The gall bladder is the sac-shaped organ that is the passage between the liver and intestine where bile is held.
<h2>Formation and Orientation</h2>
The gall bladder is relatively 8 cm by 4 cm when fully formed. The gallbladder is angled between the rectus abdominis muscle and the costal margin. It is hollow and is made up of three parts; the fundus, the body and the neck.
The fundus is the part of the gallbladder that is most far from the cystic duct. This is at the same level of the transpyloric plane and covers the peritoneum. The body of the gallbladder is that is located between the fundus and neck. This part is also located underneath the liver and the abdomen and is also attached to the liver. The neck is the final part of the gallbladder that is closest to the cystic duct. It is also connected to the biliary tree from the cystic duct and combines with the common hepatic duct to make up the common bile duct.
There are five different layers of the gallbladder, none of which include muscularis mucosae like many organs. The layers include:
<ul>
<li>the serosa</li>
<li>the perimuscular fibrous tissue</li>
<li>the muscularis</li>
<li>the lamina propria</li>
<li>the epithelium.</li>
</ul>
The serosa is the outermost layer of the gallbladder that attaches to the lining of the abdominal cavity, the peritoneum. The perimuscular fibrous tissue is a layer of connective tissue that is located around the muscle. The muscularis is the layer of the organ that is responsible for the contraction of the gall bladder which helps to release bile when contracted. The lamina propria is connective tissue that combines with the innermost layer, the epithelium, to form the mucosa.
<h2>Function</h2>
The gallbladder releases bile into the duodenum when food enters the digestive tract. The bile is produced in the lover but is transported to the tract by the gallbladder. The bile is also intensified in the gallbladder because it becomes stronger and more effective on the breakdown of fats.
It has been projected that the gallbladder excretes insulin and other pancreatic hormones.
Image Caption: Gross Gallbladder anatomy and local ducts. Credit: LukesAnatomy/Wikipedia (CC BY-SA 3.0

What is Gall Bladder?

The Chinese Mars rover Zhurong is adding an exciting twist to the story and history of water on Mars. 



After landing in southern Utopia Planitia on Mars in May 2021, the now-defunct Zhurong rover went to work exploring the Martian surface, and its latest findings might just change the way we think about the Red Planet.



Bo Wu and a team of researchers from <a href="https://www.polyu.edu.hk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hong Kong Polytechnic University</a> believe they've found compelling evidence of an ocean shoreline for a massive body of water that once covered Mars' northern lowlands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-zhurong-mars-rover">What is the Zhurong Mars rover?</h2>



The Zhurong rover is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/china-plans-to-inhabit-a-space-station-on-the-moon-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">China's first foray</a> into Martian exploration, landing successfully on Mars in May 2021 as part of the <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2020-049A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tianwen-1</a> mission. 



Weighing around 240 kilograms (530 lbs) -- about the size of a small car -- Zhurong is packed with scientific instruments, including navigation and topography cameras, a multispectral camera for analyzing surface materials, and a ground-penetrating radar that can probe up to 100 meters beneath the surface. 



These tools allow Zhurong to capture detailed images, study the composition of rocks and soil, and investigate the planet's subsurface structures.



What sets Zhurong apart is its ability to study Mars both above and below ground. The ground-penetrating radar is particularly exciting because it helps scientists search for signs of water ice and understand the geological layers hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-life-exist-below-the-icy-surface-of-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beneath the surface.</a> 



The rover also carries instruments to examine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-internal-structure-of-mars-core-is-finally-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars' magnetic field</a> and atmospheric conditions, contributing valuable data to our understanding of the planet's climate and potential for habitability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zhurong-sees-water-related-features-on-mars">Zhurong sees water-related features on Mars</h2>



For years, scientists have pondered the possibility of a vast ocean on Mars, especially during the Hesperian period about 3.7 billion years ago. Concrete proof, however, has been hard to come by. 



Using a mix of Zhurong's onboard cameras and ground-penetrating radar, plus remote sensing data from orbiting satellites, the team identified several intriguing water-related features around the rover's landing area.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Zhurong-mars-rover_china_landing-site_ocean-shore_Sci-Reports_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Zhurong-mars-rover_china_landing-site_ocean-shore_Sci-Reports_1s.webp" alt="The Zhurong landing site (red cross) shown on the geologic map by Tanaka et al. Regions of different colors indicate different geologic units. The red box shows the study area, covering an area of ~ 1800 km × 800 km. The thick black line is the Deuteronilus contact indicating a possible shoreline across the region. The background map is a shaded relief of the MOLA topography." class="wp-image-1951081"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Zhurong landing site (red cross) shown on the geologic map by Tanaka et al. Regions of different colors indicate different geologic units. The red box shows the study area, covering an area of ~ 1800 km × 800 km. The thick black line is the Deuteronilus contact indicating a possible shoreline across the region. The background map is a shaded relief of the MOLA topography.</figcaption></figure>



Since touching down, Zhurong has traveled about 1.2 miles, studying the geology of its surroundings in search of signs of water or ice. 



The features spotted include crater-like pitted cones, troughs, sediment channels, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-frost-detected-on-mars-enormous-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mud volcano formations</a>. If that sounds like the remnants of a beachfront, you're onto something. 



According to Bo Wu and his colleagues, these formations are consistent with what you'd expect to find in a nearshore zone, suggesting this area was once a coastline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dating-the-martian-ocean">Dating the Martian ocean</h2>



Based on the composition of surface deposits, the team estimates that the ocean likely existed around 3.68 billion years ago. 



"The water was heavily silted, forming the layering structure of the deposits," study co-author Sergey Krasilnikov of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University told Reuters. 



This silt-laden water would have created distinct sedimentary layers, much like those found in ancient seabeds on Earth.



Interestingly, the researchers propose that after forming, the ocean froze over for about 10,000 to 100,000 years -- a mere <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-was-mars-habitable-much-more-recently-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blink in geological terms</a>. 



This freezing period etched out the coastline features observed today before the ocean eventually dried up roughly 260 million years later. Imagine a vast frozen ocean, sitting quietly on Mars, waiting for its turn to disappear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-everyone-agrees">Not everyone agrees</h2>



However, not everyone is jumping on the bandwagon. 



Benjamin Cardenas of <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a> points out that erosion over billions of years would likely have erased such delicate features. It's a fair concern -- Mars isn't exactly a place where things stay preserved forever. 



Wu acknowledges this skepticism but suggests that asteroid impacts might have resurfaced portions of the shoreline, making them detectable today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-martian-life">Implications for Martian life</h2>



So, what does all this mean in the grand scheme of things? Well, the presence of an ancient ocean has profound implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meteorite-that-struck-mars-reveals-when-the-planet-had-liquid-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our understanding of Mars</a>. 



Water is a key ingredient for life as we know it. If Mars had oceans, could it have also hosted life? It's a tantalizing thought that keeps scientists up at night.



NASA's Insight Lander 



Adding another layer to the mystery, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/insight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA's Insight lander</a> found that a significant amount of water had seeped into Mars's crust. 



"At least we have identified a place that should, in principle, be able to sustain life," Michael Manga of the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California</a>, one of the study authors, said in a previous statement. 



This underground water could have provided a stable environment for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insights-alien-life-mars-water-sulfur-discovered-gained-studying-extreme-life-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life to develop</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-zhurong-and-mars-water">What's next for Zhurong and Mars water?</h2>



But here's the kicker: to get definitive answers, we need to bring Martian samples back to Earth for detailed analysis. 



China's Tianwen 3 Mars sample return mission aims to do just that by 2031, potentially beating NASA's own sample return mission to the punch. 



If all goes according to plan, we'll have pieces of Mars right here on Earth in less than a decade.



As we await these missions, Zhurong continues to send valuable data, inching us closer to understanding the Red Planet's watery past. 



Could Mars have been teeming with life billions of years ago? It's the million-dollar question. Only time -- and more research -- will tell.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-75507-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

China’s Mars Zhurong rover finds an ocean shoreline on the Red Planet

The Chinese Mars rover Zhurong is adding an exciting twist...

The magnetic North Pole, a vital navigational anchor for our planet, is far from stationary. Most of us remain blissfully unaware that it shifts constantly under the influence of dynamic forces beneath the Earth’s crust. 



However, recent movements have been more extreme than usual, making people take notice. Once steady, this silent sentinel has recently been speeding erratically toward Russia at an unprecedented pace.



