that track how photons interact with atoms. 



The atoms sometimes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/precise-shape-of-single-photon-light-revealed-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">absorb photons</a> and later emit them, leaving the atoms in an excited state for a short period. Measuring this period was tricky, and to many, it sounded like it might flirt with impossibilities.



Steinberg and graduate student Daniela Angulo focused on the short time atoms remain excited. By collecting data on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-photons-fascinating-behavior-in-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atoms emit absorbed light</a>, they uncovered intervals that appeared less than zero. 



"We don't want to say anything traveled backward in time," Steinberg said. "That's a misinterpretation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-time-doesn-t-violate-reality">"Negative time" doesn't violate reality</h2>



Investigations into quantum phenomena often spark worry about collisions with Einstein's theory of special relativity. 



Yet nothing in these experiments hints that any object can outrun light. Photons here do not convey information faster than physical laws permit, so there is no conflict with long-accepted principles.



Some have questioned whether labeling this interval as negative time might invite confusion. 



The team is aware that such language can sound surreal, but they believe it captures the unusual nature of quantum measurements that drift from usual expectations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photons-and-probabilities">Photons and probabilities</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-dance-entangled-photons-wave-functions-captured-real-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photons have a split personality</a>, sometimes acting like particles and other times behaving like waves. 



They follow probability rules that let them appear in multiple states at once, prompting a range of possible outcomes. This fuzziness underpins the notion that events do not always fit into a neat timeline.



In standard settings, photons pass through materials in ways consistent with well-established physics. 



But in the group’s experiments, certain measurements produce results that slip into territory most would never predict. 



These findings spark curiosity about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a> can present effects that appear at odds with common sense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reactions-and-skepticism">Reactions and skepticism</h2>



The concept has captured the attention of many, including German theoretical physicist <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ErLHm-1c6I4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sabine Hossenfelder</a>, who remains unimpressed. 



"The negative time in this experiment has nothing to do with the passage of time -- it's just a way to describe how photons travel through a medium and how their phases shift," she said in a YouTube video with more than 250,000 views.



Some observers suspect the term negative time is too dramatic and misrepresents the study’s scope. Others argue that a fresh approach could encourage deeper conversations about how quantum processes unfold. 



The researchers maintain they are not rewriting the rules of physics but aiming to highlight the weirdness at play in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-tunneling-allow-particles-break-light-speed-barrier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fundamental experiments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-negative-time-studies">Next steps for "negative time" studies</h2>



"We've made our choice about what we think is a fruitful way to describe the results," Steinberg said, adding that while practical applications remain elusive, the findings open new avenues for exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum phenomena</a>. 



He acknowledged that many remain skeptical, but he insists the numbers speak for themselves. No serious criticism has challenged their raw data.



"I'll be honest, I don't currently have a path from what we've been looking at toward applications," Steinberg admitted. "We're going to keep thinking about it, but I don't want to get people's hopes up."



Whether the idea of negative time transforms into something with everyday uses remains to be seen, yet the curiosity it sparks is hard to ignore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



To sum it all up, quantum physics has always pushed boundaries, forcing researchers to adjust old assumptions. 



These experiments from the University of Toronto team serve as another reminder that the world behaves in ways that do not always match common intuition. Still, they stress that no claims of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time travel</a> are on the table.



By presenting evidence that something can measure out to less than zero time, these researchers have challenged expectations about how light interacts with matter. 



For now, the puzzle remains a subject of debate. Unraveling the enigma might take further studies, but many agree that investigating such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/google-record-shattering-quantum-ai-chip-accesses-parallel-universes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bizarre possibilities</a> is part of the ongoing effort to understand quantum reality.



The results highlight how experiments can produce outcomes that differ from conventional thinking. Negative intervals in absorption times remain an intriguing piece of a much broader puzzle.



Scientists continue to refine experiments and weigh alternative explanations. Despite lingering questions, the project stands as a reminder that quantum behavior can seem downright strange, to put it mildly.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2409.03680" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

"Negative time" observed in new quantum experiments, surprising scientists

It is widely known among scientists that light sometimes appears...

The Baltic Sea, one of the world’s youngest bodies of water, has long been known to host Atlantic and Baltic herring - plankton-eating fish critical to northern marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



Yet new research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-55216-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, has uncovered a surprising adaptation in this environment: genetically distinct, fish-eating Baltic herring (Sardinops sagax caerulea). 



