Climate change is a substantial and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods of time ranging from decades to millions of years. It might be a change in the average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions.
Climate change is a result of factors that include oceanic processes, biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received buy Earth, volcanic eruptions, and plate tectonics, and human induced alterations of the natural world; these latter effects are presently causing global warming, and the term â€œclimate changeâ€ is frequently used to describe human-specific impacts. 
Image Caption: Satellite image of ship tracks, clouds created by the exhaust of ship smokestacks. Credit: NASA/Wikipedia

What is Climate Change?

In a quiet and picturesque corner of southern Brazil known as Paraíso do Sul, an extraordinary treasure was uncovered -- a fossil so ancient and well-preserved that it may potentially rewrite the narrative of dinosaur evolution.



This remarkable fossil belonged to a dog-sized reptile named Gondwanax paraisensis that roamed the region approximately 237 million years ago. 



This was during the Triassic period -- a time when Earth’s ecosystems were teeming with evolutionary experiments.



As a newly identified species, this fossil holds tremendous potential as a key to unraveling the mysteries surrounding the origin and early development of the oldest dinosaurs.



Although this fascinating discovery has sparked significant intrigue and excitement among paleontologists, the exact position of the fossil in the complex evolutionary tree of life still remains a subject of debate and careful scientific scrutiny.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-history-written-in-stone">Dinosaur history written in stone</h2>



In the realms of science, every fossil discovery is like a puzzle piece that can help us better understand our past. And when it comes to the world of paleontology, there are still many puzzles waiting to be solved.



Gondwanax paraisensis walked on four legs and was 39 inches in length, with a long tail. It belonged to an extinct group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-climate-change-drove-the-rapid-evolution-of-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptiles</a> known as silesaurids. These were not true dinosaurs, but are considered a closely related sister group to the dinosaurs. 



However, this newly discovered fossil is one of the oldest silesaurids found anywhere in the world, and it may lead scientists to challenge currently accepted theories about the lineage and early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of dinosaurs</a>.



"The most important part of this finding is its age,” said Rodrigo Temp Müller, the sole author of the study and a paleontologist at <a href="https://www.ufsm.br/orgaos-de-apoio/sai/welcome-to-ufsm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Santa Maria</a> in Brazil. “Because it's so old, it gives us clues as to how dinosaurs came to be."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-lineage-of-questions">A lineage of questions</h2>



There is an ongoing debate among paleontologists about where silesaurids fit in terms of dinosaur evolution. Were they actual dinosaurs or were they just closely related ancestors?



The answer to this question is not straightforward. Some scientists believe that silesaurids are a sister group to dinosaurs, implying that they share a common ancestor but evolved separately.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Gondwanax-paraisensis_history-of-dinosaurs_illustration_credit-Gondwana-research_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Gondwanax-paraisensis_history-of-dinosaurs_illustration_credit-Gondwana-research_1s.webp" alt="Illustration showing the evolution of dinosaurs on the Gondwana continent of ancient Earth. Credit: Gondwana research" class="wp-image-1950311"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration showing the evolution of dinosaurs on the Gondwana continent of ancient Earth. Credit: Gondwana research</figcaption></figure>



Others, however, hypothesize that some silesaurids may have evolved into ornithischians - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isle-of-wight-fossils-suggest-that-europe-had-unique-plant-eating-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivorous dinosaurs</a>, such as the Stegosaurus and Triceratops, that possessed a bird-like pelvic structure.



Understanding silesaurids could potentially lead to a better understanding of what physical traits contributed to the success of early dinosaurs.



However, solving this puzzle has not been an easy task as many fossils of silesaurids are found incomplete or fragmented, making it difficult for scientists to reach consensus regarding the position of silesaurids in the evolutionary tree of dinosaurs. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-clues-about-the-history-of-dinosaurs">New clues about the history of dinosaurs </h2>



Physician Pedro Lucas Porcela Aurélio, who discovered the new fossil in 2014, was hit by an indescribable feeling. "Being the first human to touch something from 237 million years ago is extraordinary," he remarked.



When Aurélio handed over the fossil to the paleontologists in 2021, it was encased in hard rock with only the vertebrae visible. 



Surprisingly, Gondwanax was found to have three vertebrae in its hips, unlike its relatives who only had two. This difference suggested that this reptile may have been more dinosaur-like than previously assumed.



If this hypothesis is confirmed, it would not only extend the history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-bird-hipped-dinosaurs-evolve/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ornithischians</a> (bird-like dinosaurs) by up to ten million years, but it would also significantly alter our understanding of dinosaur origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quest-for-more-evidence-continues">The quest for more evidence continues</h2>



Despite the enthusiasm around the discovery, scientists still need more fossil evidence to confirm this theory. 



Steve Brusatte, a paleontologist from the University of Edinburgh, highlighted this need for further exploration. "I wish I could say that this new silesaurid fossil solves the riddle once and for all," he said. "But for me, it is still an open question."