Such rapid shifts could have dramatic consequences, disrupting modern navigation systems and, by extension, the way we navigate our daily lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-the-magnetic-north-pole">What exactly is the magnetic North Pole?</h2>



First, let's make it clear what exactly we're talking about. The magnetic North Pole is the point on Earth where the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet’s magnetic field</a> points directly downward. This is the direction that your compass needle aligns with when you’re navigating outdoors. 



Unlike the geographic North Pole, which is fixed in the Arctic, the magnetic north pole is constantly on the move, drifting several kilometers each year due to changes in Earth’s molten core. 



This movement can sometimes throw off navigation systems, requiring updates to maps and compasses to stay accurate.



What makes the magnetic North Pole even more interesting is how it affects both technology and nature. 



For example, airplanes and ships rely on accurate magnetic readings for safe travel, while some animals use Earth’s magnetic field to migrate across vast distances. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-northern-odyssey-from-canada-to-siberia">The northern odyssey: From Canada to Siberia</h2>



Ever since we started tracking it, the magnetic North Pole has been on the move. However, its recent behavior is quite out of the ordinary. 



Once comfortably located in northern Canada, the pole kicked into high gear in the late 20th century, making its way across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic Ocean</a> by the 1990s.



From there, the pace has increased progressively , peaking at an astonishing 55 kilometers per year during the 2010s.



Presently, it's hurtling at a slightly reduced but still impressive speed of 25 kilometers per year towards Siberia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-steering-the-magnetic-north-pole">What's steering the magnetic North Pole?</h2>



Intellectually stimulating debates have arisen among scientists trying to decipher the underlying cause of this unusual phenomenon.



Dr. William Brown, a renowned geomagnetic field analyst, identifies three possible culprits behind the magnetic North Pole's unusual behavior. 



First, changes in the flow of molten iron beneath the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s crust</a> could be altering the magnetic field’s strength and direction, as the planet's outer core dynamics play a crucial role in generating the field in the first place.



Second, high-energy solar particles interacting with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-solar-shockwave-has-cracked-earths-magnetosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s magnetosphere</a>, such as during solar storms and winds, might be causing fluctuations in the magnetic field. 



Finally, the phenomenon may be linked to the Earth's history of magnetic pole reversals, which have occurred nearly 200 times over the past 100 million years. The most recent of these reversals occurred approximately 800,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-without-a-north-star">Navigating without a North Star</h2>



The potential chaos that the moving magnetic pole can cause is not abstract or confined to scholarly concern. 



Our technology is deeply intertwined with magnetic orientations, and any abrupt changes can cause significant turmoil. 



Devices like smartphones, cars, and military equipment rely on the World Magnetic Model (WMM), which is designed by the British Geological Survey and NOAA. 



This model tracks the pole’s movements and ensures accurate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigation</a>. If the pole's movement outpaces updates to the WMM, our devices could miscalculate locations and throw our wayfinding abilities into disarray.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-the-polar-paradox">Preparing for the polar paradox</h2>



Mitigating the potential risks of such a change involves a three-pronged approach: frequent updates to the WMM, expanding research to continue monitoring the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-has-begun-moving-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s core</a> dynamics, and raising public awareness. 



Through these efforts, industries that rely heavily on magnetic field-based navigation are being prepped for any potential upcoming disruptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gearing-up-for-a-world-upside-down">Gearing up for a world upside down?</h2>



While the pole's movement is no longer as rapid, it remains a crucial area of research.



Scientists from <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a> and other organizations are keeping a close eye on its shifting trajectory, ensuring our technological world is prepared for any seismic shifts in Earth's magnetic nature. 



In the face of a potential world where the poles flip, these insights and precautionary measures could prove indispensable.



So, the magnetic North Pole's flight towards Russia isn't just an intriguing natural occurrence. Its implications for our global navigation systems and technologies could be profound and far-reaching. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-north-pole-and-earth-s-future">Magnetic North Pole and Earth’s future</h2>



Rapid movement of the magnetic North Pole&nbsp;is&nbsp;not&nbsp;just&nbsp;an&nbsp;issue&nbsp;for&nbsp;technology&nbsp;and navigation but&nbsp;also&nbsp;offers&nbsp;insight&nbsp;into the inner workings&nbsp;of the Earth. The&nbsp;erratic&nbsp;behavior of the&nbsp;pole&nbsp;reflects&nbsp;what is happening in&nbsp;the dynamic processes&nbsp;deep within our&nbsp;outer core, where molten iron generates&nbsp;a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doughnut-shaped-region-discovered-in-earths-liquid-core-impacts-our-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a>. By studying this phenomenon, scientists can gain a better understanding of Earth's geodynamo,&nbsp;which is&nbsp;the engine behind the magnetic field that shields us from harmful solar radiation. The&nbsp;shifting&nbsp;pole&nbsp;also&nbsp;raises questions over the possibility of a full magnetic reversal - a natural process&nbsp;in&nbsp;which&nbsp;the North and South magnetic poles swap places. While such reversals have happened thousands of times in&nbsp;the&nbsp;Earth's history, their effects&nbsp;cannot&nbsp;be predicted.



A reversal could temporarily weaken Earth's magnetic field,&nbsp;meaning that&nbsp;the planet would be exposed to&nbsp;more intense and damaging cosmic radiation,&nbsp;which would affect living organisms, ecosystems and infrastructure. Monitoring&nbsp;changes&nbsp;in&nbsp;this&nbsp;manner&nbsp;helps researchers&nbsp;keep&nbsp;an eye on&nbsp;the Earth's interior and also&nbsp;prepares&nbsp;humanity for potential future challenges.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Magnetic North Pole is moving and changing faster than ever, surprising scientists

The magnetic North Pole, a vital navigational anchor for our...

The saber-toothed cat, an iconic predator from the Ice Age, continues to captivate scientists and enthusiasts alike with its mysterious legacy. 



Our planet, with its rich history etched into layers of time, acts as a vast library of ancient tales, with each era preserving the stories of remarkable creatures.



Among these is a stunning new chapter - scientists have uncovered a mummified baby saber-toothed cat in Siberia.



The discovery, which boasts an extraordinary level of preservation, offers a rare and intimate glimpse into the anatomy and lifestyle of this long-extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predator-was-king-prior-to-the-great-dying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a>. The research also reveals secrets that have been frozen in time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-recorded-mummified-saber-toothed-cat">First recorded mummified saber-toothed cat</h2>



The Siberian Ice Age cub is the first recorded mummified saber-toothed cat - a discovery that is setting off waves of excitement among paleontologists worldwide.



It allows us a sneak-peek into the past, and a glimpse of what saber-toothed cats looked like.



The mummy offers precious insights into the cat's muscle structure and how it might have impacted its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smilodon-fatalis-young-saber-toothed-cats-had-double-fangs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting methods</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-kitten_frozen_fur_profile_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-kitten_frozen_fur_profile_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1s.webp" alt="Images highlight the differences in external appearance of the heads of two 3-week-old cub specimens — the mummified Homotherium latidens (saber-toothed cat) at the top and Panthera leo (modern lion) below. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin" class="wp-image-1951075"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Images highlight the differences in external appearance of the heads of two 3-week-old cub specimens — the mummified Homotherium latidens (saber-toothed cat) at the top and Panthera leo (modern lion) below. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin</figcaption></figure>



The mummy's face, forelimbs, torso, and part of its body were remarkably intact and generously covered with thick, soft fur that was between 0.8 and 1.2 inches (20 to 30 millimeters) in length.



Alexey V. Lopatin is a full member of the <a href="https://new.ras.ru/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Russian Academy of Sciences</a> in Moscow, director of the academy’s Borissiak Paleontological Institute, and the lead author of the study.



"It’s a fantastic feeling to see with your own eyes the life appearance of a long-extinct animal. Especially when it comes to such an interesting predator as the sabre-toothed cat," said Lopatin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-about-an-extinct-species">Learning about an extinct species</h2>



The mummy is the first Asian record of the saber-toothed cat species Homotherium latidens.



Other Ice Age mummies, like woolly rhinos and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mammoths-survived-longer-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammoths</a>, have been found fairly commonly in the Siberian region. However, mummified cats are an extraordinary rarity.



