<h2>Kevlar</h2>
a trademark of para-aramid synthetic fiber, is related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. DuPont developed Kevlar in 1965 and was first commercially used in the 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. Its normal form is as a rope or a sheet of fabric that can be used as an ingredient in composite material components.
It is used in bicycle tires, racing sails, and body armor due to its high tensile strength-to-weight ratio. Twaron, produced in 1978, is a similar fiber with a similar chemical structure.
Kevlar is created in a synthesized solution from the monomers 1,4-phenylene-diamine and terephthaloyl chloride in a condensation reaction yielding hydrochloric acid as a byproduct. A patent war was ensued when Akzo used the process in the creation of Twaron.
Due to the use of sulfuric acid needed to keep the water-insoluble polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning, Kevlar production is expensive. Ultraviolet light can degrade and decompose Kevlar, known as UV degradation, and is therefore rarely used outside.
<h3>&#8211;</h3>
Once Kevlar is spun it has a tensile strength of about 3,620 MPa. The strength comes from the many inter-chain bonds while additional strength comes from aromatic stacking interactions between adjacent strands. Salts and other impurities can interfere with strand interactions and caution must be taken in order to keep it out of production. The structure is a lot like silk protein in that it is a relatively rigid set of molecules that tend to form mostly planar sheet-like structures.
The lower the temperature the stronger the Kevlar is while at a higher temperature the tensile strength is immediately reduced by about 10-20%. Kevlar is used in combat helmets, ballistic face masks, and Ballistic vests. It is also used in bulletproof facemasks, emergency service’s protection gear if it involves high heat, and in Kevlar body armor such as vest for police officers, security, and SWAT. It is used to manufacture gloves, sleeves, jackets, chaps, and other clothing articles designed to protect users from cuts, abrasions, and heat.
Many times it is used as an inner lining in bicycle tires to prevent punctures and also for fire poi wicks due to its excellent heat resistance. It is used in paraglider suspension lines and as a replacement to more expensive hemp bow strings.
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What is Kevlar?

Pterosaurs, the extinct flying reptiles that soared alongside dinosaurs, are among the most intriguing creatures in Earth's history.&nbsp;



While some later species reached wingspans of up to 10 meters, early pterosaurs were significantly smaller, typically limited to around two meters.&nbsp;



Now, a newly described species, Skiphosoura bavarica, sheds light on the evolutionary steps that allowed these creatures to bridge this size gap and adopt advanced anatomical features.&nbsp;



The discovery, led by David Hone of <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, represents a rare find that enhances our understanding of pterosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pterosaur-fossil-unlike-any-other">A pterosaur fossil unlike any other</h2>



The name Skiphosoura bavarica translates to “sword tail from Bavaria,” reflecting its distinctive stiff, pointed tail and the southern German region where it was unearthed.&nbsp;



What makes this fossil truly remarkable is its state of preservation. Nearly every bone of the animal has been recovered, and unlike most pterosaur fossils, which are typically flattened, this specimen is preserved in three dimensions.&nbsp;



With a wingspan of about two meters - comparable to a golden eagle - Skiphosoura provides a rare glimpse into the morphology of transitional pterosaurs.



“This is an incredible find. It really helps us piece together how these amazing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying animals</a> lived and evolved. Hopefully this study will be the basis for more work in the future on this important evolutionary transition,” Hone said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broad-classification-of-pterosaur-fossils-nbsp">Broad classification of pterosaur fossils&nbsp;</h2>



For over 200 years, scientists have classified pterosaurs into two primary groups. Non-pterodactyloids were early pterosaurs with small heads, short necks, long tails, a short bone in their wing wrists, and a long fifth toe on their feet.



Pterodactyloids were a later species characterized by large heads, long necks, short tails, elongated wrist bones, and a short fifth toe.



While this broad classification was useful, it left significant gaps in understanding how pterosaurs transitioned between these forms. The discovery of in the 2010s helped address some of these questions.&nbsp;



These intermediate species revealed that the head and neck adapted first, with other anatomical changes following later. However, scientists were left wondering what occurred immediately before and after the darwinopterans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-the-evolutionary-gap">Bridging the evolutionary gap</h2>



Skiphosoura bavarica offers vital clues. Evolutionarily, it stands between darwinopterans and pterodactyloids, displaying a combination of features from both groups.&nbsp;



It possesses the pterodactyloid-like head and neck characteristic of darwinopterans but also exhibits advancements such as a lengthened wrist, a shorter fifth toe, and a reduced tail - though not as pronounced as in later pterodactyloids.



This discovery, combined with a newly reconstructed evolutionary tree, allows researchers to trace the progression of anatomical changes in pterosaurs.&nbsp;



The study also places the Scottish pterosaur Dearc as a transitional species between early pterosaurs and darwinopterans.&nbsp;



Together, Dearc and Skiphosoura complete a nearly unbroken sequence of evolutionary adaptations, providing a step-by-step account of how pterosaurs evolved into the large, advanced forms seen in the later pterodactyloids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptations-for-larger-sizes">Adaptations for larger sizes</h2>



Interestingly, both Dearc and Skiphosoura are unusually large compared to other species of their time.&nbsp;



This suggests that the adaptations that enabled pterodactyloids to achieve enormous sizes - such as larger heads and longer necks - began appearing in transitional forms like Skiphosoura.&nbsp;



These changes likely offered advantages such as improved flight capabilities and more efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foraging</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-pterosaur-fossil-nbsp">Analyzing the pterosaur fossil&nbsp;</h2>



The fossil preparation and analysis were feats of modern technology and expertise. Unlike typical flattened fossils, the three-dimensional preservation of Skiphosoura required meticulous work.&nbsp;



“As a preparator, I have worked on more than 60 pterosaur specimens from Solnhofen limestone,” said study co-author Stefan Selzer, who prepared the specimen.



“I recognized during the final prep this specimen showed features that combined characteristics of both major groups of pterosaurs, with the shortened tail as the most important diagnostic feature.”&nbsp;



Digital imaging also played a critical role in analyzing the fossil.&nbsp;



René Lauer of the <a href="https://www.lauerfoundationpse.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lauer Foundation for Paleontology, Science, and Education</a> explained: “The specimen was disarticulated with bones of varying quality often overlaid upon one another.”&nbsp;



“Digital photography of the specimen taken in both visible and UV light significantly aided in the process to identify these elements and to better analyze finer details that were not discernible in normal daylight alone.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-pterosaur-evolution">Redefining pterosaur evolution</h2>



The discovery of Skiphosoura bavarica provides a detailed roadmap of pterosaur evolution, offering insights into how these creatures developed the traits that would eventually enable them to dominate the skies.&nbsp;



By clarifying the sequence of anatomical changes, this fossil represents a major milestone in understanding the evolutionary history of pterosaurs.



“Pterosaurs have long been symbols of the unique life of the past. Skiphosoura represents an important new form for working out pterosaur evolutionary relationships and by extension how this lineage arose and changed,” said co-author Adam Fitch, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>.