Conducted by scientists at <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a> in Sweden, the study challenges traditional assumptions about how Baltic herring evolved and found new ecological niches in brackish waters formed at the end of the last Ice Age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herring-in-the-baltic-sea">Herring in the Baltic Sea</h2>



Herring serve a crucial function in the Atlantic Ocean and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-thallium-levels-are-rising-in-the-baltic-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baltic Sea</a>, transferring energy from plankton up the food chain to predatory fish, seabirds, marine mammals, and humans. 



Previous studies by the Uppsala group had already established that herring populations adapt genetically to variations in climate, salinity, and spawning seasons.&nbsp;



However, the newly discovered fish-eating Baltic herring adds an intriguing twist: these larger individuals exhibit distinct biological and genetic characteristics that set them apart from the traditional plankton-eating varieties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-baltic-herring-enigma">The Baltic herring enigma</h2>



Renowned Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus once defined the Baltic herring as a subspecies of the Atlantic herring, specifically adapted to the Baltic’s brackish waters. Over the centuries, scientists have consistently noted how Baltic herring are generally smaller and contain less fat than their Atlantic relatives.&nbsp;



But when a local fisherman near Uppsala spoke of a large herring “that always spawns just before midsummer and which is as big as the Atlantic herring,” questions arose as to whether a previously unidentified herring population existed within the Baltic.



The study was led by Leif Andersson, a professor at the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology at Uppsala University.



“When I learned that the locals are aware of a specific population of very large Baltic herring that always spawns in the same area year after year, I decided to sample and explore their genetic constitution,” said Professor Andersson.&nbsp;



“Now we know that this is a genetically unique population that must have evolved over hundreds, if not thousands, of years in the Baltic Sea.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-to-a-fish-based-diet">Switching to a fish-based diet</h2>



By collecting samples of these large herring, researchers noticed striking differences from the smaller, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-at-risk-global-warming-threatens-the-oceans-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a>-eating Baltic herring. 



Physical examinations, growth measurements, and fat-content analyses revealed that the larger herring contain higher levels of fat and show signs of damaged gill rakers - features aligning with a switch from filtering plankton to eating fish such as the common stickleback, which has sharp defensive spines.



According to the scientists, the relatively low dioxin content makes this fish-eating Baltic herring interesting for human consumption. With a faster growth rate and lower pollutant load, the fish-eating herring may offer both ecological and nutritional advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-two-genetic-subpopulations">Uncovering two genetic subpopulations</h2>



Once it became clear that these larger Baltic herring were genetically distinct, the scientists expanded their focus, comparing samples of big herring from different Baltic locations. Whole genome sequencing confirmed that these fish fall into two separate subpopulations.



“Our genetic analysis demonstrates that there are at least two distinct subpopulations of fish-eating herring in the Baltic Sea; one occurs north of Stockholm, and the other occurs south of Stockholm,” said lead author Jake Goodall, a researcher at Uppsala University.&nbsp;



By identifying multiple genetic groups, the study reveals even greater diversity within the Baltic herring gene pool than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fish-eating-herring-evolved-in-the-baltic">Why fish-eating herring evolved in the Baltic</h2>



The Baltic Sea, with salinity levels far lower than the Atlantic’s, has existed for only around 8,000 years. Such an environment is inhospitable to many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-disrupts-the-distribution-of-marine-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a>, and only a select few have successfully established populations there. 



The researchers propose that fish-eating herring have emerged due to a scarcity of competing predators, making it advantageous for some herring to exploit fish as a food source.



“We hypothesize that fish-eating Baltic herring have evolved due to a lack of competition from other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predatory fish</a>, for instance, mackerel and tuna, which do not occur where we find fish-eating herring,” said Andersson.



“Thus, these herring take advantage of an underutilised food resource in the Baltic Sea.”



The ability to feed on smaller fish rather than plankton likely opened an ecological niche that larger herring could occupy, capitalizing on prey that other species could not exploit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-ecosystems-and-human-needs">Balancing ecosystems and human needs</h2>



The emergence of fish-eating Baltic herring underscores the Baltic Sea’s capacity to foster evolutionary innovations. As a keystone species, herring regulate energy flow in their ecosystem.&nbsp;



The discovery of these large, fish-feeding populations highlights the adaptability of herring to different diets, environmental pressures, and competition. It also suggests that such herring may provide a safer, fattier food option for consumers, given their comparatively lower dioxin levels.