"Before this discovery, there were just two known cat mummies, both cubs of the cave lion Panthera spelaea from Yakutia’s Uyandina River basin. Now, we have added the Homotherium cub to this list", explained Lopatin.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-cub-skull_lion-skull_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-cub-skull_lion-skull_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1s.webp" alt="The new mummy findings reveal that saber-toothed cubs differed dramatically from modern lion cubs of a similar age. The image above highlights differences in the skulls of the mummifed Homotherium latidens (A, B) and Panthera leo (C, D) at 3 weeks old. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin" class="wp-image-1951071"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The new mummy findings reveal that saber-toothed cubs differed dramatically from modern lion cubs of a similar age. The image above highlights differences in the skulls of the mummifed Homotherium latidens (A, B) and Panthera leo (C, D) at 3 weeks old. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin</figcaption></figure>



The next steps in learning about this extinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-sabertooth-cat-discovered-in-south-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> involved the analysis of extracted DNA, and detailed examination of the cub's skeleton, muscles, and hair.



Paleontologist Jack Tseng, an associate professor in the Integrative Biology Department at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, who was not involved in the discovery, expressed his astonishment at the find.



"It’s rare to find bones of this lineage in the first place, let alone soft tissue associated with it," said Tseng.



Speaking to CNN, Tseng shared that he was at a loss for words when considering "the treasure trove of information that could come out of this singular discovery."



"I don’t know if other paleontologists’ minds are as blown as mine, but it’s like reality changes now that we’ve seen this."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-the-past">Clues from the past</h2>



Preserved in permafrost, the cub was discovered near the Badyarikha River in northeast Yakutia by local diggers in 2020. 



Radiocarbon dating estimates the cub to be at least 35,000 years old, making its lifetime coincide with the latter part of the Pleistocene epoch (roughly 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago).



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-cub-paw_lion-paw_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/sabertooth-cub-paw_lion-paw_credit-Prof-Alexey-V-Lopatin_1s.webp" alt="Pictured here are the forepaws of 3-week-old large cubs. A, B and C reveal views of the mummified Homotherium latidens specimen: A is a thumb claw; B a second digit claw; and С a plantar view. D shows the plantar view of the right forepaw of a Panthera leo specimen. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin" class="wp-image-1951069"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Pictured here are the forepaws of 3-week-old large cubs. A, B and C reveal views of the mummified Homotherium latidens specimen: A is a thumb claw; B a second digit claw; and С a plantar view. D shows the plantar view of the right forepaw of a Panthera leo specimen. courtesy Prof. Alexey V. Lopatin</figcaption></figure>



The preservation of the cub's forelimbs was exceptional, with claws and the fleshy pads or "beans" (as modern cat admirers like to call them) still intact. 



The cubs of this ancient and long-extinct species varied significantly from modern lion cubs. 



The saber-toothed cub seemed to have longer forelimbs, a bigger mouth opening, a more solid neck, darker coat, and smaller ears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-saber-toothed-cat-mystery">Decoding the saber-toothed cat mystery</h2>



The cub's forearms and paw resembled a bear's, which are known for their strength in collecting food.



This similarity suggests that adult Homotherium may have depended on their forearms, possibly using them to stabilize their prey.



Until now, 3D digital modeling of scanned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ugly-fossil-unveils-secrets-of-extinct-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> was used to hypothesize saber-toothed cat anatomy. However, nothing compares to witnessing these limbs "in the flesh." 



This find is not just about the Homotherium mummy; it offers a unique insight into the entire evolutionary history of the feline group.



The saber-toothed cat cub mummy is an invaluable find, adding another vivid glimpse into our planet's fascinating history. 



The research paper is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-79546-1#citeas">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mummified baby saber-toothed cat found with fur and toes intact

The saber-toothed cat, an iconic predator from the Ice Age,...

A prescription medication that has been available in the U.S. since 1992, which many people recognize for treating hair loss and enlarged prostate, seems to have another significant health benefit.



Recent research suggests that a drug called finasteride could lower cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of heart disease. That's a surprising twist for a drug that's been around for decades.



Curiosity led <a href="https://fshn.illinois.edu/directory/jaume6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jaume Amengual</a>, an assistant professor in the Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition at the <a href="https://fshn.illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a>, to explore this unexpected connection. 



After noticing something unusual in a national survey, he decided to dig deeper. 



"When we looked at the men taking finasteride in the survey, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-power-of-fish-oil-in-combating-high-cholesterol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cholesterol levels</a> averaged 30 points lower than men not taking the drug. I thought we'd see the opposite pattern, so it was very interesting," Dr. Amengual enthused.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lowering-cholesterol-with-finasteride">Lowering cholesterol with finasteride?</h2>



The initial clue came from the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</a> conducted between 2009 and 2016. 



This survey collects health information from thousands of Americans. In this data, men using finasteride as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-natural-cure-male-baldness-highly-effective-sugar-2-deoxy-d-ribose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hair loss treatment</a> had significantly lower cholesterol levels compared to those who weren't on the medication. 



A 30-point difference is substantial and caught the researchers' attention. But observational studies have limitations. The sample size of men over 50 using finasteride was small. 



"This was not a clinical study in which you can control everything perfectly," Amengual noted. "It was more of an observation that led us to say, 'Okay, now we've seen this in people. Let's see what happens in mice.'"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-observation-to-experimentation">From observation to experimentation</h2>



To get a clearer picture, the team turned to laboratory mice. Doctoral student <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/donald-molina-ba3099197/?locale=es_ES" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Donald Molina Chaves</a> conducted experiments on mice predisposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-diets-impact-the-heart-health-of-their-daughters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atherosclerosis</a> -- a condition where arteries narrow due to plaque buildup. 



The mice were fed different doses of finasteride along with a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet.



"Mice that were given a high dose of finasteride showed lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/certain-gut-bacteria-lower-cholesterol-and-the-risk-of-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cholesterol levels</a> within the plasma as well as in the arteries," Molina Chaves said. "There were also fewer lipids and inflammatory markers in the liver." 



These findings suggested that finasteride doesn't just lower cholesterol in the blood but might also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifestyle-choices-in-young-adulthood-impact-cognitive-ability-in-midlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reduce inflammation</a> and plaque formation in arteries.



While the highest dose had significant effects, it's not a dose humans would take. 



"It's an incredibly high level of the drug. But we use mice as a model, and they are extremely resistant to things that would kill any of us," Amengual explained. "So it is not that wild when you think about it that way." 



The results in mice provide a direction for future human studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finasteride-testosterone-and-heart-disease">Finasteride, testosterone, and heart disease</h2>



So why would a hair loss drug affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-eating-eggs-is-not-bad-for-your-health-despite-years-of-warnings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cholesterol levels</a>? It comes down to hormones. 



Finasteride works by blocking a protein that activates testosterone, specifically reducing levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-with-low-testosterone-have-a-higher-risk-of-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</a>. DHT is linked to hair loss, prostate enlargement, and, as it turns out, possibly heart disease.



"I was reading about this medication one day, and I started to notice that there were not many long-term studies of the implications of the drug," Amengual said. 



"Initially, it was just my own curiosity, based on the fact that hormone levels are known to have an effect on atherosclerosis, hair loss, and prostate issues. So, we decided to dig into it."



Testosterone and its derivatives can influence the development of atherosclerosis. By altering these hormone levels, finasteride might indirectly impact cholesterol metabolism and inflammation, leading to improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-expectations-of-men-are-bad-for-their-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart health</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-surprises-from-finasteride">More surprises from finasteride</h2>



Interestingly, these findings might benefit more than just men dealing with hair loss or prostate issues. 



Transgender individuals undergoing hormone therapy often face a higher risk of heart disease due to hormonal changes. 



Finasteride is sometimes prescribed during gender transitions to manage hair loss triggered by hormone treatments.



"Over the past decade, doctors have started prescribing this drug for individuals transitioning either from male to female or female to male. In both cases, the hormonal changes can trigger hair loss," Amengual said. 



"The interesting thing is that transgender people are also at a higher risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/depression-and-cardiovascular-diseases-are-genetically-linked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular diseases</a>. So this drug could have a potential beneficial effect to prevent cardiovascular disease not only in cis men, but also in transgender individuals."



This opens up the possibility that finasteride could serve a dual purpose for transgender patients, helping with hair loss while also reducing heart disease risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-the-catch-understanding-finasteride-risks">What's the catch? Understanding finasteride risks</h2>



Of course, no medication is without risks. Finasteride can cause side effects, and it's important to consider them. 