In the upcoming chapters of this extraordinary journey of scientific exploration, we will be waiting eagerly for more pieces of this ancient puzzle to surface. 



Until then, the mystery of the dog-sized reptile continues to linger in our minds, reminding us that every stone turned may be a step closer to unravelling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-ocean-water-discovery-is-unlocking-secrets-of-earths-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">secrets of the past</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X24002764">Gondwana Research</a>.



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Rare Triassic fossil discovery may rewrite the history of dinosaurs

In a quiet and picturesque corner of southern Brazil known...

Recent research highlights the link between air pollution and an increased risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children, particularly those with a genetic predisposition.&nbsp;



The study explores the role of nitric oxide (NO) and other pollutants in triggering complex biological responses that can impact neurodevelopment.



The research was led by Dr. Haitham Amal, head of the Laboratory of Neuromics, Cell Signaling, and Translational Medicine at the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University</a> of Jerusalem.



“Meeting families and children with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-diagnoses-have-almost-tripled-in-the-us-over-the-past-ten-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a> in Boston during my time at MIT inspired me to focus on a single goal: to help develop biological diagnostics and treatment for autism spectrum disorder,” Amal said.&nbsp;



This encounter shaped his career, leading him to investigate the ways environmental and genetic factors combine to influence ASD risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-s-impact-on-neurodevelopment">Pollution’s impact on neurodevelopment</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-air-pollution-forms-may-help-us-prevent-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Air pollution</a> contains several harmful elements, including particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and ozone. 



These pollutants, when inhaled, can bypass the blood-brain barrier, leading to inflammation and changes in neural functioning. 



The research emphasizes how particles such as PM2.5 - microscopic particles from sources like construction and car exhaust - and NO products can cross the placenta, directly impacting fetal brain development.&nbsp;



“My lab has shown that nitric oxide plays a major role in ASD,” Amal said, highlighting NO’s key role in brain health.



The review notes how urban areas with high pollution levels, such as Phoenix, San Jose, and Eugene, expose residents, particularly expectant mothers, to levels of pollution that may impact early childhood development.&nbsp;



A report from the <a href="https://www.lung.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Lung Association</a> shows that 39 percent of the U.S. population lives in areas with concerning air quality, which, combined with genetic predispositions, could be a driving factor behind rising autism rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-exposure-and-biological-pathways">Pollution exposure and biological pathways</h2>



The review presents evidence of several biological pathways that may link pollution exposure to increased autism risk.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrosative-stress-and-nitric-oxide">Nitrosative stress and nitric oxide</h3>



Nitrosative stress caused by NO has been shown to affect neurological development. This was one of Dr. Amal’s foundational discoveries.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neuroinflammation-and-oxidative-stress">Neuroinflammation and oxidative stress</h3>



Inhaled pollutants can prompt inflammation within the brain, which interferes with nerve development, potentially contributing to the behavioral symptoms associated with autism.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neurotransmitter-disruption">Neurotransmitter disruption</h3>



Pollutants may interrupt the balance of crucial brain chemicals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-learn-from-positive-and-negative-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine</a> and norepinephrine, which play a role in decision-making and overall cognitive development.



The experts reviewed studies on both human and animal models to examine these biological effects, linking the presence of certain pollutants to changes in neural functioning. 



The findings show that pollutants, particularly NO, can cross the placenta and directly affect the fetus.&nbsp;



This sensitivity during prenatal and early childhood development stages, when the brain is rapidly growing, makes the body especially vulnerable to external factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-convergence-of-genetics-and-environment">Convergence of genetics and environment</h2>



Autism has a strong genetic component, with estimates suggesting that 40-80% of cases may have a genetic basis. However, the scientists argue that genetics alone cannot explain the condition’s rising prevalence.&nbsp;



“The timing of exposure appears crucial, with heightened vulnerability during prenatal development and early childhood,” Amal explained.&nbsp;



The review suggests that while a genetic predisposition to autism can increase sensitivity to pollutants, environmental triggers -- especially air pollution -- may interact with genetics to further elevate autism risk.



A separate Harvard study showed that exposure to fine particulate matter early in life may increase the risk of autism by up to 64 percent, and prenatal exposure may elevate risk by 31 percent. 



This interaction between genes and environment presents a new model for understanding autism’s etiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-interventions-for-at-risk-populations-nbsp">Early interventions for at-risk populations&nbsp;</h2>



As air quality deteriorates with urban expansion, there is an urgent need to assess pollution’s impact on vulnerable populations.&nbsp;



Amal’s findings suggest that governments may need to adjust urban planning and pollution monitoring to safeguard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prenatal-pollution-exposure-linked-to-cognitive-impairment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prenatal</a> health.



The study also points to future research opportunities, particularly in developing biomarkers for early ASD detection.&nbsp;



By identifying specific indicators of pollution-related neurological stress, doctors may one day be able to screen infants and at-risk populations with greater accuracy.