These insights could inform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-gets-a-boost-from-genomics-roadmap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishery management</a> and conservation strategies, ensuring that as the Baltic continues to evolve, both ecosystem integrity and human consumption interests remain aligned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-evolutionary-change-of-baltic-herring-nbsp">Rapid evolutionary change of Baltic herring&nbsp;</h2>



Because the Baltic Sea is geologically recent, this discovery showcases how quickly species can adapt to novel conditions.&nbsp;



The fish-eating herring’s genetic distinctiveness, alongside significant physical and dietary differences, underlines the dynamic nature of evolution in brackish environments.&nbsp;



For scientists and policymakers, these findings serve as a reminder that even seemingly uniform species can harbor hidden diversity essential for resilience in changing waters.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rapid evolution in the Baltic Sea: How herring became fish-eaters

The Baltic Sea, one of the world’s youngest bodies of...

As the holiday season approaches, homes worldwide are decorated with evergreen conifers like spruce and pine. Beyond spreading warmth and joy as Christmas trees, these resilient conifers thrive in harsh natural environments - enduring everything from frigid winters to intense sunlight in boreal forests.



Scientists at Umeå University are shedding light on how these remarkable trees endure such adversities and remain lush and green year-round.



The experts found that conifers possess unique adaptations that allow them to thrive in some of the planet's most challenging environments.



The findings not only deepen our understanding of conifers but also hint at potential applications in conservation and crop resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-conifers-the-basics">Understanding conifers -- the basics</h2>



Conifer trees are some of the most recognizable and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-some-leaves-live-longer-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evergreen giants</a> you’ll find in forests around the world. Think of pine, spruce, fir, and cedar trees with their needle-like leaves and sturdy cones. 



These trees are well adapted to various climates, especially colder and drier regions, because their shape helps them shed snow and conserve water.



Conifers have been around for millions of years, dominating many landscapes long before flowering plants took the stage. 



Their evergreen nature means they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-changes-what-happens-to-boreal-forests-after-fire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stay green</a> all year round, providing a constant splash of color even during the bleakest winters.



Beyond their striking appearance, conifer trees play a crucial role in the environment and our daily lives. They are vital for producing oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide, helping to combat climate change. 



The wood from conifers is used in building everything from homes to paper products, making them <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-trees-are-best-at-purifying-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">essential to many industries</a>. 



Plus, conifer forests are home to countless wildlife species, offering habitats and food sources for animals like birds, squirrels, and deer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photosynthesis-strategies-of-conifers">Photosynthesis strategies of conifers</h2>



The process of photosynthesis is conserved across most plants, yet conifers exhibit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distinct strategies</a> that set them apart. 



One such adaptation is a structural change in their thylakoid membranes - the sites where photosynthesis occurs. During winter, Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII), typically separated in most plants, come closer together in a phenomenon known as spill-over.



"This helps them to safely dissipate extra energy and avoid damage from too much sunlight in the cold," explained Stefan Jansson, a professor in the <a href="https://www.upsc.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå Plant Science Center</a>.



This mechanism prevents excess light from overwhelming their photosynthetic machinery, enabling them to survive harsh winters unscathed.



Previously, researchers referred to this process as "sustained quenching," likening it to a photosynthetic lockdown. However, the precise mechanism remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-electron-flow">Alternative electron flow</h2>



In addition to spill-over, conifers possess a second survival strategy: alternative electron flow - a key aspect of their resilience in harsh winter environments.



This method involves the use of&nbsp;flavodiiron proteins, which redirect electrons during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-cleverly-adapt-to-withstand-storms-and-high-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. This redirection ensures that the photosynthetic system remains balanced, even when faced with intense sunlight and freezing temperatures.



Alternative electron flow acts as a backup mechanism to handle excess energy, preventing the photosynthetic machinery from becoming overloaded and damaged. 



This is particularly critical in winter when sunlight can be strong but the freezing conditions make energy dissipation challenging.



Together with&nbsp;spill-over, where Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII) collaborate to dissipate extra energy, these strategies form a dual defense system. 



Spill-over reduces the risk of light-induced damage, while alternative electron flow maintains the system's stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-adaptations-of-conifers">Unique adaptations of conifers</h2>



Conifers' photosynthetic apparatus also diverges from that of flowering plants (angiosperms) in other significant ways. 



For instance, they lack certain light-harvesting proteins found in angiosperms. This unique configuration might explain why conifers thrive in nutrient-poor, cold, and water-scarce environments.