Some users experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-exhibit-better-sexual-health-eating-a-plant-based-vegan-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual side effects</a> like decreased libido, erectile dysfunction, and reduced ejaculate volume. These effects happen because finasteride reduces DHT, which plays a role in sexual function.



There have also been reports of psychological effects such as depression, anxiety, and mood changes. While not everyone experiences these, they're important to monitor. 



Physical side effects can include breast tenderness or enlargement, rashes, and swelling in the hands or feet. Rarely, finasteride can affect liver enzymes, so regular medical check-ups are recommended.



A small percentage of users report persistent side effects even after stopping the medication, a condition referred to as Post-Finasteride Syndrome (PFS). 



Symptoms can include ongoing sexual dysfunction and psychological issues. Research is ongoing to understand and address these concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-holds-for-finasteride">What the future holds for finasteride</h2>



These discoveries suggest that finasteride could have a role in heart health beyond its current uses. More research is needed, though. 



Clinical trials involving people would help determine if the cholesterol-lowering effects seen in mice also occur in humans at practical doses.



"This was not a clinical study in which you can control everything perfectly," Amengual emphasized. "It was more of an observation that led us to say, 'Okay, now we've seen this in people. Let's see what happens in mice.'"



If future studies confirm these benefits, finasteride could become part of a strategy to prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-erythritol-sugar-substitute-linked-to-blood-clots-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a>, especially in populations at higher risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-hope-proceed-with-eyes-wide-open">A new hope? Proceed with eyes wide open</h2>



Finasteride has been around for a while, helping many with hair loss and prostate issues. Now, it might have a new role to play in promoting heart health. 



This could be significant not just for men but also for the transgender community and others at risk of cardiovascular disease.



As with any medical treatment, it's crucial to consult healthcare providers before making changes. Finasteride's potential benefits must be balanced with its risks. But this research opens up exciting possibilities.



The full study was published in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jlr.org/article/S0022-2275(24)00012-9/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Lipid Research</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Old drug now called a "magic pill" because it regrows hair and improves heart health

A prescription medication that has been available in the U.S....

Phosphorus, a crucial nutrient for soil fertility and life sustainability, is increasingly vanishing from U.S. farmland, washing into rivers and streams at alarming rates.&nbsp;



A new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a> reveals that despite efforts to curb phosphorus loss, agricultural runoff has continued to rise over the past four decades, posing significant threats to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a> and water quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-nutrient-and-phosphorus-loss">Soil nutrient and phosphorus loss</h2>



Phosphorus is indispensable for life, playing a key role in DNA formation and cellular energy transfer.&nbsp;



However, unlike nitrogen, it is a non-renewable resource with limited geological reserves. Once it is lost from soil and enters <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-impacts-on-waterways-contribute-to-the-climate-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waterways</a>, it cannot naturally replenish in agricultural lands.



“This is a problem for many reasons,” said Li Li, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Penn State and corresponding author of the study.&nbsp;



“When it’s lost from farmland, it can reduce crop yields, potentially leading to higher food prices. Then, when phosphorus enters our waterways, it can cause harmful algal blooms that can make water unsafe for swimming and fishing - and can even reduce oxygen levels in water and kill fish and other aquatic life.”



Li also highlighted the economic impact of phosphorus depletion: “It makes it more expensive to treat drinking water, which means higher water bills for all of us.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-phosphorus-levels-in-rivers">Rising phosphorus levels in rivers</h2>



Analyzing data from 430 U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-disrupting-the-seasonal-flow-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> spanning 1980 to 2019, the research team used a deep learning model to uncover troubling trends. 



While phosphorus levels have declined in 60% of the studied rivers, overall phosphorus flowing into waterways has increased.



“Agricultural areas are the biggest contributors to the problem, with phosphorus levels increasing in most rivers near agricultural areas, even as they decline in rivers near urban areas,” Li explained.&nbsp;



“This suggests that efforts to control phosphorus pollution from sources like agricultural runoff are not as effective as we thought.”



By contrast, targeted efforts to reduce phosphorus pollution from urban wastewater treatment plants appear to be succeeding.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-nutrient-loss-is-beyond-local-control">Soil nutrient loss is beyond local control </h2>



However, the researchers warn that the broader problem is worsening due to factors beyond local control, particularly the increased frequency of extreme weather events linked to climate change.



“This means that even though we’re doing a better job at limiting phosphorus pollution from urban areas, the problem is getting worse overall, due to factors largely beyond the control of just one region,” Li said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-climate-change">The role of climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extreme weather events</a>, such as heavier rainfall and flooding, have amplified phosphorus runoff into waterways. As storms grow wetter and more frequent due to climate change, the volume of water flowing through rivers increases, pulling more phosphorus from the soil.



“We’ve seen from recent weather events that water quantity, the amount of water that storms and waterways carry, can lead to dangerous flooding and mudslides,” Li said.&nbsp;



“What we wanted to understand is what happens to the land when these storms pull the subsurface of the soil into rivers and streams. What we found is an alarming loss of this finite element that lets soil sustain life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-solutions-are-needed">Innovative solutions are needed</h2>



To combat this escalating issue, the researchers emphasize the need for innovation and changes in agricultural practices. One promising development is a technology invented at Penn State by alumnus Hunter Swisher.



Swisher, founder and CEO of <a href="https://www.phospholutions.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phospholutions</a>, has developed a fertilizer designed to improve phosphorus efficiency in soil. “We are advocating for more innovation, more creativity and more urgency,” Li said.



The company’s product has shown remarkable results, reducing phosphorus runoff potential by 78% compared to conventional fertilizers.&nbsp;



Phospholutions is now expanding its technology across the Americas, Europe, and India, aiming to address phosphorus pollution on a global scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-ddressing-soil-nutrient-loss">Addressing soil nutrient loss</h2>



The study highlights the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to address phosphorus loss.&nbsp;



With climate change exacerbating the problem, researchers call for a combination of advanced technologies and sustainable farming practices to mitigate the impacts on both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-agriculture-are-locked-in-a-destructive-feedback-loop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a> and aquatic ecosystems.



“The connection between water and land is essential, and that balance is growing increasingly fragile,” Li concluded.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Soil nutrient loss due to heavy rainfall threatens agriculture 

Phosphorus, a crucial nutrient for soil fertility and life sustainability,...

A team of scientists led by the Wellcome Sanger Institute has developed the most detailed cellular map of the human gut to date, combining data from 1.6 million cells.&nbsp;



This atlas provides crucial insights into conditions like bowel cancer and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) by highlighting cellular changes and interactions within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07571-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, the study combined over 25 single-cell datasets to create a unified and freely available resource for researchers worldwide. 



The atlas includes samples from both healthy individuals and those with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-detects-changes-in-gut-health-to-help-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut</a>-related diseases, offering a valuable tool for understanding and potentially treating these conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-gi-tract-and-its-illnesses">The GI tract and its illnesses</h2>



The GI tract comprises organs responsible for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-stimulates-digestion-and-protects-against-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digestion</a> and nutrient absorption, including the stomach, intestines, and rectum. It also acts as a barrier against pathogens. Disorders affecting this system, such as IBD and bowel cancer, significantly impact millions of lives globally.



For instance, over seven million people worldwide suffer from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-have-gut-bacteria-that-can-help-dogs-with-canine-ibd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IBD</a>, which includes conditions like ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and extreme fatigue often disrupt daily life. 



Meanwhile, bowel cancer, one of the most common cancers globally, affects nearly two million people each year and is the fourth most prevalent cancer in the UK.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unified-picture-of-gut-cells">A unified picture of gut cells</h2>



Despite extensive research, fragmented data from multiple studies with varying processes and labeling systems have complicated efforts to understand the cellular structure of the gut.&nbsp;



To address this, the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> team developed a tool to harmonize these datasets, enabling researchers to see a unified picture of gut cells, their locations, and their interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-resource-for-gut-health-research">A new resource for gut health research</h2>



The researchers merged 25 datasets to create an atlas containing spatial and single-cell data from 1.6 million cells.&nbsp;



This unified resource includes tissue samples from individuals with conditions like gastric and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-aspirin-use-strongly-tied-to-colorectal-cancer-prevention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colorectal cancers</a>, celiac disease, and IBD, as well as from healthy individuals.