“Different kinds of neurological disorders, including autism spectrum disorder, can be associated with this environmental factor,” Amal said.&nbsp;



His team is examining whether combining genetic and environmental data can improve diagnostics, which could enable earlier intervention for at-risk populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-and-autism-prevalence">Pollution and autism prevalence </h2>



The study calls for extensive research to explore how various pollutants impact brain development.&nbsp;



“The research suggests that individuals with genetic predisposition to ASD may be more vulnerable to the harmful effects of air pollution exposure,” Amal said.&nbsp;



As ASD prevalence rises worldwide, this research may drive the development of preventive policies, such as targeted air quality monitoring in cities.



In addition, Amal’s work highlights the need for preventive strategies in communities facing heightened pollution levels.&nbsp;



His insights may prompt city planners, healthcare providers, and families to prioritize air quality improvements, especially in high-risk areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-and-neurological-disorders">Pollution and neurological disorders</h2>



Amal’s pioneering work not only contributes to autism research but has implications for other neurological conditions.&nbsp;



The connections he draws between nitric oxide, ASD, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-disease-attacks-the-brain-in-two-separate-phases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a> suggest shared molecular pathways. By addressing NO-related neuroinflammation, treatments may eventually target multiple brain conditions.



The study ultimately underscores the power of interdisciplinary research in addressing complex conditions like autism.&nbsp;



As Amal concludes, his laboratory’s commitment to examining environmental factors alongside genetic predispositions could significantly impact the landscape of neurological disorder treatment, benefiting both current and future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bm.genomicpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BM0115-Amal-2024.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain Medicine</a>.



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Air pollution discovered to be a "critical risk factor" for autism

Recent research highlights the link between air pollution and an...

Earworms - those persistent tunes that play in our heads unbidden - can be more than a minor annoyance.



Imagine going about your day when, without warning, a song loops repeatedly in your mind. 



While these spontaneous musical memories can feel intrusive, earworms offer a fascinating glimpse into the precision of our musical recall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-mystery-of-earworms">Unveiling the mystery of earworms</h2>



A recent study has shed light on the surprising accuracy of earworms.



Published in the journal Attention, Perception, &amp; Psychophysics, the study revealed that nearly half of participants' renditions of earworms matched the original <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-have-a-hidden-musical-talent-for-singing-on-pitch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pitch</a> of the songs.



This finding challenges prior beliefs about the limitations of musical memory, suggesting that our brains may preserve detailed “absolute pitch” memories even without formal pitch recognition skills.



Earworms, experienced by over 90% of people, are involuntary musical memories that spontaneously play in our minds. 



This study indicates that our recall of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/song-melodies-have-become-much-simpler-since-1950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melodies</a> may be more precise than previously thought, even without external references.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encountering-music-in-a-new-light">Encountering music in a new light</h2>



Matthew G. Evans, PhD candidate at <a href="https://admissions.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a>, said he first learned about the field of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-can-prevent-brain-aging-and-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music</a> cognition from Daniel Levitin’s book&nbsp;This Is Your Brain On Music. 



"In that book, he describes a study where they found evidence for absolute pitch recall in voluntarily-recalled musical imagery - and I tried it myself, and it worked, and I’ve been hooked on the topic of musical memory ever since.”



Evans set out to investigate whether this accurate recall extended to spontaneous earworms or was limited only to songs that people purposefully tried to remember.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earworms-more-than-just-random-tunes">Earworms: More than just random tunes</h2>



The study involved 30 undergraduate students who participated in a two-week research period aimed at exploring the accuracy of spontaneous musical recall. 



Using the experience sampling method, the researchers documented these involuntary musical memories in real time by sending participants random text prompts throughout the day.



Students were asked to record any song playing in their minds, capturing the natural occurrence of earworms outside of a controlled laboratory setting.



While most participants had some familiarity with music, none reported having perfect pitch or formal training that would give them an advantage in recalling exact musical notes. 



Each recording was analyzed against the original <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-evolution-of-song-lyrics-less-complexity-and-more-emotion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">song</a> to determine how closely the pitch matched the song’s actual key. 



The findings were striking: 44.7% of the earworms matched the original song’s pitch exactly. When the range was expanded to include recordings within one semitone of the original pitch, nearly 69% of the renditions met this criterion - far surpassing what could be attributed to random chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-melodic-imprint-of-our-brains">The melodic imprint of our brains</h2>



The study also found that pitch accuracy was not significantly affected by recent exposure to a song.



Some participants noted that their earworm was triggered by recently hearing the song, but their ability to match the original pitch remained similar to those whose earworms were not influenced by recent listening.



"When we divided our data into responses where participants said they had recently heard the song and those where they hadn’t, we saw absolutely no difference in absolute pitch accuracy," noted Evans. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



While this study provides valuable insights into how we recall music, it also highlights the need for further research to validate and expand upon these findings. 



To gain a broader understanding of how earworms and pitch recall function across different populations, future studies should incorporate a larger and more diverse participant pool, including individuals with no musical background and participants from varied age groups and cultural settings.