As researchers continue to study this exceptional find, they hope to uncover even more details about how pterosaurs adapted and thrived in prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.&nbsp;



“This is an incredible find. It really helps us piece together how these amazing flying animals lived and evolved,” Hone said.



With Skiphosoura bavarica, scientists have a clearer view of the evolutionary journey that transformed small, early pterosaurs into the majestic flying reptiles of the Mesozoic era, cementing its role as a key link in the story of life on Earth.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01377-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



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-----

New fossil fills crucial gap in pterosaur evolution

Pterosaurs, the extinct flying reptiles that soared alongside dinosaurs, are...

Acupuncture, ketamine infusions, and electroconvulsive therapy are just a few of the options available for individuals diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Treatment-Resistant Depression (TRD). These treatments, while potentially effective, can often feel daunting or expensive. 



Now, research from <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a> suggests that psilocybin-assisted therapy (PSIL-AT), using the active ingredient in hallucinogenic mushrooms, could provide transformative benefits to more than five million people in the U.S., pending <a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a> approval.



The study highlights the urgent need for therapies featuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psilocybin</a> while addressing the logistical and economic considerations that policymakers, insurance providers, and public health agencies will face in making such treatments widely accessible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-could-benefit-from-psilocybin-therapy">Millions could benefit from psilocybin therapy</h2>



Using national data on individuals currently being treated for MDD and TRD, Emory researchers applied exclusionary criteria to identify those who would be medically eligible for PSIL-AT.&nbsp;



Factors such as comorbidities, including mania, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-close-to-bars-and-pubs-increases-the-risk-of-heart-failure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart failure</a>, and diabetes, were used to refine the eligible population.



The analysis revealed that 56 to 62% of patients with MDD and TRD - approximately 5.1 to 5.6 million people - could benefit from this therapy.



Study lead author Fayzan Rab is an M.D. candidate at Emory University’s School of Medicine.&nbsp;



“This information is significant because much of the current focus on psychedelic therapies is about its efficacy within clinical trials, and very few people are studying what would be the broader implications of implementing these novel therapeutics,” said Rab.&nbsp;



“Our study is one of the first to look at the bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-alone-in-america-an-escalating-public-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health</a> and economic consequences of a world where psilocybin therapy is made more available to Americans.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-actionable-data-for-fda-consideration">Actionable data for FDA consideration</h2>



Psilocybin-assisted therapy is currently designated as a breakthrough therapy by the FDA, allowing for an expedited review of Phase III clinical trial results due to its potential to address <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>.&nbsp;



The findings from this study provide actionable data to inform the FDA’s decision-making process.



“What is really timely about this research is that it provides a data-driven number that is interpretable to the FDA,” Rab said.&nbsp;



“This is how many Americans we think are at stake. I think that will be a meaningful estimate for the FDA to weigh when they consider whether to approve psilocybin for therapeutic use.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insurance-coverage-and-psilocybin-therapy-demand">Insurance coverage and psilocybin therapy demand</h2>



If approved, the availability of PSIL-AT will be heavily influenced by decisions from private and public insurance providers, including the <a href="https://www.cms.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services</a> (CMS).&nbsp;



According to the study, nearly 20% of Medicaid’s 85 million beneficiaries - approximately 17 million people - are likely to have clinical depression. How Medicaid and other insurers decide to reimburse for psilocybin-assisted therapy will significantly impact its accessibility and demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-acting-relief-from-psilocybin-nbsp">Fast-acting relief from psilocybin&nbsp;</h2>



One notable advantage of psilocybin therapy is its rapid efficacy. Previous clinical trials have shown that a single 25 mg dose of psilocybin can substantially reduce symptoms of depression.&nbsp;



Dr. George Grant, co-director of Emory University’s <a href="https://psychedelics.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Psychedelics and Spirituality</a> (ECPS), emphasized the potential cost savings for the healthcare system.



“Psychedelic medicines have promise because the intervention is so fast-acting, whereas right now, insurance providers and payers often need to fund the use of antidepressants throughout their lives,” said Grant, who is also the executive director for Spiritual Health at the <a href="https://whsc.emory.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woodruff Health Sciences Center</a>.



This quick-acting treatment could alleviate the financial burden on both insurers and patients while delivering significant relief for those with depression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-holistic-approach-to-mental-and-spiritual-wellness">Holistic approach to mental and spiritual wellness</h2>



Supported by Emory University’s ECPS, the study integrates clinical psychiatry with spiritual health to explore the therapeutic potential of psychedelic medicines. The center aims to foster a deeper understanding of how psychedelics can bring patients to a state of mental and spiritual wellness.



“Coming to the aid of people who are suffering is very important, and psilocybin-assisted therapy could help people arrive at a place of satisfaction within themselves so that their lives achieve optimal meaning and purpose,” Grant said.



Rab also highlighted the impartial academic environment in which the research was conducted, stressing that it was independent of pharmaceutical influence.&nbsp;



“I am glad to be supported by the Center for Psychedelics and Spirituality, which is an academic environment, providing an objective third-party perspective to policymakers, the FDA, and public health agencies,” Rab said.&nbsp;



“I am really hopeful that continued research in the area of psychedelic medicine and therapeutics could benefit the millions of Americans that might qualify for it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-for-psilocybin-therapy">A path forward for psilocybin therapy</h2>



The study provides a roadmap for the potential rollout of psilocybin-assisted therapy, offering actionable insights for healthcare providers, insurers, and policymakers.&nbsp;



By addressing the needs of millions of Americans suffering from MDD and TRD, PSIL-AT could represent a paradigm shift in the treatment of depression, bridging clinical efficacy with accessible and holistic care.



-----



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Psilocybin therapy offers hope for millions with depression

Acupuncture, ketamine infusions, and electroconvulsive therapy are just a few...

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small events; brewing morning coffee, letting the dog out, starting the laptop, letting the dog back in. 



Our brains are constantly on the job, observing and processing these pieces that together make up our day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-start-and-finish-of-events">Start and finish of events</h2>



Professor Jeff Zacks, head of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences at Washington University, shines light on an essential fact.



“Knowing where events begin and where they end is crucial to understanding the world.” 



Professor Zacks' research has focused on understanding this fundamental aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human cognition</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computer-models-learning-from-uncertainty">Computer models learning from uncertainty</h2>



To comprehend these processes better, Professor Zacks and his research team embarked on two separate studies.



In the first project, they trained computer models to watch over 25 hours of videos featuring people performing simple, daily tasks. After this, they asked the computer models to predict what would happen next. 



Interestingly, the results showed that these models performed best when they responded to uncertainty. 



In situations where predictions of next actions puzzled them, the models would assess the scene from scratch - a strategy that improved their understanding remarkably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-turn-of-events-in-the-brain">Unexpected turn of events in the brain</h2>



Professor Zacks had previously hypothesized that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-changes-how-we-recall-memories-making-them-seem-frightening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human brain</a> was particularly sensitive to life’s little surprises and would reassess a situation every time something unexpected happened. 