The atlas allows researchers to identify which cells are present in the gut, their precise locations, and how they communicate with their environment.&nbsp;



By integrating this data, the team has created a dynamic resource that can be updated with future studies, enhancing collaboration among scientists worldwide.



“Spatial and single-cell data provide unique information about how gut cells interact, that can be used to continue piecing together an in-depth understanding of how the human body works,” said lead author Amanda Oliver, a scientist at the Wellcome Sanger Institute.&nbsp;



“Combining existing single-cell datasets allows us to create a more complete picture of the human gut and ensures that researchers can work together to continue to benefit human health.”&nbsp;



“Our Gut Cell Atlas is also harmonized and freely available, and we hope that people will continue to build on this, adding in data for scientists worldwide to use.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-gut-inflammation">Insights into gut inflammation</h2>



One of the study’s significant findings involves gut metaplastic cells. Previously known for their role in healing the stomach lining, these cells were found to share genetic similarities with inflammatory cells in the gut.&nbsp;



Researchers suggest that in conditions like IBD, inflammation transforms these metaplastic cells, perpetuating a cycle of inflammation that contributes to pain and distress.



Study co-senior author Rasa Elmentaite is a scientist at <a href="https://www.ensocell.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ensocell Therapeutics</a> who previously worked at the Wellcome Sanger Institute.



“As the integrated atlas contains such a large amount of data, from people with and without gut conditions, we were able to uncover a pathogenic cell type that may play a role in some chronic conditions and could be a target for intervention in the future,” said Elmentaite.&nbsp;



“This demonstrates the power of using integrated single-cell atlases in research, and I am confident that applying this approach to other tissues and organs will drive new therapeutic discoveries for a range of conditions.”&nbsp;



Understanding this cycle of inflammation could pave the way for innovative treatments for IBD and similar chronic conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-cell-atlas-initiative">Human Cell Atlas initiative</h2>



This research is part of the Human Cell Atlas (HCA) initiative, which aims to map every cell type in the human body to better understand human health and disease.&nbsp;



The Gut Cell Atlas is among more than 40 studies recently published in Nature journals, representing a significant leap in cellular biology and the development of new analytical tools.



Professor Sarah Teichmann, co-senior author and co-founder of the HCA, highlighted the collaborative nature of the project.&nbsp;



“A detailed understanding of cells through the Human Cell Atlas will help explain many aspects of human health and disease and possibly illuminate new avenues for treatment,” said Teichmann.&nbsp;



“This harmonized Gut Cell Atlas shows what can be achieved through open collaboration with scientists worldwide, and has led to an accessible combined resource that can be used by everyone to find new ways to understand and treat disease.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tool-for-global-collaboration">A tool for global collaboration</h2>



The Gut Cell Atlas not only advances gut research but also provides a framework for studying other organs.&nbsp;



Its harmonized data and innovative analytical tools could drive breakthroughs in understanding various conditions and developing new therapies.&nbsp;



With the resource freely accessible, it stands as a testament to the power of open collaboration in science.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Map of 1.6 million gut cells will reveal new ways to treat disease

A team of scientists led by the Wellcome Sanger Institute...

In&nbsp;the&nbsp;modern&nbsp;world of&nbsp;convenience, plastic is&nbsp;ubiquitous.&nbsp;The evidence of our careless disposal of plastic goods, once we no longer need them, is also ever-present. Plastic waste is everywhere, even in our precious oceans. The North Pacific Garbage Patch (NPGP) is&nbsp;witnessing&nbsp;a&nbsp;meteoric&nbsp;rise in the&nbsp;levels&nbsp;of plastic fragments, with&nbsp;centimeter-sized particles showing&nbsp;a particularly alarming spike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-insight-into-the-research-process">An insight into the research process</h2>



The study, published in Environmental Research Letters,&nbsp;relies&nbsp;heavily on data gathered by The Ocean Cleanup, a non-profit organization that is dedicated to removing plastic from aquatic ecosystems.



Their systematic surveys&nbsp;between 2015 and 2022&nbsp;provided invaluable insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-has-become-a-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic pollution</a> crisis in the North Pacific Garbage Patch. The Ocean Cleanup collected data from 917 manta trawl samples, 162 mega trawl samples, 74 aerial surveys, and 40 clean-up system extractions&nbsp;during a total of 50 expeditions, making this study one of the most comprehensive assessments of oceanic plastic pollution to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-plastic-problem">Unearthing the plastic problem</h2>



The key findings of the study highlight a series of concerning trends. The most striking of these is the rapid increase of plastic fragments in the NPGP - rising from 2.9kg per km² to 14.2kg per km² within just seven years.



Shockingly, between 74 and 96% of this surge is suspected to originate from the arrival of new plastic fragments, rather than from the gradual break-down of larger plastics that were already present. And it is likely that these new arrivals come from all over the world. 



Furthermore, the concentration of small debris hotspots in the region magnified tenfold, from 1 million per km² in 2015 to over 10 million per km² in 2022.



Essentially, every size class of floating plastics has seen a significant uptick, with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hotspots-of-microplastic-pollution-found-in-the-north-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, mesoplastics, and macroplastics all demonstrating concerning increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-severe-threats-to-the-local-ecosystem">Severe threats to the local ecosystem </h2>



This plastic overload doesn't only represent an environmental eyesore; it poses severe threats to the local ecosystem, as well as to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-plankton-play-a-big-role-in-the-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global carbon cycle</a>.



The area's endemic marine animals may ingest or become entangled in plastic waste, and some also face direct competition from invasive species that have colonized the plastic debris and drifted into the region.



Furthermore, grazing by zooplankton - a crucial component of the carbon cycle - is being disrupted by the presence of floating plastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-global-action-on-plastic-pollution">Call for global action on plastic pollution</h2>



“The exponential rise in plastic fragments observed in our field studies is a direct consequence of decades of inadequate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coca-cola-pepsi-among-top-contributors-to-plastic-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic waste</a> management, leading to the relentless accumulation of plastics in the marine environment," said Laurent Lebreton, lead author of the study.



"This pollution is inflicting harm on marine life, with impacts we are only now beginning to fully grasp. Our findings should serve as an urgent call to action for lawmakers engaged in negotiating a global treaty to end plastic pollution. Now, more than ever, decisive and unified global intervention is essential."



While researchers emphasize the need for upstream solutions to prevent plastic waste in the first place, organizations like The Ocean Cleanup are tackling the issue directly.



By deploying innovative systems to remove plastic from oceans and rivers, The Ocean Cleanup exemplifies how technological advancements can complement policy measures. 



Since its inception, the organization has removed over 16 million kilograms of trash from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-travel-far-and-wide-endangering-aquatic-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic ecosystems</a> worldwide, proving the feasibility and necessity of large-scale cleanup efforts.



The findings highlight not only the sheer scale of the problem but also the urgency with which it needs to be addressed. As the evidence mounts, it becomes increasingly clear - the time to act is now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-crisis-in-the-garbage-patch">Plastic crisis in the Garbage Patch </h2>



The plastics crisis in the North Pacific Garbage Patch requires not just awareness but innovative solutions and coordinated global action. The study emphasizes the potential of partnerships in scientific research, technology, and policy-making. Programs such as The Ocean Cleanup show that targeted efforts can make a difference. 



Their two-tier approach - preventing more plastic waste from entering the rivers and then removing that which is already accumulating in oceans stands out for combining both technological innovation and actionable clean-up strategies. Researchers also point to the integrative approach of prevention and removal efforts. Governments and industries should consider adopting sustainable waste management systems and invest in minimizing the leakage of plastics into marine ecosystems. Global policies, for instance, could leverage a treaty to act as a check on plastic pollution across international boundaries.



The fact that all of these tools and knowledge already exist to deal with the crisis speaks well for the solutions that people are already talking about.



Efficient&nbsp;usage&nbsp;of&nbsp;such&nbsp;resources,&nbsp;therefore,&nbsp;willdetermine&nbsp;if&nbsp;the plastic tide&nbsp;will&nbsp;ever&nbsp;be reversed&nbsp;and the&nbsp;oceans protected in the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad78ed" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Surging plastic levels found in the North Pacific Garbage Patch

In&nbsp;the&nbsp;modern&nbsp;world of&nbsp;convenience, plastic is&nbsp;ubiquitous.&nbsp;The evidence of our careless disposal of...