By expanding the scope of the research, scientists could explore questions such as whether musical memory accuracy varies by age, cultural exposure to music, or training. 



It may also be valuable to investigate whether factors such as musical genres or personal attachment to specific songs influence pitch accuracy in earworms.



This research marks an early step in unraveling the complex mechanisms of our brain's musical memory. 



As future studies build on this foundational work, we may discover more about the intricate ways in which our minds store and retrieve musical information, shedding light on the intersection of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-is-shaped-by-both-past-and-future-experience-and-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a>, perception, and cognitive processes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13414-024-02936-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Attention, Perception, &amp; Psychophysics</a>.



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Earworms: The surprising accuracy of our musical memory

Earworms - those persistent tunes that play in our heads...

Imagine Earth, our blue planet, not with sparkling blue oceans and sweeping green terrains, but as a giant chunk of ice. This "Snowball Earth" scenario might not be just a figment of our imagination. Rather, it could very well have been Earth's reality millions of years ago.



In an intriguing new study conducted by the University of Colorado Boulder, researchers have provided compelling evidence indicating that giant glaciers cloaked our Earth all the way to its equator hundreds of millions of years ago. This icy makeover would have turned our beautiful planet into a celestial icicle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-age-and-snowball-earth">Ice Age and Snowball Earth</h2>



This study comes as a major breakthrough for supporters of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snowball-earth-event-set-the-stage-for-complex-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enduring theory</a> known as Snowball Earth. 



According to this theory, from around 720 to 635 million years ago, an array of events radically altered the climate of our planet. The temperatures plummeted and huge ice sheets, possibly several miles thick, enveloped our planet from pole to pole.



"This study presents the first physical evidence that Snowball Earth reached the heart of continents at the equator," noted Liam Courtney-Davies, the lead author of the new study and a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Geological Sciences at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a>.



The team of co-authors included Rebecca Flowers, a professor of geological sciences at CU Boulder, and researchers from Colorado College, <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California</a>, Santa Barbara, and University of California, Berkeley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rocky-mountains-hold-the-key">Rocky mountains hold the key</h2>



The researchers centered their focus on the Front Range of Colorado's Rocky Mountains. A charming array of rocks, lovingly nicknamed the Tavakaiv or "Tava" sandstones, reside here. According to Courtney-Davies, these rocks hold the coveted key to our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-had-massive-rapid-melting-period-that-left-the-surface-slushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's frigid past</a>.



The geologists utilized a dating technique known as laser ablation mass spectrometry. This is a method that frees some of the atoms inside the minerals by zapping them with lasers.



Through this process, the scientists discovered that these rocks were forced underground between about 690 to 660 million years ago, most likely due to the immense weight of the overlying glaciers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snowball-earth-beyond-geology">Snowball Earth beyond geology</h2>



But the implications of this study are not restricted to the realm of geology. 



Courtney-Davies noted that the findings also have profound implications for understanding a critical phase in the evolution of life on Earth. The theory goes that the first multicellular organisms possibly made their appearance in our oceans right after Snowball Earth thawed out.



“You have the climate evolving, and you have life evolving with it. All of these things happened during Snowball Earth upheaval,” explained Courtney-Davies. “We have to better characterize this entire time period to understand how we and the planet evolved together.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snowball-earth-theory">Snowball Earth theory</h2>



Ever since the term “Snowball Earth” was first proposed in a 1992 paper by American geologist Joseph Kirschvink, it has prompted substantial debate among scientists.



While geologists have indeed discovered the signs of thick ice from this era in ancient coastal areas, evidence within the interior of continents near the equator has been conspicuously absent.



Enter Colorado. Hundreds of millions of years ago, Colorado was not positioned at the northern latitudes where it is today.



In fact, it was snugly placed over the equator as an integral part of the ancient supercontinent Laurentia. If glaciers did indeed form here, it implies they could have formed just about anywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-the-past">Unearthing the past</h2>



Eager to uncover this elusive missing piece of the Snowball Earth puzzle, Courtney-Davies and his team turned to the Tava sandstones. These sandstones, predominantly visible around Pikes Peak, may appear as average yellow-brown rocks to an untrained eye. But to a geologist, they tell an extraordinary tale.



These features likely began as sands at Colorado's surface. However, certain forces pushed them underground, akin to claws digging into the Earth's crust. Courtney-Davies wanted to determine whether these sandstones were also linked to the presence of ice sheets.



To do so, the scientists calculated the ages of mineral veins traversing these features. They collected minute samples of the minerals, rich in iron oxide (essentially rust), and zapped them with a laser.



Consequently, the minerals released small quantities of the radioactive element uranium. Since uranium atoms decay into lead at a constant rate, the team used them as a timekeeper to determine the age of these rocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



The findings implied that the Tava sandstone had indeed been forced underground during the Snowball Earth period. The team suspects that thick ice sheets formed over Colorado at the time, subjecting the sands to tremendous pressure, and ultimately, pushing them into the bedrock below.