He proposed that surprising situations forced people to re-evaluate their surroundings, a concept known as "prediction error."



However, the study's findings threw a wrench in this theory, with the model paying more attention to uncertainty than to prediction errors. The researchers were undeterred by these findings.



“We’re doing science here. We revise theories when faced with new data," said Professor Zacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-act-of-events-in-the-brain">Balancing act of events in the brain</h2>



Surprises continue to matter, however, and the concept of prediction error should not be entirely discarded.



Tan Nguyen, a graduate student in Zacks’ Dynamic Cognition Laboratory proposes an alternative approach - the brain possibly uses both mechanisms in balance. 



"It’s not a case of either/or. Each model can make unique contributions to our understanding of human cognition,” explained Nguyen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-memory-and-event-comprehension">Exploring memory and event comprehension</h2>



Taking the research further, another member of the <a href="https://dcl.wustl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dynamic Cognition Lab</a>, Maverick Smith, is inspecting the correlation between event comprehension and memory.



Smith collaborated with Heather Bailey, an associate professor at Kansas State University and a former postdoc at WashU.



Their work collates evidence suggesting that long-term memory is closely tied to one’s ability to discern logically and accurately where one event ends and another begins. 



“There are a lot of individual differences in the ability to identify when events start and stop, and those differences can strongly predict how much people remember later on,” noted Smith.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-capacity-to-process-events">Brain's capacity to process events</h2>



Smith’s research shows that older people often have difficulty processing events, a problem that potentially contributes to age-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> loss.



“Maybe there’s a way we can intervene to help them better remember the events in their lives,” said Smith.



Professor Zacks, Nguyen, Smith, and other members of the Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences have ambitious plans to deepen their understanding of the brain’s capacity to process and remember events.



Currently, they're using fMRI brain imaging to monitor real-time responses to everyday event videos from 45 study participants.



In one ongoing study, the team is tracking eye movements, revealing how we visually process the world around us. 



Another of Smith's video-based experiments aims to improve the memory of study subjects - including older people and Alzheimer's patients - by making event boundaries more identifiable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-understanding-of-events">The brain's understanding of events</h2>



“Some people are definitely better than others at segmenting events into meaningful chunks. Can that ability be improved, and can that lead to improvements in memory? Those are the questions we’re still asking,” Smith concluded.



In the end, our understanding of the world hinges on how we comprehend the mundane, everyday occurrences that make up our lives. 



In a world driven by big events, we often overlook these smaller instances. Yet, it's these "little things" that allow our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> to comprehend and navigate our lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/3/10/pgae459/7818226?login=false">PNAS Nexus.</a>



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-----

Our brain breaks life into 'events' to make sense of the chaos

Life, as we know it, is a collection of small...

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be detected by the simple prick of a finger?



This could soon be a reality in the world of Alzheimer's testing, which would increase accessibility to this critical information for people across the globe. In fact, it could be as easy as dropping a little blood onto a card, popping it into the mail and awaiting your results.



Thanks to the hard work of European researchers based primarily at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a> in Sweden, this simplified testing method is on the horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-magic-behind-the-method">The magic behind the method</h2>



The promising test involves gathering a couple of blood drops from a finger prick onto a uniquely crafted card that is specifically designed for optimal sample preservation.



The primary function of this innovative card is to separate blood cells from plasma, thereby ensuring that the sample remains viable for further analysis.



After about 15 minutes, and once it has had a chance to dry completely, the card is securely packaged and ready to be mailed in the regular post to a specialized lab.



There, contemporary high-sensitivity techniques are utilized to examine and analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-biomarkers-predict-dementia-onset-15-years-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers</a> within the plasma.



This refined method is the culmination of years of extensive development and fine-tuning to identify certain biomarkers that have demonstrated impressive accuracy and reliability in identifying potential Alzheimer's sufferers.



Impressively, these markers have shown significant efficacy, initially when tested in cerebrospinal fluid, and then in venous blood samples. The idea is now to assess their presence in the blood from superficial vessels in the finger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-the-new-with-the-old">Comparing the new with the old</h2>



To illustrate the effectiveness of this new method, a recent study included capillary blood samples from 203 people all of whom underwent the finger prick test. 



The memory clinics responsible for administering these tests are spread across five different locations in Europe. 



Once the tests were completed, they were sent over to the Neurochemistry Department at the University of Gothenburg for detailed analysis, which included testing for the presence of established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-earliest-biomarker-protein-psd-95-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers for Alzheimer's</a>, such as pTau217.



The outcomes of the study were shared by Hanna Huber, a researcher at the University of Gothenburg’s Sahlgrenska Academy, at the CTAD (Clinical Trials on Alzheimer’s Disease) conference in Madrid, Spain, on October 30, 2024. 



"The simple capillary blood test works almost as well as venous samples,' explained Huber. "But, unlike traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-tests-offer-new-hope-in-detecting-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood tests</a>, this new test does not require transport on dry ice. This could significantly increase accessibility to Alzheimer's testing in countries and regions lacking the infrastructure needed for high-sensitivity analyses."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-alzheimer-s-testing">The future of Alzheimer's testing</h2>



Looking ahead, this test could become available within a matter of years, with a new European study already underway to explore whether it can be self-administered.



This capability would empower individuals to perform their own finger prick and then mail the sample to a lab, which would bypass the need for healthcare personnel.



The test arrives just in time as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pomegranates-may-be-key-in-preventing-and-treating-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's treatments</a> are making strides, with drugs like lecanemab already being approved in a variety of countries outside the EU. 



For these treatments to work, early detection is crucial. The new test could pave the way for new research opportunities with regard to Alzheimer's disease, including into its genetic makeup and its prevalence among different global populations.



It is important to note that this test is not designed for general screening purposes. 



The World Health Organization (WHO) currently discourages general screening for Alzheimer's disease, as past treatment options have been limited, which renders widespread screening ethically unjustified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-global-access-to-alzheimer-s-testing">Expanding global access to Alzheimer's testing</h2>



One of the most promising aspects of this new finger-prick test is its potential to close the gap in global access to Alzheimer's diagnostics.



Many regions, particularly in low-resource countries, struggle to provide the necessary infrastructure for traditional testing methods, which often require specialized equipment and transportation of samples under strict conditions, such as on dry ice.



By simplifying the process and eliminating the need for complex logistics, this test could bring early detection and intervention to communities that have historically been underserved. 



This advancement could also encourage more research collaborations and support the collection of diverse data sets, which would potentially enhance the understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medical-breakthrough-new-vaccine-may-prevent-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's disease</a> manifests across different populations and contribute to more targeted and inclusive treatments.



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Finger prick method could simplify Alzheimer's testing

What if a debilitating illness such as Alzheimer's could be...

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have identified, for the first time, pairs of white dwarf and main sequence stars within young star clusters.&nbsp;



This significant finding, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7500" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>, opens a new window into an extreme phase of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a>, offering a critical link in understanding the lifecycle of binary star systems. These insights may also shed light on cosmic events such as supernova explosions and gravitational waves.