Over the past few weeks, you've probably heard somewhere that Earth was going to get a second moon. Well, we can now confirm that Earth now officially has two moons after capturing asteroid 2024 PT5.



On Sunday, September 29, our planet captured the tiny asteroid named 2024 PT5, turning it into a temporary mini-moon.



This intriguing event was first spotted by astronomers at the <a href="https://www.ucm.es/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complutense University</a> of Madrid. Richard Binzel, an astronomer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), shared some insights about these celestial visitors.



“These happen with some frequency, but we rarely see them because they’re very small and very hard to detect,” Binzel said. “Only recently has our survey capability reached the point of spotting them routinely.”



Using a powerful telescope located in Sutherland, South Africa, the team from Complutense University detected the small space rock back in August. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-mini-moons">What are mini-moons?</h2>



What exactly are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-new-quasi-moon-will-stick-around-for-hundreds-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mini-moons</a>, and how often do they visit us?



Mini-moons like 2024 PT5 are small asteroids that Earth's gravity grabs for a bit, letting them orbit our planet before they move on. 



These little guys usually travel around the sun like other asteroids, but when they get close enough to Earth, our gravitational pull can pull them into a temporary orbit.



They don’t stick around for long -- they might hang out for a few weeks or months before breaking free and continuing their journey around the sun. 



Scientists find mini-moons really interesting because they give us a chance to study near-Earth objects up close and learn more about how our solar system works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-2024-pt5">Journey of 2024 PT5</h2>



According to data from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory <a href="https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Horizons system</a>, this mini-moon's stay will be brief.



The temporary capture started at 3:54 p.m. EDT on September 29, 2024, and will end at 11:43 a.m. EDT on November 25, 2024. Which means, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-pt5-mini-moon-say-goodbye-to-earths-second-moon-we-barely-got-to-know-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">it won't be around much longer</a>, so enjoy it while you can.



So, where did this little visitor come from? 



2024 PT5 is part of the Arjuna asteroid belt -- a group of space rocks that follow orbits similar to Earth's, about 93 million miles from the sun.



Some Arjuna <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-chicxulub-caused-dinosaurs-extinction-event-traced-to-origin-kuiper-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid belt objects</a> can approach Earth at a close range of around 2.8 million miles and at a relatively low velocity of less than 2,200 miles per hour. 



"Asteroid 2024 PT5 will not describe a full orbit around Earth. You may say that if a true satellite is like a customer buying goods inside a store, objects like 2024 PT5 are window shoppers," Carlos de la Fuente Marcos, a professor and mini-moon expert from the Complutense University, explained to Space.com.



Carlos is the author of a scientific paper titled "<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/ad781f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A Two-month Mini-moon: 2024 PT5&nbsp;Captured by Earth from September to November</a>" recently published by the by the American Astronomical Society in the journal <a href="https://www.iop.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOPscience</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-common-are-captures-like-2024-pt5">How common are captures like 2024 PT5?</h2>



Though it might sound extraordinary for Earth to gain a second moon, these gravitational captures are more common than you might think. 



Scientists have officially documented two prior "short captures," which last about a week and are estimated to occur several times per decade. There have also been two rarer "long-capture" events.



After its brief visit, 2024 PT5 will continue its journey around the sun as part of the Arjuna family of asteroids. 



It won't stick around for billions of years like our primary moon, but its fleeting presence is a reminder of the dynamic nature of our cosmic neighborhood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-currently-visible">Not currently visible</h2>



Now, you might be wondering if you can spot this mini-moon in the night sky. Unfortunately, it's too small and dim for most of us.



The object is too small and dim for typical amateur telescopes and binoculars. However, the object is well within the brightness range of typical telescopes used by professional astronomers. 



A telescope with a diameter of at least 30 inches plus a CCD or CMOS detector is needed to observe this object; a 30-inch telescope and a human eye behind it will not be enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-2024-pt5-to-our-moon">Comparing 2024 PT5 to our moon</h2>



Scientists currently believe Earth's Moon, the big one, was formed around 4.5 billion years ago when a Mars-sized object, often called Theia, collided with our planet. 



This massive impact blasted a huge amount of debris into space, which then came together and cooled to create the Moon we see today. 



The giant-impact theory explains many of the Moon’s features, like its composition and orbit, making it the most widely accepted explanation among scientists.



To put its size into perspective, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our moon</a> is about 2,159 miles in diameter. In contrast, 2024 PT5 is believed to be just 37 feet wide. That makes our moon over 300,000 times wider than this tiny asteroid!



Even though we can't see it ourselves, knowing it's up there is pretty exciting. It's like having an invisible guest sharing our orbit for a little while.



These mini-moons might be small, but they offer big opportunities for scientists to learn more about near-Earth objects. They can provide insights into the composition of asteroids and the dynamics of our solar system.



“These temporary captures are natural cosmic laboratories,” Binzel mentioned. “They help us understand the small bodies that come close to Earth and could be important for future space missions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



As 2024 PT5 continues its journey, we'll keep our eyes -- and telescopes -- on the skies. After all, who knows when the next mini-moon might drop by?



Perhaps future technology will allow us to study these fleeting visitors more closely. Maybe one day, we'll even send missions to them to gather samples or test new spacecraft.



So, for a few weeks, Earth will have a tiny companion circling around it. While it's here, let's appreciate the wonders of our ever-changing universe and the surprises it brings our way.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/ad781f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal IOPscience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

It's official: Earth now has two moons

Over the past few weeks, you've probably heard somewhere that...

In a remarkable encounter off the coast of Alaska, human scientists had what they describe as a "conversation" with a humpback whale named Twain. Dr. Brenda McCowan from the University of California Davis was at the heart of this unexpected exchange.



Dr. McCowan and her team, known as Whale-SETI, have been studying how humpback whales communicate. They're aiming to understand whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/language-like-patterns-decoded-in-sperm-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication systems</a> to help in the search for life beyond Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-responds-to-a-human-greeting">Whale responds to a human greeting</h2>



Using an underwater speaker, the team played a recorded humpback "contact" call into the ocean. To their astonishment, Twain approached their boat and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conversation-with-humpback-whale-gives-seti-team-ideas-on-how-to-talk-to-aliens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">began responding</a>. 



For about 20 minutes, the whale circled them, matching the intervals between each call they played.



"We believe this is the first such communicative exchange between humans and humpback whales in the humpback 'language,'" said Dr. McCowan. 



The researchers were thrilled to see such direct interaction using the whale's own signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-encounter">Science behind the encounter</h2>



The <a href="https://www.projectceti.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whale-SETI team</a> is working on developing filters to detect intelligent signals, which could be used in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. 



By studying how whales communicate, they hope to find patterns that could apply to signals from outer space.



Dr. Fred Sharpe from the Alaska Whale Foundation emphasized just how intelligent humpback whales are. He pointed out their complex social systems and unique behaviors. 



"They create tools such as nets made of bubbles to catch fish and extensively communicate through songs and social calls," Dr. Sharpe explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-whales-and-extraterrestrial-life">Humans, whales and extraterrestrial life</h2>



The behavior they observed in Twain supports an important idea in the search for life beyond Earth. 



"Because of current limitations on technology, an important assumption of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence is that extraterrestrials will be interested in making contact and so target human receivers," noted Dr. Laurance Doyle of the SETI Institute.



"This important assumption is certainly supported by the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a>."



By engaging with whales, the team believes they can learn how to detect and understand intelligent signals, whether they come from the depths of the ocean or the far reaches of space.



The details of this extraordinary encounter are published in the journal Peer J, in an article titled "Interactive Bioacoustic Playback as a Tool for Detecting and Exploring Nonhuman Intelligence: 'Conversing' with an Alaskan Humpback Whale."



The researchers plan to use mathematics and various forms of artificial intelligence (AI), specifically information theory and machine learning, to measure how complex the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acoustic-tagging-helps-decode-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale's communication</a> is. They want to understand the rules and structures in the messages they receive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-whales-talking-what-s-next">Humans and whales talking -- what's next?</h2>



The Whale-SETI team isn't stopping there. They're preparing another paper focusing on the non-audio ways humpback whales might communicate, like the bubble rings they make around humans. 



Co-authors Dr. Josie Hubbard, Lisa Walker, and Jodi Frediani bring expertise in animal intelligence, whale song analysis, and whale behavior to the project.