"We're excited that we had the opportunity to unravel the story of the only Snowball Earth deposits that have so far been identified in Colorado," said Flowers.



The entrepreneurial researchers are not ones to rest on their laurels, though. If such features formed in Colorado during Snowball Earth, they could very well have formed in other parts of North America. 



“We want to get the word out so that others try and find these features and help us build a more complete picture of Snowball Earth," noted Courtney-Davies.



So, next time you find yourself staring at an ice cube, consider this: once upon a time, our entire planet might have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-was-a-giant-snowball-700-million-years-ago-and-now-scientists-know-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">looked just like that</a>. A tiny, frozen ball suspended in the vast expanse of space. Sounds like a chilling tale, doesn't it?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410759121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Ancient rocks suggest that Earth was once a 'snowball'

Imagine Earth, our blue planet, not with sparkling blue oceans...

We often hear about the insidious creep of climate change and the warming that's altering landscapes around the world. Well, the Arctic and its plants aren't immune to this silent invasion.



New evidence suggests that it's not just the temperature change we should be monitoring, but also our hoofed friends out on the tundra. Arctic greening, as it is often called, might be more about caribou and muskoxen than we ever realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greening-of-the-arctic-landscape">Greening of the Arctic landscape </h2>



Research released from the University of California, Davis (<a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/academics/graduate" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>) indicates that the large grazers of the Arctic landscape - the caribou and muskoxen - have a direct effect on the timing and abundance of Arctic plants.



This correlation reveals significant implications for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-planting-trees-in-the-arctic-is-not-a-good-climate-solution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overall Arctic ecosystem</a>. 



The findings were recently detailed in a study published in the journal PNAS Nexus and illuminate the vital role that these large herbivores play in our understanding of the Arctic ecosystem.



The focus of the narrative so far has been climate change and the increasing temperatures, but there seems to be more to it than that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-emerging-in-the-arctic">Plants emerging in the Arctic</h2>



To fully appreciate the impact of this discovery, it's essential that we first understand phenology- the study of timing and patterns in nature.



It's what alerts us when birds are migrating, or when a plant first bursts to life or bursts into bloom. Within the context of a rapidly warming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-melting-arctic-sea-ice-could-disrupt-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a>, understanding these patterns becomes critical.



“Caribou and muskoxen play a key role in how soon plants emerge and this translates to how abundant they become,” said lead author Eric Post, a professor and arctic ecologist in the UC Davis Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology. 



“This is an important, and overlooked, factor we need to consider as we seek to more fully understand climate change impacts on tundra vegetation in the Arctic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbivores-and-plant-growth">Herbivores and plant growth </h2>



The research that led to these insights was conducted over a period of 22 years near Kangerlussuaq, Greenland. Here, Post and his team designed an exclusion experiment to understand the effect of herbivores on the timing of plant growth and abundance.



The researchers compared the timing of spring green-up of nine plant species with and without the grazing animals, from 2009 to 2017.



The overall conclusion was that plants where caribou or muskoxen were present underwent earlier green-up and enjoyed greater abundance later into the growing season.



However, not all plants responded equally to the grazing. While about two-thirds of plants greened up earlier, and three-quarters thrived more effectively later in the season with grazing animals present, some species such as dwarf birch and harebell emerged later when grazers were present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-herbivore-grazing">Impact of herbivore grazing</h2>



While it's still unclear why Arctic plants respond this way to the presence of grazers, what is clear is that there is a connection.



“We’re used to thinking of the timing of plant availability as impacting the productivity of grazing animals, but not the reverse,” Post said. “The absence or presence of herbivores can also impact the timing of plant growth and their productivity.”



This understanding becomes increasingly important in light of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">current decline</a> of many caribou populations in the Arctic. According to the IUCN Red List, migratory tundra caribou are now considered vulnerable, having lost more than half of their total abundance since the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planting-trees-in-the-arctic">Planting trees in the Arctic</h2>



In a related study, Post suggested that supporting sustainable populations of herbivores in the Arctic could be a more effective nature-based solution to climate change in the region than planting trees there. The findings of the PNAS Nexus study lend credence to this suggestion.



We now have a better understanding of the crucial role our hoofed friends play in the Arctic ecosystem, but it is clear that more research is needed.



The challenge is enormous, yet with every bit of new knowledge, we get one step closer to a comprehensive understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-alters-the-atmosphere-in-the-remote-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic ecosystem</a> and how we can best protect it against the backdrop of climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/PNASNEXUS-2024-00279RR" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Arctic grazers secretly shape plant growth and survival

We often hear about the insidious creep of climate change...

Psilocybin, a compound at the forefront of psychedelic research, has sparked new hope in the perennial quest for an effective cure for psychiatric ailments, particularly anorexia nervosa. 



A clinical trial conducted by researchers at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) highlights how this compound could potentially revolutionize treatment methods and result in improved clinical outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-s-effect-on-anorexia-patients">Psilocybin’s effect on anorexia patients</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-disorders-can-be-contagious-among-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anorexia nervosa</a> is a psychiatric disorder that has resisted conventional treatments and currently has no effective medications approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. It is also the psychiatric illness that holds the record for having the highest mortality rate.