"All together, this can explain why conifers are the dominant species in boreal forests, thriving where few others can, perhaps at the expense of advantages during less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-in-the-wrong-place-can-make-cities-hotter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenging conditions</a>," noted Pushan Bag, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-crop-resilience">Implications for crop resilience </h2>



Understanding the survival mechanisms of conifers goes beyond academic curiosity. As the climate changes, insights into how conifers adapt to extreme conditions may inform conservation strategies and predict forest responses to new environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-diversity-makes-forests-more-resilient-against-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a>.



These findings could also guide the development of crops that are resilient to extreme weather, ensuring food security in an unpredictable future.



"This paper highlights the intricate adaptations of conifers to extreme winter conditions. By combining structural, molecular, and evolutionary insights, it advances our understanding of how these trees have come to dominate some of the harshest ecosystems on Earth," said study co-author Alexander Ivanov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incredible-resilience-of-conifers">Incredible resilience of conifers</h2>



Conifers’ ability to adapt and thrive in severe conditions is a proof of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-in-big-trouble-and-scientists-are-sounding-the-alarm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature's ingenuity</a>. Their unique photosynthetic strategies, refined over millennia, ensure their survival in environments where most plants would falter.



As researchers continue to explore these mechanisms, they uncover not only the secrets of these hardy evergreens but also pathways to address pressing challenges like climate change and food insecurity.



This festive season, as you admire the beauty of a Christmas tree, take a moment to appreciate the incredible resilience and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary brilliance</a> of conifers. 



They are not just symbols of joy and celebration but also living proof of nature's ability to overcome adversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/fulltext/S1360-1385(24)00300-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Plant Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Christmas trees have unique strategies to survive harsh winters

As the holiday season approaches, homes worldwide are decorated with...

The world’s largest iceberg has astonished scientists by shaking free from a spinning ocean trap and continuing its trek across remote southern waters.



Its journey, marked by twists and turns since it separated from Antarctica, has become a focus for research on the changing ocean and the ice’s influence on life beneath the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a23a-iceberg-breaks-free">A23a iceberg breaks free</h2>



The icy slab covers about 1,418 square miles, which makes it bigger than Rhode Island. 



It originally broke away from <a href="https://eros.usgs.gov/earthshots/filchner-ice-shelf-antarctica" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica’s Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf</a> in 1986 and remained stuck close to the continent for decades. 



Ocean currents and seafloor topography restricted its path. After finally regaining momentum last year, the towering block ran into a swirling formation of water near the <a href="https://www.ndsu.edu/subantarctic/southorkney.htm">South Orkney Islands</a>, where it ended up spinning in place for months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-iceberg-movements-in-the-ocean">Tracking iceberg movements in the ocean</h2>



“It’s exciting to see A23a on the move again after periods of being stuck,” said <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/media-post/worlds-largest-iceberg-a23a-breaks-free/">Dr Andrew Meijers</a>, an oceanographer at the British Antarctic Survey.



Ocean experts have been monitoring this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-iceberg-a23a-undergoing-major-erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg’s</a> every move to understand how such massive blocks can influence sea circulation, temperature balance, and the distribution of nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-for-the-a23a-iceberg">New chapter for the A23a iceberg</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-an-iceberg-a-83-breaks-free-from-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg’s</a> latest departure from its watery prison has stirred up fresh discussions about its fate. 



As it progresses northward, warmer seas may take a toll on its bulk. Many large ice masses follow a similar route before gradually disintegrating. Scientists emphasize that ice already afloat in the water does not raise sea levels when it melts. That does not mean these events should be dismissed, though, since Antarctica’s overall health is a concern in a warming world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a23a-iceberg-and-its-ocean-impacts-nbsp">A23a iceberg and its ocean impacts&nbsp;</h2>



Researchers have pointed out that although this particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iceberg-that-weighs-more-than-the-eiffel-tower-is-floating-freely/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iceberg</a> calved naturally, Antarctic ice shelves are showing other, more concerning changes.



Experts worry that accelerated ice loss in certain areas could have far-reaching effects. Even small changes along coastal regions of the continent can result in shifts in glacial flow, which might eventually lead to an uptick in sea-level rise. 



Data gathered from icebergs like A23a helps build a clearer picture of these wider trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystems-under-the-ice">Ecosystems under the ice</h2>



Observations have shown that drifting ice blocks can stir the waters they pass through, sometimes generating short-lived plankton blooms. 