The team acknowledges the financial support from the <a href="https://www.templetonworldcharity.org/our-priorities/diverse-intelligences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Templeton Foundation Diverse Intelligences Program</a>, which helped make their research possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-whale-seti">What Is Whale-SETI?</h2>



Whale-SETI, short for Whale Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, is a unique project that combines marine biology with the quest to find life beyond Earth. 



The researchers are trying to decode whale communication, working under the idea that these sounds might contain complex messages similar to human languages -- or even those of extraterrestrial beings.



Using advanced technology like sophisticated underwater microphones and artificial intelligence, they record and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analyze whale sounds</a>. 



The AI looks for patterns that might indicate language-like structures. This not only helps us understand whales better but also could improve how we search for intelligent life elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-humans-should-care-about-humpback-whales">Why humans should care about humpback whales</h2>



Humpback whales are fascinating creatures. They can grow up to 60 feet long and weigh as much as 40 tons. 



Known scientifically as Megaptera novaeangliae, these whales are easily recognized by their long pectoral fins and knobbly heads.



They travel great distances, migrating up to 5,000 miles between feeding and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-whales-epic-voyage-exposes-perils-of-the-mediterranean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding grounds</a>. 



Their songs are complex and melodious, playing a crucial role in how they interact socially, especially during breeding season.



Once hunted nearly to extinction, humpback whale populations have been recovering thanks to international protections. 



However, they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-benefits-of-whale-remains-and-their-proper-disposal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">still face threats</a> like getting caught in fishing gear, collisions with ships, and changes to their environment caused by climate change.



Understanding their communication and social structures can help in conservation efforts, ensuring these majestic creatures continue to thrive in our oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seti-institute-s-role">SETI Institute's role</h2>



The SETI Institute, founded in 1984, is dedicated to exploring life beyond Earth. Using cutting-edge technology, their team of scientists scans the skies for radio signals and other potential indicators of extraterrestrial civilizations. 



Their main job is to analyze data from space, hoping to uncover patterns or messages that could reveal we're not alone in the universe. 



By studying signals from space and striving to understand how life may evolve beyond Earth, they aim to answer the profound question: Are we alone in the universe?



But SETI Institute isn’t all about the hunt for aliens -- they’re also committed to inspiring and educating the public. 



They host cool workshops, engaging lectures, and interactive programs designed to spark curiosity and nurture the next generation of scientists. 



In addition to space, their research contributes to breakthroughs in fields like astrobiology and planetary science, answering some of the biggest questions about life and our place in the universe. 



Their work with Whale-SETI is an exciting intersection of this quest and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study of intelligent life</a> on our own planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-it-all-mean">What does it all mean?</h2>



To sum it all up, this encounter with Twain isn't just a fascinating story about humans and a whale. It's a step toward understanding intelligence in all its forms. 



By learning how to communicate with humpback whales, scientists hope to develop tools that could one day help us recognize and understand messages from extraterrestrial beings.



What does this mean for us? It highlights the importance of looking closely at the intelligent life we share our planet with. 



Perhaps by understanding the minds of whales, we can better prepare ourselves for encounters with life beyond Earth.



-----



The group behind this research includes scientists from the <a href="https://www.seti.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a>, <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>, and the <a href="https://www.alaskawhalefoundation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alaska Whale Foundation</a>. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/16349/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

AI helps humans have a 20-minute "conversation" with a humpback whale named Twain

In a remarkable encounter off the coast of Alaska, human...

A recent study sheds light on how supermassive black holes - each with a mass billions of times that of our Sun - formed so quickly within the first billion years after the Big Bang.&nbsp;



Led by researchers from the <a href="http://www.inaf.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Astrophysics</a> (INAF) in Italy, the team analyzed 21 of the most distant quasars ever discovered. The quasars were observed in the X-ray spectrum by the XMM-Newton and Chandra space telescopes. 



The findings suggest that the colossal black holes at the center of these quasars grew to their extraordinary sizes through extremely rapid and intense accretion, offering a plausible explanation for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lonely-quasars-in-the-early-universe-cannot-be-explained/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early existence</a> in the Universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-quasars-and-their-significance">Understanding quasars and their significance</h2>



Quasars are incredibly luminous and distant active galaxies powered by central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a>, also known as active galactic nuclei.&nbsp;



As these black holes attract matter, they emit enormous amounts of energy. The quasars examined in this study are among the oldest known objects, dating back to a time when the Universe was less than a billion years old.



In analyzing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/x-ray-radiation-from-black-holes-explained-after-50-year-struggle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray emissions</a> from these quasars, the researchers discovered an unexpected behavior of the supermassive black holes at their centers.&nbsp;



The experts found a connection between the shape of the X-ray emissions and the speed of the winds of matter being ejected by the quasars.&nbsp;



This relationship links wind speeds - reaching thousands of kilometers per second - to the temperature of the gas in the corona, the region closest to the black hole that emits X-rays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-the-limits-of-physics-nbsp">Challenging the limits of physics&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that quasars with low-energy X-ray emissions, indicating a lower temperature in the corona, exhibited faster winds. This suggests a phase of highly rapid growth that exceeds a physical limit known as the Eddington limit for the accretion of matter.&nbsp;



This phase is referred to as “super-Eddington.” In contrast, quasars with higher-energy X-ray emissions tended to have slower winds.



“Our work suggests that the supermassive black holes at the center of the first quasars formed within the first billion years of the Universe's life may have actually increased their mass very rapidly, challenging the limits of physics,” said Alessia Tortosa, lead author of the study and researcher at INAF in Rome.&nbsp;



“The discovery of this connection between X-ray emission and winds is crucial for understanding how such large black holes could have formed in such a short time, thus providing a concrete clue to solve one of the greatest mysteries of modern astrophysics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observation-of-quasars-from-the-cosmic-dawn">Observation of quasars from the cosmic dawn </h2>



The results were primarily achieved by analyzing data collected with the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>'s XMM-Newton space telescope, which provided approximately 700 hours of quasar observations. Most of this data, gathered between 2021 and 2023 as part of the Multi-Year XMM-Newton Heritage Program, falls under the <a href="https://indico.ict.inaf.it/event/2019/contributions/11690/attachments/5713/11564/HSC_Zappacosta_May2022_audizioniINAF.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HYPERION project</a>.&nbsp;



Directed by Luca Zappacosta, a researcher at INAF in Rome, the HYPERION project aims to study hyper-luminous quasars during the cosmic dawn of the Universe.&nbsp;



Supported by INAF funding, the extensive observation campaign enabled cutting-edge research into the early evolutionary dynamics of the Universe's structures.



“In the HYPERION program, we focused on two key factors: on one hand, the careful selection of quasars to observe, choosing the titans, meaning those that had accumulated as much mass as possible, and on the other hand, the in-depth study of their properties in X-rays, something never attempted before on such a large number of objects from the cosmic dawn,” Zappacosta said.&nbsp;



“We hit the jackpot! The results we're getting are genuinely unexpected, and they all point to a super-Eddington growth mechanism of the black holes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-space-missions">Implications for future space missions</h2>



This study offers valuable insights for upcoming X-ray missions like ATHENA (ESA), AXIS, and Lynx (NASA), scheduled for launch between 2030 and 2040. 



The results will aid in refining next-generation observational instruments and developing better strategies for investigating black holes and active galactic nuclei in X-rays at even more distant cosmic epochs.&nbsp;



Understanding these elements is crucial for unraveling the formation of the first galactic structures in the primordial Universe.



By providing a plausible explanation for the rapid growth of early supermassive black holes, this research addresses one of modern astrophysics' greatest mysteries.&nbsp;



It opens new avenues for exploring how such massive entities could form so swiftly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, enhancing our comprehension of the Universe's earliest stages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202449662" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics </a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Early quasars defied the laws of physics with rapid growth 

A recent study sheds light on how supermassive black holes...

An asteroid impact on Mars about 11 million years ago, sending fragments of the Red Planet hurtling through space. One of these pieces eventually crashed into Earth and somehow made its way into a drawer of an old desk at Purdue University. 