Binary systems - where two stars orbit a shared center of gravity - are central to the universe's evolution.&nbsp;



The discovery of these rare systems could help astronomers piece together the transition between the early and final stages of binary stars, advancing our understanding of how stars and galaxies evolve and how elements are created.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-stage-of-stellar-evolution-nbsp">Mysterious stage of stellar evolution&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binary star systems</a> are widespread, with about half of all stars similar to the Sun existing in such pairings. 



Typically, these stars vary in mass, which influences how they evolve. Massive stars age more rapidly, transitioning through life stages far faster than their lower-mass companions.



In the later stages of a massive star’s life, it swells dramatically during the red giant or asymptotic giant branch phases.&nbsp;



In close binary systems, this expansion can engulf the smaller companion star in a shared layer of material, a phenomenon known as the common envelope phase.&nbsp;



This mysterious stage plays a critical role in stellar evolution, but its details have long eluded scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-binary-star-systems-nbsp">The role of binary star systems&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">White dwarfs</a> - the dense remnants of dead stars - provide a unique opportunity to study this phase. 



Identifying systems that pair white dwarfs with main sequence stars, known as white dwarf-main sequence binaries, offers critical clues about what happens during and after the common envelope stage.



“Binary stars play a huge role in our universe,” said lead author Steffani Grondin, a graduate student at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics. 



“This observational sample marks a key first step in allowing us to trace the full life cycles of binaries and will hopefully allow us to constrain the most mysterious phase of stellar evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-star-pair-discovery">Machine learning and star pair discovery</h2>



Despite their predicted abundance, white dwarf-main sequence binaries have been notoriously difficult to find. Before this study, only two candidates had been confirmed within star clusters.&nbsp;



Using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a>, the researchers analyzed data from three astronomical surveys: the European Space Agency’s Gaia mission, the 2MASS infrared survey, and the Pan-STARRS1 optical survey. This innovative approach uncovered 52 potential binaries across 38 star clusters.



Study co-author Joshua Speagle is a professor in U of T’s David A. Dunlap Department for Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics and Department of Statistical Sciences.&nbsp;



“The use of machine learning helped us to identify clear signatures for these unique systems that we weren't able to easily identify with just a few datapoints alone,” said Speagle.&nbsp;



“It also allowed us to automate our search across hundreds of clusters, a task that would have been impossible if we were trying to identify these systems manually.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-timeline-of-binary-star-systems">Evolutionary timeline of binary star systems</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-origins-of-young-star-clusters-traced-to-three-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star clusters</a> are invaluable for studying the evolution of stars because all stars in a cluster are believed to have formed simultaneously. Finding white dwarf-main sequence binaries within these clusters allows researchers to determine the systems' ages and trace their evolutionary paths.



“It really points out how much in our universe is hiding in plain sight - still waiting to be found,” said co-author Maria Drout, an astronomer at U of T.&nbsp;



“While there are many examples of this type of binary system, very few have the age constraints necessary to fully map their evolutionary history. While there is plenty of work left to confirm and fully characterize these systems, these results will have implications across multiple areas of astrophysics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrophysics-and-beyond">Implications for astrophysics and beyond</h2>



Binary systems containing compact stellar remnants are linked to some of the universe’s most dramatic events, such as Type Ia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-travels-back-in-time-to-better-understand-supernovae-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a> and gravitational wave-producing mergers. 



Type Ia supernovae are crucial tools for measuring cosmic distances, while gravitational waves - ripples in spacetime - are detectable by instruments like the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).



The team plans to refine their findings using data from telescopes such as Gemini, Keck, and Magellan.&nbsp;



As they confirm and measure the properties of these binaries, the researchers hope their work will provide a deeper understanding of the transient phenomena that shape our universe.



Image Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), Olofsson et al. Acknowledgement: Robert Cumming.



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Binary systems with living and dead stars reveal stellar secrets 

Astronomers at the University of Toronto (U of T) have...

The devastating rainfall from Storm Boris, which caused severe flooding across Central and Eastern Europe, could have been nearly nine percent less intense without the current levels of global warming. This is the conclusion of a recent analysis from the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI).



This finding was made possible by a novel modeling technique called “storylines,” which provides a new way to trace the fingerprints of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-tens-of-millions-of-people-love-watching-videos-of-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> in real time. 



This approach is described in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01847-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a> and is accessible via a new online tool developed by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-a-warmer-climate">The impact of a warmer climate</h2>



In mid-September, Storm Boris unleashed torrential rain across Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, and Romania, resulting in catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding</a> and displacing countless families. 



Boris produced one of the highest rainfall totals ever recorded in several areas over a five-day period, and the floods claimed at least 27 lives. While cleanup is underway, public and media inquiries are focusing on whether global climate change played a role in this tragic event.



“For the past few years, science has been able to provide robust answers to this absolutely legitimate question,” said lead author Marylou Athanase, a climate physicist at AWI.&nbsp;



“As early as one or two weeks after a given event, so-called probabilistic attribution studies can be used to draw initial conclusions on how much more probable the event was, due to climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-climate-trends-and-weather-events">Connecting climate trends and weather events</h2>



Yet explaining these probabilities to the public has often proven challenging. Probabilistic studies, while valuable, may lack clarity when connecting global climate trends with specific weather events.&nbsp;



“That’s why we at the AWI have worked so hard to advance a totally new way - the ‘storyline’ approach,” explained co-lead author Antonio Sánchez-Benítez.&nbsp;



“Essentially, we apply the ‘what if?’ principle. What would a given catastrophe look like in a world without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>? And what about in a climate that was even warmer?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact-on-specific-storms">Climate impact on specific storms</h2>



Using the storm as a case study, AWI’s team illustrated the power of this approach. Their analysis showed that, if not for climate change, Storm Boris would have dropped about nine percent less rain.&nbsp;



On its journey from the eastern Mediterranean toward Central Europe, Boris intensified as it encountered water roughly two degrees Celsius warmer than preindustrial levels, which increased the water vapor in the atmosphere.&nbsp;



While nine percent may sound minimal, it can make a significant difference in areas where the additional water exceeds the capacity of rivers, dams, or drainage systems, leading to potentially devastating consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-models-and-real-world-weather">Climate models and real-world weather</h2>



One of the key challenges was to accurately connect long-term climate modeling with the actual, observed conditions of specific weather events.&nbsp;



To address this, the team used a process called “nudging,” where actual wind data, including jet stream information, is fed into the model to align it more closely with real-world conditions.&nbsp;



“Climate models normally simulate a specific, quasi-random sequence of weather conditions,” explained Helge Gößling, a climate physicist and head of storyline research at AWI.&nbsp;



“With nudging, we provide the model with actually observed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-winds-make-it-difficult-for-albatrosses-to-feed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind</a> data, and we nudge the model a bit in the direction of the actually observed wind. In this way, we can accurately reproduce real weather in the real climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-the-influence-of-global-warming-nbsp">Quantifying the influence of global warming&nbsp;</h2>



In their models, the researchers could simulate a pre-climate change world by reducing greenhouse gas levels and adjusting other variables.&nbsp;



By rerunning the scenario, they produced a side-by-side comparison of current and hypothetical climates. This approach allows scientists to quantify the influence of global warming on specific events, from extreme storms to more typical weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-climate-data-and-technology">Advanced climate data and technology</h2>



The researchers used the CMIP6 version of the AWI climate model, which contributed to the IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report, incorporating real-time wind data from the <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</a> (ECMWF). 