The <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSD</a> research explores the effect of psilocybin treatment on this condition and provides a first-hand account of its consequences.



“Our findings suggest that psilocybin may be helpful in supporting meaningful psychological change in a subset of people with anorexia nervosa," explained Dr. Stephanie Knatz Peck, lead author of the study.



"What's particularly interesting is that 60% of participants reported a reduction in the importance of physical appearance, while 70% noted quality-of-life improvements and shifts in personal identity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-treatment-outcomes">Psilocybin treatment outcomes </h2>



The clinical trial revealed some fascinating outcomes. An overwhelming 90% of participants described their psilocybin session as one of the top five most meaningful experiences of their lives.



Additionally, 40% of the subjects showed clinically significant reductions in eating disorder psychopathology.



However, despite these positive results, the study notes that improvements in psychological outlook did not necessarily translate to weight restoration. 



Furthermore, psilocybin treatment appeared to work very effectively for some individuals while others showed minimal improvements. 



These discrepancies highlight the need for further research, particularly into how genetic variations in serotonin receptors might influence treatment outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transformative-experience-for-some-patients">Transformative experience for some patients </h2>



The impact of this treatment transcends the scientific data and filters into the personal lives of the subjects. 



As one participant shared: “You are able to act in a way that maybe had felt unachievable before, if you set the right intention.”



Another participant echoed similar sentiments, stating: “Things might not look that different from the outside, but they feel completely different from the inside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



The study employed a single 25mg dose of psilocybin alongside specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overweight-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychological</a> support before, during, and after administration. 



Despite showcasing potential, the results also highlight the intricacy of treating anorexia nervosa and suggest a synergistic approach might be the most effective.



Dr. Walter H. Kaye, the study's senior author and UCSD Eating Disorders Treatment Center director, maintains that while the findings are promising, they need to be backed by larger, well-controlled studies. 



This includes the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-imaging-method-will-unravel-mysteries-of-neural-processes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain imaging</a> and genetic analysis to ascertain who might benefit most from this innovative treatment approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalized-medicine-for-eating-disorders">Personalized medicine for eating disorders </h2>



The fascinating findings of the clinical trial initiated new trajectories for personalized medicine for eating disorders. 



However, it also sparked a flurry of questions around optimizing therapeutic protocols for this vulnerable demographic. 



Surely, it's a profound addition to the current discourse around non-traditional treatment methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-psilocybin-therapy">Challenges of psilocybin therapy</h2>



The promise of psilocybin as a treatment for anorexia nervosa comes with its share of challenges. One major concern is ensuring that the therapy takes place in a safe, supportive environment. 



Psychedelic experiences can be intense and unpredictable, making it crucial to have professional guidance in place to support patients before, during, and after treatment.



This guidance helps maximize the benefits while minimizing any potential risks or adverse reactions.



There are also questions about how psilocybin therapy could fit into existing treatment plans. Researchers are looking at how it might complement traditional methods like <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=cognitive-behavioral%20therapy&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive-behavioral therapy</a> to boost long-term recovery. 



As more studies are conducted, it will be vital to address these challenges and questions. Only then can psilocybin potentially become a reliable, safe, and effective treatment option for those battling the complexities of anorexia nervosa.



The journey forward is one of thorough research, careful observation, and continued exploration to bring the best possible outcome to patients who need it most.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427429/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a>.



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Psilocybin shows promise for treating anorexia

Psilocybin, a compound at the forefront of psychedelic research, has...

The mystery of the moon and its origins has Intrigued scientists for centuries. During the Kona Conference of Hawaii in 1984, a group of moonstruck scientists analyzed approximately 363 kg of lunar material brought back by NASA's Apollo missions.



The experts found that the moon's chemical composition is strikingly similar, but not identical, to Earth's.



A conclusion was drawn that perhaps the moon was born from the debris cast off during a heavy impact between a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial body</a> and a young Earth.



This protoplanet, given the name "Theia," is believed to have caused an explosive aftermath that led to the formation of our moon. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-binary-exchange-capture-theory">Binary-exchange capture theory</h2>



Not all scientists are onboard with the theory of Theia. Some, like experts at Penn State University, suggest a different origin story for our moon. 



The researchers propose that Earth may have swooped the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-pt5-mini-moon-say-goodbye-to-earths-second-moon-we-barely-got-to-know-you/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> into its orbit during a process called "binary-exchange capture."



Just like plucking an apple from a tree, the Earth may have captured one satellite from a pair of rocky bodies orbiting each other.



"No one knows how the moon was formed. For the last four decades, we have had one possibility for how it got there. Now, we have two," noted Professor Darren Williams, the lead researcher from <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-earth-capture-its-moon">Did Earth capture its moon?</h2>



The proponents of the binary-exchange capture theory argue that if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> was born out of a ring of debris, it should orbit above our equator. However, the moon's orbit is tilted at about seven degrees from the equatorial plane.