This rare find, now known as the Lafayette Meteorite, has been instrumental in unlocking secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manganese-discovery-ancient-mars-earth-like-water-lake-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ watery past, with new research recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7185/geochemlet.2443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemical Perspective Letters</a> that provides insight into the timing and nature of Mars’ ancient water activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-mars-watery-past">Tracing Mars’ watery past</h2>



Scientists have long known that the Lafayette Meteorite interacted with liquid water on Mars, but the exact timing of this event was uncertain.&nbsp;



Dr. Marissa Tremblay, an assistant professor at Purdue University’s <a href="https://www.eaps.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences</a> (EAPS), led an international research team to determine the age of the water-altered minerals in the meteorite, pinpointing it to 742 million years ago.



“Dating these minerals can therefore tell us when there was liquid water at or near the surface of Mars in the planet's geologic past,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that while liquid water wasn’t abundant on the surface at this time, it likely came from melting subsurface ice, or permafrost, caused by intermittent volcanic activity -- a phenomenon still observed on Mars today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-a-moment-in-mars-geological-timeline">Preserving a moment in Mars’ geological timeline</h2>



The study not only identified when water interacted with the meteorite but also established that the dating was unaffected by events after the meteorite left Mars.&nbsp;



“The age could have been affected by the impact that ejected the Lafayette Meteorite from Mars, the heating it experienced during the 11 million years it was floating in space, or the heating when it fell to Earth,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



However, the team confirmed that none of these factors altered the age, validating the timeline of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-lost-most-of-its-water-but-where-did-it-go/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> interaction.



Study co-author and Purdue EAPS researcher Ryan Ickert applied heavy isotope analysis to further verify that previous data on the meteorite’s water-rock interaction had likely been skewed by other geological processes.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This meteorite uniquely has evidence that it has reacted with water. The exact date of this was controversial, and our publication dates when water was present,” said Ickert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-journey-of-the-meteorite">Mysterious journey of the meteorite </h2>



The Lafayette Meteorite’s journey to Purdue is something of a mystery. It was found in a university drawer in 1931, though how it got there remains unknown.&nbsp;



In previous research, Tremblay and her team used crop disease markers from organic contaminants found on the meteorite to narrow down when it might have fallen to Earth.



Once the meteorite was ejected from Mars, it endured constant cosmic ray bombardment in space, which produced certain isotopes, offering clues to its time of impact on Earth.&nbsp;



“Many meteoroids are produced by impacts on Mars and other planetary bodies, but only a handful will eventually fall to Earth,” Tremblay said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-time-capsules">Planetary time capsules</h2>



Meteorites like Lafayette serve as planetary time capsules, offering invaluable data on the geological and environmental history of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">home worlds</a>. With their dense structure, metallic content, and magnetic properties, meteorites are often distinguishable from Earth rocks.&nbsp;



“We can identify meteorites by studying what minerals are present in them, their mineral relationships, and by checking for a fusion crust formed during entry into Earth’s atmosphere,” Tremblay explained.&nbsp;



By analyzing these traits and their chemical signatures, scientists can often determine a meteorite’s planetary origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-history-of-meteorites">Complex history of meteorites</h2>



This research marks a significant milestone for the team, which included scientists from institutions across the globe, such as the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Center (SUERC), the University of St. Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Bristol, and London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>.&nbsp;



“Before moving to Purdue, Ryan and I were both based at SUERC, where the argon-argon isotopic analyses of the alteration minerals in Lafayette took place,” Tremblay said.&nbsp;



Their partners at SUERC and the Natural History Museum have long contributed to studying Lafayette’s complex history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dating-minerals-in-meteorites">Dating minerals in meteorites</h2>



Dating the water-altered minerals in Lafayette, and others in its class of Martian meteorites called nakhlites, has been a central focus in planetary science, as they uniquely capture moments when liquid water was present on Mars.&nbsp;



Due to complex alterations over time, previous attempts to date these minerals were plagued with uncertainties.&nbsp;



However, the team has now developed a robust dating method that could be applied to other meteorites, enhancing our understanding of when water might have been present on Mars and other planetary bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-planetary-science">The future of planetary science</h2>



Thanks to the Stahura Undergraduate Meteorite Fund, Tremblay and Ickert’s research on the Lafayette Meteorite will continue, with the involvement of undergraduate students in Purdue EAPS.&nbsp;



This opportunity allows students to engage in real-world planetary science, helping to reveal the intricate histories of meteoritic samples.



Tremblay and her team’s work on the Lafayette Meteorite highlights its scientific significance, revealing a complex history that ties it to Mars’ geological past.&nbsp;



Their findings not only deepen our understanding of Mars but also set a precedent for future studies that might unveil even more about the red planet’s climate history, water activity, and potential for supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-mars-rocks-contain-signs-of-life-scientists-call-to-bring-them-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Meteorite found in an old desk shows Mars had water about 700 million years ago

An asteroid impact on Mars about 11 million years ago,...

Have you ever wondered how your internet and browsing habits impact your mental health? The relationship between internet use and happiness, it turns out, isn't as simple as you might think. 



For those crossing the 50-year mark, the internet could be a portal to a more contented life. However, for the younger crowd, losing themselves in the world of online activities might not be so rosy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-and-internet-use">Mental health and internet use</h2>



An intriguing new study reveals that people over 50 who regularly navigate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital landscape</a> of emails, online shopping, or information seeking tend to feel happier and less blue. Eugenia Cheng of the <a href="https://www.hku.hk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hong Kong</a> led the team behind this research.



The experts classified 87,000 people aged 50 and older from 23 countries into four groups based on their internet usage: non-users, sporadic users (those using the internet less than once a week), weekly users, and daily users.



Over six years, these "silver surfers" painted a picture showing that more internet use correlated with more life satisfaction and improved health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-side-of-the-internet">Dark side of the internet</h2>



Before anyone decides to glue themselves to their screens, it's important to remember that the internet can be a source of poor mental health and distress for our younger counterparts.



Earlier research suggested that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-shocking-reality-of-website-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">internet</a> use among those under 50 could exacerbate anxiety, self-esteem issues, eating disorders, and exposure to online harassment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geography-and-age">Geography and age</h2>



Turning to England, the researchers discovered that only daily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-the-internet-is-not-bad-for-your-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">internet</a> users reported fewer depressive symptoms compared to the other groups.



The difference in happiness seems more pronounced for those aged 65 and above - especially for those who were unmarried, physically inactive, and not as financially comfortable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sociability-and-support">Sociability and support</h2>



Cheng's team believes that for those aged 50 and above, the internet could promote social interaction and help combat loneliness.



Beyond the social aspect, it lends a helping hand in accessing valuable information and services that offer emotional support and medical advice. But while the internet may be a tool for boosting mental health, it's not without its perils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internet-and-mental-health-connection">Internet and mental health connection</h2>



Remember that old saying about having too much of a good thing? It perfectly applies to the internet, especially for older populations. 



Excessive internet use could cut into time for sleep, physical activity, and face-to-face socializing - the very factors important for good mental health. Moreover, there's the tricky business of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online</a> fraud and misinformation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internet-boosts-mental-health">Internet boosts mental health</h2>



According to the researchers, their study highlights the potential of internet use as an effective strategy to bolster overall mental health in middle-aged and older populations.



After all, the internet serves as a lifeline for people in their twilight years, allowing them to access health-related information, build social connections, and find entertainment - all contributing positively to their mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-little-internet-goes-a-long-way">Little internet goes a long way</h2>



Let's not forget another noteworthy finding. "Silver surfers" who keep using the internet cut their risk of developing dementia in half compared to their less digital savvy peers.



"Online engagement may help to develop and maintain cognitive reserve, which can in turn compensate for brain aging and reduce the risk of dementia," explained Dr. Virginia Chang, a professor at NYU School of Global Public Health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-informed-decisions-about-our-digital-habits">Informed decisions about our digital habits</h2>



The internet, like many things in life, can be a boon or a bane for mental health, depending on how we use it and, interestingly, how old we are. 



While older adults surf their way towards a healthier and happier life, our younger generations might need to tread the online waters more carefully. Either way, it seems clear that the world wide web continues to weave its complex threads into the fabric of our lives.



Within this digital maze we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigate</a> daily, let's continue to explore and learn the best ways to use it for our advantage.



As our lives become increasingly entwined with technology, studies like these offer valuable insights. They help us to question, reflect, and make informed decisions about our digital habits. In what ways can we all strike a balance in our internet use to improve our quality of life?



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mental health and the internet: Who benefits and who suffers?

Have you ever wondered how your internet and browsing habits...