“We have since automated the system to the point where daily analyses on the current weather are run on the supercomputer at the <a href="https://www.dkrz.de/en/about-en/about-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Climate Computing Center</a> (DKRZ),” Athanase said



The results are then made available to the public on AWI’s online platform. This <a href="https://climate-storylines.awi.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tool</a>, updated with a three-day lag from real-time, provides users with access to maps and interactive timelines showing the “Climate Change Signal of the Day” for extreme and daily weather events worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-science-and-public-understanding-nbsp">Climate science and public understanding&nbsp;</h2>



By offering a visual and interactive way to examine climate change’s influence, AWI hopes to bridge the gap between complex climate science and public understanding.&nbsp;



For now, the tool tracks temperature and precipitation data starting from January 2024, allowing users to explore climate impacts on recent weather events.&nbsp;



“Our goal is to promote a better understanding of the connections between climate change and extreme weather events, and to supply concrete and timely answers that can also be used in media coverage of these events,” Athanase said.



The AWI’s storyline model and online tool represent an innovative step forward in climate science communication, helping researchers, decision-makers, and the public see, in real terms, how global warming affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns</a> and extreme events.



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How much does climate change influence extreme weather events?

The devastating rainfall from Storm Boris, which caused severe flooding...

Curiosity, the renowned Mars rover from NASA, is enriching our understanding of the Red Planet's mysterious landscapes and puzzling geological features.



Around the corner awaits a new expedition for Curiosity, this time to investigate a formation known as a boxwork. This intriguing network of patterns lies in a region at the foot of Mount Sharp and promises even more fascinating discoveries. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curiosity-finds-yellow-sulfur-stones">Curiosity finds yellow sulfur stones</h2>



Before embarking on this new quest, Curiosity bids farewell to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-explores-mars-ridge-with-intriguing-watery-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gediz Vallis</a>, a channel that is shrouded in enigma.



Details of the formation of this channel during a period of transition to a drier climate continue to elude scientists. 



But it is not just the channel that piques their interest. Curiosity stumbled upon a strange field of yellow sulfur stones during the summer, literally crushing them with its wheels as it drove along. This adds another layer of mystery to the Martian puzzle.



Before moving out, Curiosity provided scientists with invaluable imagery. The rover captured 360-degree panoramas of the stones, along with channel features, making sure no detail was overlooked.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="cczO1PejFp-4040684-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quest-for-ancient-life">The quest for ancient life</h2>



A fundamental purpose of the rover's mission is probing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-found-for-life-on-mars-where-ancient-rivers-once-flowed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars' past</a>, with the hope of finding traces of ancient life.



Billions of years ago, Mars was flush with lakes and rivers, potentially creating conditions conducive to microbial life. 



Nestled in the foothills of Mount Sharp, which is a towering mountain, Gediz Vallis might hold the key to understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mars-became-uninhabitable-after-being-life-supporting-ocean-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how Mars looked</a> as water dwindled on its surface.



Scientists aren't just interested in understanding the climate shift. The team is also investigating different features within the channel, including a debris mound aptly nicknamed “Pinnacle Ridge.”



Evidence suggests that rivers, wet debris flows, and dry avalanches have all left their signatures on this formation.



Intriguingly, the process of constructing a timeline of these events is well underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-stones-the-latest-martian-mystery">Sulfur stones: The latest Martian mystery</h2>



The sprawling field of sulfur stones, originally appearing as an unremarkable patch of light-colored terrain in images from NASA’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-photo-of-martian-space-potato-moon-phobos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a>, has sprung a pleasant surprise.



A close inspection by Curiosity revealed that these sulfur stones were teeming with yellow crystals, a find unlike anything seen on Mars before.



The rover's instruments confirmed that the stones were pure sulfur - an unusual occurrence that raises more questions than it answers.



On our home planet, sulfur is usually linked with the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-frost-detected-on-mars-enormous-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and hot springs. Yet, no evidence on Mount Sharp suggests these phenomena as likely candidates.



Ashwin Vasavada is a Curiosity project scientist at NASA’s <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpl.nasa.gov%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California.



“We looked at the sulfur field from every angle - from the top and the side - and looked for anything mixed with the sulfur that might give us clues as to how it formed. We’ve gathered a ton of data, and now we have a fun puzzle to solve," said Vasavada.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treading-on-martian-spiderwebs">Treading on Martian "spiderwebs"</h2>



Having completed a thorough survey of the Gediz Vallis, Curiosity is all set to traverse the edge of the channel, capturing a few more panoramas before making its way to the boxwork region.



This formation of ridges, likened to spiderwebs sprawling across the surface, is believed to be linked to minerals settling into rock crevices and hardening over time. They have been left behind as the surrounding rock eroded.



“These ridges will include minerals that crystallized underground, where it would have been warmer, with salty liquid water flowing through. Early Earth microbes could have survived in a similar environment. That makes this an exciting place to explore,” said Kirsten Siebach, a Curiosity scientist from <a href="https://www.rice.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a> in Houston.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-curious-legacy-of-curiosity">The curious legacy of Curiosity</h2>



Curiosity, a brainchild of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory managed by Caltech, continues to be a cornerstone of Martian exploration for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate. 



The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Project, under the management of the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, and its High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) instrument, constructed by BAE Systems, also play significant roles in taking our understanding of Mars to new heights.



Video Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS



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Sulfur stones and spiderwebs: Curiosity's latest discoveries on Mars

Curiosity, the renowned Mars rover from NASA, is enriching our...

A new study suggests that individual cells might be capable of learning - a behavior once thought exclusive to organisms with brains and complex nervous systems. 



The research, led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.crg.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Genomic Regulation</a> (CRG) in Barcelona and <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a> in Boston, challenges long-standing assumptions about the fundamental capabilities of cells.



“Rather than following pre-programmed genetic instructions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-cells-capable-of-photosynthesis-created-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> are elevated to entities equipped with a very basic form of decision making based on learning from their environments,” explained study co-author Jeremy Gunawardena, an associate professor of systems biology at Harvard Medical School. 



The findings, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.10.041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, could transform our understanding of life at its most basic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habituation-learning-without-a-brain">Habituation: Learning without a brain</h2>



The researchers focused on habituation, a simple form of learning where an organism gradually stops responding to a repeated stimulus - like how humans tune out the ticking of a clock or flashing lights.&nbsp;



While habituation has been extensively studied in animals with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-black-widow-venom-attacks-the-nervous-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nervous systems</a>, whether similar behavior exists at the cellular level has been a contentious question.