These blooms support fish, krill, and other marine life in areas that might otherwise lack resources. "These icebergs provide different sources of nutrients," explained Professor <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/profile/gant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geraint Tarling</a>, Biopole's principal investigator. By sampling the water where the giant iceberg has traveled, scientists hope to gauge whether this berg’s size and origin play a notable part in shaping ocean communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-holds">What the future holds</h2>



Many anticipate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a23a-worlds-largest-iceberg-is-moving-after-30-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A23a</a> will continue meandering through the Southern Ocean currents. As it ventures closer to milder latitudes, the ice is expected to weaken and break into smaller chunks. 



Some fragments may persist for a while, but the main body of the iceberg will likely diminish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a23a-iceberg-research-enhances-ocean-circulation">A23a iceberg research enhances ocean circulation</h2>



Ongoing research on these gargantuan ice blocks helps experts refine climate models, track ocean circulation patterns, and pinpoint areas most vulnerable to environmental changes. 



Observations from ships, satellites, and on-site measurements all combine to offer a clearer view of what is happening far from major population centers. The hope is that findings from the watery trails left by A23a will guide future decisions on how we manage and protect polar waters and fragile marine habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-lab-for-ocean-studies">Moving lab for ocean studies</h2>



A23a’s odyssey is important because it shows how an individual iceberg can become a moving lab for oceanographers and climate scientists. 



The iceberg's escape from a rotating water column this month hints at nature’s complexity, from shifting ocean currents to unseen underwater topography.



While it has been around for nearly four decades, its path in the coming months may reveal more about the chain reactions set in motion when a piece of Antarctica sets sail for open waters.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World’s largest iceberg breaks free from ocean cyclone

The world’s largest iceberg has astonished scientists by shaking free...

Giant sloths once roamed across much of the Americas. Modern humans often picture sloths as slow animals clinging to tree branches, but their prehistoric relatives weighed more than 8,000 pounds and sometimes reacted aggressively if they felt threatened. At the same time, ancient mastodons grazed across plains and wetlands, forming part of a landscape filled with towering mammals that would turn heads in any museum exhibit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-coexistence-with-sloths">Humans coexistence with sloths</h2>



For many years, scientists believed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-early-humans-first-start-wearing-clothes-and-why-parasites-lice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a> set foot in the Americas around 13,000 years ago and rapidly hunted massive creatures like giant ground sloths and saber-toothed cats into extinction.



This theory, called <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6202698/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleistocene overkill</a>, painted a picture of speedy destruction. 



However, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383692589_Anthropogenic_modification_of_a_giant_ground_sloth_tooth_from_Brazil_supported_by_a_multi-disciplinary_approach" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> from different archaeological sites have recently suggested that people may have arrived much earlier and may have coexisted with these animals for thousands of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-footprints-in-new-mexico">Ancient footprints in New Mexico</h2>



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34554787/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Odess</a>, an archaeologist at White Sands National Park in New Mexico, is among those revisiting the old timeline. 



His team has analyzed evidence from footprints and geological layers that could date <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human presence</a> in North America to more than 20,000 years ago.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/giant-sloth_skeleton_coexisted-with-humans_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/giant-sloth_skeleton_coexisted-with-humans_1s.webp" alt="Giant Ground Sloth skeleton at the Brevard Museum of History and Natural Science. Credit: BMHNS" class="wp-image-1954670"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Giant Ground Sloth skeleton at the Brevard Museum of History and Natural Science. Credit: BMHNS</figcaption></figure>



These footprints appear alongside the tracks of mammoths, giant ground sloths, and other ancient creatures. Some experts question why footprints remain but few other artifacts have turned up. 



Yet the discovery suggests that humans spent many generations adapting to a dramatic environment, rather than simply arriving and wiping out large species in a short period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sloth-fossils-reveal-human-presence">Sloth fossils reveal human presence</h2>



Sloth fossils from <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383692589_Anthropogenic_modification_of_a_giant_ground_sloth_tooth_from_Brazil_supported_by_a_multi-disciplinary_approach" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Santa Elina</a>, an archaeological site in central Brazil, have stirred fresh discussions about the timeline.



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383692589_Anthropogenic_modification_of_a_giant_ground_sloth_tooth_from_Brazil_supported_by_a_multi-disciplinary_approach" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> there have unearthed the fossilized remains of giant ground sloths that show signs of human handiwork. These prehistoric bones feature small holes and polished edges that differ from untouched remains.