This tilt could be explained by the binary-exchange capture theory. Could it be that the Earth ensnared one of a pair of passing rocky bodies to make it into its satellite while the other was flung into oblivion?



The plausibility of this theory is backed by previous research on Triton, Neptune's largest moon. 



Triton, like our moon, orbits its planet at an unusual angle, hinting that it was once part of a binary pulled into Neptune's orbit from the Kuiper Belt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-could-the-moon-capture-happen">How could the moon capture happen?</h2>



Mathematically speaking, capturing the moon is entirely possible. 



According to the research, Earth could have seized an object between one and 10 percent of its total mass. At 1.2 percent of Earth's mass, the moon fits this criterion neatly.



The only condition is that the binary pair would have to pass within 80,000 miles of Earth at a speed below 6,700 miles per hour. 



If everything fell into place, the moon's initial orbit would have been quite erratic, possibly resembling a comet's journey around the sun. However, over time, tidal forces would have rounded this orbit.



"Today, the Earth tide is ahead of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-weekends-strawberry-moon-is-the-sweetest-of-the-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a>, high tide accelerates the orbit. Over time, the moon drifts a bit farther away," noted Williams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-the-moon-s-origin-story">Complexity of the moon's origin story </h2>



A deeper geochemical analysis of lunar samples continues to add layers of complexity to the moon's origin story. Recent studies examining the carbon content of these samples have revealed intriguing discrepancies that challenge the established narratives. 



The discrepancies suggest that there might have been different environments or events that contributed to the moon’s current composition, further complicating the binary-exchange capture theory and the protoplanet collision model. 



"The carbon anomalies in lunar rocks open new doors to understanding the processes that shaped our moon," noted Dr. Lisa Simpson, a prominent geochemist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-prospect-of-future-lunar-missions">The prospect of future lunar missions</h2>



As we advance technologically, the prospect of future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-composition-of-moons-interior-core-its-not-green-cheese/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar missions</a> grows ever more promising, offering unparalleled opportunities to unravel the moon’s enigmatic past. 



These missions aim to employ state-of-the-art equipment to gather more data, testing existing theories and potentially offering fresh insights. 



For instance, plans to analyze deeper strata of lunar material might hold the key to uncover epochal events that are hidden beneath the surface.



Coupled with advancements in artificial intelligence, these ventures will help us simulate the moon’s geological history with unprecedented accuracy. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-the-moon-s-origin">Mystery of the moon's origin</h2>



"With each mission, we peel back a layer of mystery, inching closer to a comprehensive understanding of our closest cosmic companion," said Professor John Carter, who is leading the upcoming lunar exploration project.



It's safe to say that the mystery of the moon's origin isn't entirely solved. After all, Williams himself noted that the binary-exchange capture theory relies on several "implausible events." However, it opens up exciting avenues for future scientific exploration.



The study is published in <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.3847%2FPSJ%2Fad5a9a&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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Earth may have 'captured' the moon from space

The mystery of the moon and its origins has Intrigued...

Researchers have discovered that mangrove forests - a shield against destructive storms across many coastlines - are now suffocating underwater in the Maldives.



The data shows that the combination of an escalating sea level and a shift in Indian Ocean conditions has caused some Maldivian islands to lose more than half of their mangrove <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cover</a> since 2020.



The researchers, led by Lucy Carruthers and Dr. Vasile Ersek of Northumbria University, noted that this isn't a singular incident affecting only the Maldives. 



The experts said that extreme climate events represent an emerging threat to mangroves and coastal ecosystems worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowly-deteriorating-mangroves">Slowly deteriorating mangroves</h2>



In 2020, the mangroves on more than a quarter of the Maldives islands started showing signs of slow deterioration, sliding into a state known as dieback, before bidding the world adieu. 



The intensity of this mangrove loss phenomenon was captured by satellite imagery. The experts found that some islands had lost more than half of their mangrove cover.



For their investigation of mangrove dieback, the researchers combined evidence from sea level, climate data, and remote sensing. Field observations of sediment geochemistry and dendrology were also taken into consideration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-salinity-stress-in-mangroves">Signs of salinity stress in mangroves </h2>



According to the results, the dead trees exhibited increased signs of salinity stress when compared to their living counterparts.



This stress gives us a clue that the tree roots were having a tough time dealing with the heightened salt levels, which played a key role in their demise.



The scientists concluded that sea levels around the Maldives had risen at an escalated rate of over 30mm per year from 2017 to 2020. 



Adding fuel to the fire, there was a particularly intense shift in the Indian Ocean Dipole during this period. This brought along warmer sea surface temperatures and a sea-level increase in the Western Indian Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-tidal-movement">Limited tidal movement </h2>



While mangroves do have a way to cope with slow and steady rising seas by building up sediment, they found the pace of sea level rise over the past few years too fast to keep up with. 