Early experiments in the 20th century observed behavior resembling learning in the single-celled ciliate Stentor roeselii, but the findings were largely dismissed. In the 1970s and 1980s, more evidence of habituation emerged in other ciliates, and modern experiments have continued to build on these insights.



“These creatures are so different from animals with brains,” said Rosa Martinez, a co-author of the study and researcher at the CRG.



“To learn would mean they use internal molecular networks that somehow perform functions similar to those carried out by networks of neurons in brains. Nobody knows how they are able to do this, so we thought it is a question that needed to be explored.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-simulations-to-decode-cellular-learning">Using simulations to decode cellular “learning”</h2>



Instead of working with cells directly in the lab, the researchers turned to computer simulations to track the biochemical reactions that cells rely on to process information.&nbsp;



By simulating how molecular interactions change when exposed to repeated stimuli, the team uncovered evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-our-brains-neurons-make-and-retrieve-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>-like behavior.



The study focused on two common molecular circuits: negative feedback loops and incoherent feedforward loops.&nbsp;



Negative feedback is like a thermostat - it regulates processes by turning them off when a certain threshold is reached.&nbsp;



Incoherent feedforward loops act like a motion-activated light with a timer, triggering a process and its inhibitor simultaneously.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memories-formed-at-the-cellular-level">Memories formed at the cellular level</h2>



Simulations revealed that cells use these circuits to fine-tune their responses to repeated stimuli, replicating hallmark features of habituation seen in animals.&nbsp;



A critical discovery was the role of “timescale separation,” where some biochemical reactions occur much faster than others.



“We think this could be a type of ‘memory’ at the cellular level, enabling cells to both react immediately and influence a future response,” Martinez explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-neuroscience-and-cognitive-science">Bridging neuroscience and cognitive science</h2>



The findings also offer new insights into a long-standing debate between neuroscientists and cognitive researchers about habituation.&nbsp;



Neuroscientists argue that stronger habituation occurs with more frequent or less intense stimuli, while cognitive scientists emphasize internal changes, finding habituation stronger with less frequent or more intense stimuli.



The study showed that both perspectives are valid. During habituation, cells respond less to frequent or weak stimuli, but after habituation, their response to similar stimuli is stronger.&nbsp;



“Neuroscientists and cognitive scientists have been studying processes which are basically two sides of the same coin,” Gunawardena said. “We believe that single cells could emerge as a powerful tool to study the fundamentals of learning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ability-of-cells-to-learn-and-remember-nbsp">The ability of cells to learn and remember&nbsp;</h2>



If confirmed through real-world experiments, these findings could have profound implications.&nbsp;



The ability of cells to “remember” might explain phenomena like cancer cells developing resistance to chemotherapy or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-have-been-found-in-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> becoming resistant to antibiotics. Both involve cells appearing to “learn” from their environment to survive.



The researchers used mathematical models to test various scenarios quickly, identifying those worth exploring in laboratory settings. This approach could save time and resources while accelerating discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-computational-approach-to-biology">A computational approach to biology</h2>



“The moonshot in computational biology is to make life as programmable as a computer, but lab experiments can be costly and time-consuming,” Martinez said.&nbsp;



Her team works at the <a href="https://barcelonacollaboratorium.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Barcelona Collaboratorium</a>, a joint initiative designed to use mathematical modeling to tackle big biological questions.



“Our approach can help us prioritize which experiments are most likely to yield valuable results, saving time and resources and leading to new breakthroughs,” noted Martinez. “We think it can be useful to address many other fundamental questions.”



This research marks a significant step toward understanding learning and memory at the cellular level, potentially reshaping our view of what individual cells are capable of and opening new doors for medical and scientific exploration.



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Biological breakthrough: Cells can ‘learn’ like brains

A new study suggests that individual cells might be capable...

Bad habits are repetitive behaviors or patterns that may have negative consequences on physical health, mental well-being, relationships, or productivity. 



They often develop unconsciously and can be challenging to break because they are reinforced by habit loops, which consist of a cue, a routine, and a reward.



But what if you could easily change your habits? What if you had the power to take control of your brain's habit-making mechanism and use it to your advantage?



Enter cognitive neuroscience, a field that offers fresh insights into how our brains form habits. In a recent study, scientists at Trinity College Dublin have proposed a new approach to changing habits that promise lasting results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-habits">The power of habits</h2>



Led by Dr. Eike Buabang, postdoctoral research fellow in the lab of Professor Claire Gillan, the study explores how habits drive our daily lives.



"Habits play a central role in our daily lives, from making that first cup of coffee in the morning to the route we take to work, and the routine we follow to prepare for bed," said Dr. Buabang.



"Our research reveals why these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">automatic behaviors</a> are so powerful - and how we can harness our brain's mechanisms to change them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-brain-systems">Two brain systems</h2>



Our habits are driven by two brain systems. One triggers automatic responses to familiar cues, while the other enables goal-directed control.



Take, for instance, the habit of scrolling through social media when you're bored - this is the result of an automatic response system. But when you put your phone away to focus on work - that's the goal-directed brain control system at work.



When these two systems are imbalanced, it can lead to action slips like entering an old password instead of the new one. 



In more severe cases, it can contribute to compulsive behaviors seen in conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, substance-use disorders, and eating disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-from-bad-habits-to-good-ones">Switching from bad habits to good ones</h2>



Understanding the interplay between these two systems can pave the way for personal development and clinical treatment of compulsive disorders. 



"Good and bad habits are two sides of the same coin - both arise when automatic responses overpower goal-directed control. By understanding this dynamic, we can start to use it to our own advantage, to both make and break habits," noted Dr. Buabang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-involved-in-habit-change">Factors involved in habit change</h2>



Dr. Buabang's research provides a playbook for behavior change, bridging brain science with practical applications. The framework describes several factors crucial for influencing the balance between automatic responses and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-to-set-realistic-goals-and-achieve-them-in-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goal-directed control</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-repetition-and-reinforcement">Repetition and reinforcement</h3>



Repeating a behavior builds strong associations between cues and responses, while rewarding the behavior makes it more likely to be repeated. 



The same mechanism can be leveraged to break habits, by replacing old behaviors with new ones to create competing automatic responses.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environment">Environment</h3>



Your surroundings play a significant role in habit change. Tweaking your environment to make desired behaviors easier to access encourages good habits, while removing cues that trigger unwanted behavior disrupts the bad ones.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goal-directed-system">Goal-directed system</h3>



Knowing how to engage your goal-directed system can help strengthen and weaken habits. 



However, stress, time pressure, and fatigue can trigger a return to old patterns, so staying mindful and intentional is crucial when trying to break them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-theory-to-real-world-applications">From theory to real-world applications</h2>



The theory doesn't stop at habit change; it also opens the door to personalizing treatments based on how different people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-long-does-it-take-to-form-a-habit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">form</a> and break habits.