“We believe it was intentionally altered and used by ancient people as jewelry or adornment,” said researcher <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mirian-Pacheco" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mírian Pacheco</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jewelry-from-fresh-bones">Jewelry from ‘fresh bones’</h2>



One puzzle centered on whether this jewelry came from old fossils or from bones that were still fresh and relatively new. 



Laboratory analysis suggests these <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Study-area-and-fossil-material-a-Map-of-the-location-of-the-tank-deposit-where-the_fig1_383692589" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sloth bones</a> were shaped and drilled not long after the animals died, hinting at a human presence in South America more than 25,000 years ago. 



Some bones also show dark coloration. Early findings point to possible burning at campfires, though researchers continue to explore alternative explanations, such as chemical changes in the soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debates-and-different-interpretations">Debates and different interpretations</h2>



The site at Santa Elina is only one example among several that point to the idea of an older human presence in the Western Hemisphere. 



In Chile, Monte Verde gained worldwide attention when stone tools and preserved vegetation were <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17773106/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dated to about 14,500 years ago</a>. <a href="https://www.arroyodelvizcaino.org/en/el-lugar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uruguay’s Arroyo del Vizcaíno site</a> has yielded animal bones with possible cut marks that may date back 30,000 years. 



Older dates consistently generate skepticism from some experts. People often ask whether there might be errors in dating techniques or whether non-human processes could explain the markings. Scientists like Odess remain open to these critiques and emphasize that it takes time and multiple confirmations for a hypothesis to gain acceptance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-among-ice-age-giants">Living among Ice Age giants</h2>



As research grows, a new picture emerges of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-felt-emotions-in-unusual-body-parts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a> who spent millennia wandering with mastodons, giant sloths, and other imposing animals. 



Paleontologist <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thais-Pansani-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thais Pansani</a> and her colleagues note that early campsites may have included hearths that left burn marks on large bones.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/american-mastodon_skeleton_coexisted-with-humans_1-1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/american-mastodon_skeleton_coexisted-with-humans_1s.webp" alt="Skeleton of an American mastodon, the elephant's Ice Age relative that went extinct around 13,000 years ago on display at the Natural History Museum in London. Credit: NHM London" class="wp-image-1954668"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Skeleton of an American mastodon, the elephant's Ice Age relative that went extinct around 13,000 years ago on display at the Natural History Museum in London. Credit: NHM London</figcaption></figure>



These details give us a sense of daily life in a time when massive creatures ambled across landscapes quite different from modern farms and highways.



Although the popular view once held that people showed up and immediately caused extinctions, the latest findings propose a longer period of coexistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-disrupted-habitats">Climate shifts disrupted habitats</h2>



If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wooden-structure-completely-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a> arrived earlier, why didn’t they drive giant mammals to immediate extinction? Scientists have started to suggest a wider web of factors, including changes in climate. 



When the Ice Age ended, shifting habitats may have disrupted food sources and water supplies for large herbivores and the predators that hunted them.



People may have contributed to the extinctions, but it appears that climate shifts played a role, too. The timing of events is still under scrutiny, and not every site’s data line up perfectly, but the story is growing more complex.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-dating-and-evidence">Challenges in dating and evidence</h2>



Dating techniques rely on methods such as radiocarbon analysis of charcoal or bones, geological correlations, and DNA tests that reveal genetic timelines. 



Each tool has strengths and weaknesses, so researchers weigh multiple approaches. Unusual finds, like footprints without additional artifacts, make some archaeologists cautious. 



Yet repeated patterns of evidence are shifting attitudes toward the possibility that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-impacted-earth-than-previously-thought-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a> reached the Americas well before the traditional 13,000-year mark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-sloths-and-mastodons">Humans, sloths, and mastodons</h2>



No single discovery will settle the debates. Instead, each new fossil sample and archaeological layer adds a piece to a changing puzzle. 



Researchers continue to test bones, re-check radiocarbon dates, and compare footprints to the surrounding sediments. 



Whether the first arrivals journeyed by land, sea, or both, many specialists agree that older dates are worth taking seriously. Giant sloths, mastodons, saber-toothed cats, and even ancient horses likely shared vast grasslands and wetlands with humans, at least for a while. 



Their interactions remain difficult to trace, but our understanding of the distant past grows richer as new investigations move forward.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Discovery: Early humans in America coexisted with giant sloths and mastodons

Giant sloths once roamed across much of the Americas. Modern...