"We are all different; depending on your neurobiology, it might make more sense to focus on avoiding cues than reducing stress or allowing yourself more time for your daily routine," said Professor Gillan.



These insights have far-reaching implications. They could reshape public health strategies and help policymakers design more effective health campaigns. 



"By working with - rather than against - how our brains naturally form habits, we can create strategies that make healthier choices more automatic at both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shopping-habits-have-remained-consistent-for-3500-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">individual</a> and societal levels," noted Professor Gillan.



In conclusion, this new approach to habit change has the potential to revolutionize both personal development and the treatment of compulsive disorders. 



The exciting findings from the <a href="https://www.tcd.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin</a> team have provided a new avenue for tapping into our brain's potential, making habit change achievable and lasting.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(24)00266-3?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1364661324002663%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</a>.



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Brain science: A new approach to breaking bad habits

Bad habits are repetitive behaviors or patterns that may have...

There is a green deficit in our cities, and it's more serious than you think. A new study led by RMIT University in Australia highlights this glaring issue. The study measured access to nature in eight global cities and found most of them to be grossly deficient in canopy cover.



This is despite these cities having a significant number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> in sight. The discrepancy lies in the lack of adequate "canopy cover" - the overhead layer of branches and leaves that provide shade, reducing temperatures and increasing green cover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-troubling-tree-deficit">Troubling tree deficit</h2>



Less than 30 percent of buildings in cities such as New York City, Amsterdam, Buenos Aires, and Denver were found to be in neighborhoods with adequate canopy cover.



New York and Amsterdam scored almost 0% for canopy cover, while a whopping 92 and 50 percent of their buildings, respectively, had views of at least three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>.



This research, a collaborative effort with the Technical University of Munich, studied over 2.5 million buildings across eight cities using the "3-30-300" rule, an emerging sustainable cities measure.



This innovative rule states that every home, school, and workplace should have a view of at least three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>, be located in a neighborhood with at least 30% canopy cover, and be within 300 meters of a park.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-canopy-cover-champions">Canopy cover champions</h2>



Among the cities studied, only Seattle and Singapore could pass the 30% canopy benchmark. In these cities, 45% and 75% of buildings, respectively, have the luxury of enjoying adequate shading.



But the access to parks is not consistent. Singapore and Amsterdam scored high, while Buenos Aires and New York City trailed behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-more-canopy-cover">Need for more canopy cover</h2>



Dr. Thami Croeser, a lead researcher and an <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RMIT University</a> research fellow, found it alarming that a majority of the buildings studied failed the 30% tree canopy test.



Considering that 2023 was the hottest year on record and 25% of the global population experienced dangerous levels of extreme heat, canopy cover is an urgent requirement to cool down our cities, noted Dr. Croeser.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-tree-cover-in-cities">Benefits of tree cover in cities</h2>



"Previous research has shown depression, anxiety, obesity and heatstroke are more prevalent in urban areas that lack access to shady <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> canopy and green open spaces," said Dr. Croeser.



Environmentally, urban trees play a critical role in improving air quality by absorbing pollutants such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, while also filtering harmful particulate matter. 



Additionally, trees are essential for stormwater management, as their roots absorb rainfall and reduce the risk of flooding.



By storing carbon, urban forests help offset greenhouse gas emissions. They also provide vital habitats for birds, insects, and other wildlife, enhancing urban biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insufficiency-of-current-practices">Insufficiency of current practices</h2>



Dr. Croeser is critical of current methods of street design or retrofitting, which tend to prioritize infrastructure like cabling and pipelines over tree growth.



He advocates for a change in our practice, to prioritize green infrastructure and incorporate trees into early stages of design.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-struggles-of-urban-trees">Struggles of urban trees</h2>



Urban trees face a tough life. They are planted in compacted soil, covered with asphalt and lack proper water access.



Dr. Croeser argues that improving these conditions can greatly enhance the growth and longevity of urban trees, thus increasing canopy cover. The "3-30-300" rule might be relatively new, but it is rapidly gaining global acceptance.



This benchmark was devised by Dutch urban forestry expert Professor Cecil Konijnendijk.to set a definitive, evidence-based minimum for nature in cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Professor Wolfgang Weisser from the <a href="https://www.tum.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Munich</a> and Dirk Voets, Senior Advisor Geospatial at Cobra Groeninzicht, have expressed support of the "3-30-300" rule and are optimistic about its potential.



The study is a clarion call for us to reassess our urban designs. The findings reach out to a global audience to advocate for more harmonious co-existence with nature in our urban spaces.



The research may ultimately be a catalyst for significant change, leading us to build more sustainable, liveable, and delightful cities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53402-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Most cities lack sufficient canopy cover, despite visible trees

There is a green deficit in our cities, and it's...

We think about the foods we consume daily and the impact of our diets on our health, but how often do we consider the broader implications of these choices on the health of our planet?



Can shifting to more sustainable diets simultaneously tackle climate change and global food insecurity? This is a delicate balance to strike, but the answer is a resounding "yes."



Before diving into this, though, we ought to remember the words of Joe DeCesaro, a data analyst at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a>’s National Center for Ecological Analysis &amp; Synthesis (NCEAS).



“Changes in food demand in one part of the world can have cascading environmental and human welfare implications for people around the world,” he cautioned.



DeCesaro and his team at the NCEAS have conducted a fascinating study that aimed to understand the environmental implications of a major shift towards four distinct types of diets, globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-of-global-diet-shifts">Environmental impact of global diet shifts</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-food-system-is-unsustainable-and-must-be-transformed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food system</a> is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, accounting for about a third of global greenhouse gas emissions and using more than 70% of freshwater resources.



Apart from this, agriculture causes significant land degradation and contributes to nutrient pollution in water bodies. 



One way to alleviate environmental pressure is to move towards more sustainable diets that reduce the consumption of resource-intensive food items, such as red meat, and increase the intake of nutrient-dense foods like vegetables and legumes.



Yet, DeCesaro's study reveals that diet change is only part of the solution. 



“We wanted to know who would actually be feeling the change from the food production if these shifts occur,” explained Ben Halpern, NCEAS director and a coauthor on the study.



The team, therefore, focused on understanding where and how environmental pressures might shift if global diets changed significantly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strengths-and-weaknesses-of-different-diets">Strengths and weaknesses of different diets</h2>



The study analyzed the global impact of shifting to four types of diets: Indian, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-can-lead-to-longer-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean</a>, EAT-Lancet (largely plant-based or "flexitarian"), and average government-recommended Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDGs).



The Indian diet emerged as the most beneficial, potentially leading to a 20.9% reduction in food production-based environmental pressure. In contrast, following FBDGs could result in a 35.2% increase in global environmental pressure.



The researchers utilized extensive data, including each country's average diets, trade flows, and the environmental pressures of food production worldwide.



“The research was motivated originally by the question: Who’s consumption is generating the pressures of food production that are being felt by people and places around the world?” explained DeCesaro.



“Are poorer countries paying the environmental price of producing higher pressure foods that are being eaten by richer countries, or vice versa?" 



"Our methods allow us to track changes in the environmental pressures from the producer to the consumer, and vice versa, in a standardized format across four pressures. Our work is quite novel in this space.”



The study found that the Indian diet - primarily due to its recommendation of zero <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-seafood-has-one-sixth-the-carbon-footprint-of-red-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">red meat</a> - was the most effective in reducing global cumulative pressure on environments.



This sharply contrasted with FBDGs, which typically recommend more red meat than what many countries currently consume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-high-income-countries">Learning from high-income countries</h2>



Interestingly, the study revealed that the majority of the reductions in global environmental pressure would come from high-income countries. 



“Higher-income countries’ average current diets have higher consumption quantities of most food categories than the recommended quantities in our diet scenarios,” said DeCesaro. 



This indicates that these countries are over-consuming, suggesting the potential for significant reductions in environmental pressure through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-dietary-shifts-could-keep-global-climate-goals-within-reach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary shifts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-sustainable-practices">Sharing sustainable practices</h2>



The research also revealed that a shift towards more sustainable, plant-forward diets could increase food-production-related environmental pressures in lower-income countries. 



However, DeCesaro noted, this increase is primarily due to these diets meeting more of the people's daily needs.



To ensure food security and equitable access to nutrition, he suggested that wealthier countries support by providing access to efficiently produced food imports and encouraging economic development to improve dietary health. This support could also include reducing environmental pressures from food production, promoting innovation and sharing sustainable food production practices.



In conclusion, the message, as summarized by Halpern, is clear: “The decisions we make about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-genes-identified-that-directly-influence-what-we-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">what we eat</a> are important for reducing our environmental footprint, but other people may pay the price for those decisions.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad8509">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Global diet shifts: The hidden costs of what we eat

We think about the foods we consume daily and the...

For a very long time, we have been under the impression that memory and learning are solely the brain's forte. Central to this belief is the fact that our brains, particularly our brain cells, store memories.



However, an innovative team of researchers begs to differ, suggesting that cells in other parts of the body partake in this memory function too.



The ability of non-brain cells to learn and form memories is a riveting discovery. 



This thought-provoking study provides us with a new understanding of memory's mechanisms and paves the way for potential advancements in learning and memory-related afflictions treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-memory-the-basics">Understanding memory -- the basics</h2>



Memory is like your brain’s personal filing system. When you experience something new -- like meeting a friend or learning a fact -- your brain encodes that information by turning it into patterns of neural activity. 



These patterns get stored in different parts of your brain, depending on what type of information it is. For example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-brain-decides-which-memories-to-remember/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual memories</a> might be stored in areas responsible for processing images, while facts and numbers find their way into regions that handle language and logic.



Retrieving memories happens when your brain needs to access those stored patterns. It’s similar to searching for a file on your computer. 



If you want to remember your friend’s birthday, your brain activates the relevant neural pathways to bring that information back into your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consciousness-may-stem-from-unseen-dimensions-beyond-our-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conscious mind</a>. 



Sometimes, this process is seamless, but other times memories can be a bit fuzzy or mixed up, especially if they’re not accessed frequently. That’s why you might struggle to recall something you haven’t thought about in a while.



Your memory isn’t perfect, and it can change over time. Each time you recall a memory, your brain might update it with new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unlocking-memories-with-scents-may-help-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">information or emotions</a>, which can make the memory stronger or slightly different from the original event. Factors like sleep, stress, and even nutrition can influence how well your memory works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-formation-and-cells">Memory formation and cells</h2>



“Learning and memory are generally associated with brains and brain cells alone, but our study shows that other cells in the body can learn and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-is-shaped-by-both-past-and-future-experience-and-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">form memories</a>, too,” explains New York University’s&nbsp;<a href="https://liberalstudies.nyu.edu/about/faculty-listing/nikolay-kukushkin.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nikolay V. Kukushkin</a>, the lead author of the&nbsp;study.&nbsp;



The goal of the research was straightforward -- to investigate if non-brain cells contribute to memory. To do this, the scientists deployed the time-honored neurological property, known as the massed-space effect.



This principle asserts that our retention capacity is better when information is studied in spaced intervals rather than crammed into a single, intensive session.



Does this strike a chord? We have all experienced the futility of last-minute cramming before tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-test-in-non-brain-cells">Memory test in non-brain cells</h2>



In this study, the scientists simulated the process of spaced learning by examining two types of non-brain human cells -- one from nerve tissue and one from kidney tissue -- in a laboratory setting.



These cells were exposed to varying patterns of chemical signals, akin to the exposure of brain cells to neurotransmitter patterns when we learn new information.



The intriguing part? These non-brain cells also switched on a "memory gene" - the same gene that brain cells activate when they detect information patterns and reorganize their connections to form memories.



So, how exactly did the scientists gauge the memory and learning process? 



They ingeniously engineered the non-brain cells to generate a glowing protein, which indicated whether the memory gene was active or dormant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-cells-learning-and-pulses">Memory cells, learning, and pulses</h2>



The results of this innovative research were nothing short of astounding. 



It turned out that these cells were able to discern when the chemical pulses (simulating bursts of neurotransmitters in the brain) were repeated rather than simply prolonged -- much like neurons in our own brains when we opt for break-filled studying instead of continuous cramming.



When the pulses were delivered at intervals, they activated the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> gene" more intensely and for a longer duration than when the same treatment was administered all at once - a perfect demonstration of the massed-space effect.



“This reflects the massed-space effect in action,” says Kukushkin, a clinical associate professor of life science at NYU Liberal Studies and a research fellow at NYU’s Center for Neural Science. 



“It shows that the ability to learn from spaced repetition isn't unique to brain cells, but, in fact, might be a fundamental property of all cells.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-memory-works">Understanding how memory works</h2>



Not only does this research on non-brain cells introduce fresh perspectives to study memory, but it also holds promise for potential health-related benefits.



“This discovery opens new doors for understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> works and could lead to better ways to enhance learning and treat memory problems,” notes Kukushkin.



“At the same time, it suggests that in the future, we will need to treat our body more like the brain -- for example, consider what our pancreas remembers about the pattern of our past meals to maintain healthy levels of blood glucose or consider what a cancer cell remembers about the pattern of chemotherapy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-this-research">Implications of this research</h2>



As we explore this fascinating new research on non-brain cells, the pressing question remains - how will this impact our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-create-three-copies-of-every-memory-we-make/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of memory formation</a>?



What implications does this discovery hold for the future of learning and memory-related treatments? Only time will tell. 



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The research team also included Thomas Carew, a professor in NYU’s Center for Neural Science; Tasnim Tabassum, an NYU researcher; and Robert Carney, an NYU undergraduate researcher. The study was funded by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (R01-MH120300-01A1).



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53922-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Memory is stored in cells throughout the body, not just the brain

For a very long time, we have been under the...