Due to limited tidal movements in the basin areas where many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangrove forests</a> grow, the rising sea levels essentially drowned them. 



The lack of tidal movement and the consequent flooding obstructed the mangroves from building the sediment they needed to stay above water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-magnitude-of-forest-dieback">Extreme magnitude of forest dieback</h2>



Dr. Vasile Ersek is an associate professor in Northumbria University’s <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/academic-departments/geography-and-environmental-sciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences</a>.



"Dieback was first observed in the center of low-lying basin areas before gradually spreading outwards," said Dr. Ersek.



"As these basin areas have something we call limited tidal flushing we saw evidence of the rising sea level inundating the forests with seawater. This prolonged exposure created higher concentrations of salt."



“As the mangroves’ build-up of sediment slowed down due to the pace of the rising sea level, the soil salinity increased beyond what even these salt-tolerant trees could handle. Essentially, the mangroves were drowning."



Dr. Ersek noted that the extreme magnitude of dieback seen in the Maldives is a vivid illustration of how climate change may push natural systems past their limits, with cascading consequences for both nature and people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-mangroves-in-a-warning-climate">Future of mangroves in a warning climate</h2>



Lucy Carruthers, the study's lead author, is now a postdoctoral scholar in <a href="https://coastal.ecu.edu/faculty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Carolina University’s Department of Coastal Studies</a>.



“Sea level in the region reached its highest point on tide gauge records when the dieback occurred in 2020. This coincided with an intense positive phase in the Indian Ocean Dipole which can induce climate extremes for countries within the Indian Ocean," said Carruthers. 



“As our planet continues to warm, we can expect to see the Indian Ocean Dipole occurring more frequently and at higher magnitude, meaning events like this mangrove die-off may become more common."



“These remarkable forests have thrived at the interface of land and sea for many centuries. Whether they can survive the rapid changes of the coming decades will depend largely on our actions in managing the climate crisis today.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-73776-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Drowning mangroves: Climate change is pushing nature past its limits

Researchers have discovered that mangrove forests - a shield against...

Physical activity is known for its long-term benefits for brain health, including reducing the risk of cognitive decline and dementia. 



A new study from Penn State College of Medicine now reveals that even everyday physical activities have immediate positive effects on the brain.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-years-of-cognitive-improvement">Years of cognitive improvement</h2>



“The purpose of the current study was to examine whether episodes of physical activity, occurring over the course of participants’ daily lives, are associated with short-term improvements in cognitive health,” noted the researchers.&nbsp;



The team found that middle-aged adults who engaged in daily movement experienced improvements in cognitive processing speed equivalent to being four years younger.&nbsp;



This improvement held true whether the activity was low-intensity, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-is-a-powerful-tool-to-boost-brain-health-and-overall-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">walking</a> or household chores, or higher intensity, like jogging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-all-movement-improves-brain-health">All movement improves brain health</h2>



Study lead author Dr. Jonathan Hakun, assistant professor of neurology and psychology at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>, emphasized the importance of incorporating physical movement into everyday life. 



“You don’t have to go to the gym to experience all the potential benefits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/any-type-of-physical-activity-can-help-protect-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a>,” said Hakun. 



“All movement is important. Everyday movement counts as a source of accumulated physical activity that could be credited toward a healthy lifestyle and may have some direct impact on cognitive health.”



This study shifts focus from the typical long-term investigations of physical activity’s impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-may-literally-be-a-state-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. 



While most research has looked at cognitive benefits over months or even decades, Hakun’s team examined the short-term effects of physical activity on cognitive processing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-activity-and-brain-function">Daily activity and brain function</h2>



To capture real-time data, the team used smartphone technology to prompt participants with check-ins throughout their day.&nbsp;



Over a period of nine days, participants checked in six times daily, roughly every 3.5 hours, and reported whether they had been physically active since their last check-in, also rating the intensity of the activity.&nbsp;



Light activities included walking and cleaning, while vigorous activities were things like running or fast biking.



After recording their activity, participants played two “brain games” designed to measure cognitive processing speed and working memory.&nbsp;



Processing speed reflects how quickly the brain can process information, while working memory serves as an indicator of executive function, such as problem-solving skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gains-in-cognitive-processing-speed">Gains in cognitive processing speed</h2>



The study analyzed data from 204 participants aged 40 to 65 in the Bronx, NY, who were part of a broader study on cognitive health.&nbsp;



Importantly, half of the participants were Black or African American, and over a third were Hispanic, adding diversity to the findings.&nbsp;



When participants had been physically active within the last 3.5 hours, they performed better on tasks measuring processing speed, showing a cognitive “youthfulness” of approximately four years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-response-time-after-physical-activity-nbsp">Response time after physical activity&nbsp;</h2>



Though improvements in working <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> were not observed, the researchers noted that response times in memory tasks echoed the quicker processing speeds seen after physical activity. 



“We get slower as we age, both physically and cognitively. The idea here is that we can momentarily counteract that through movement. It’s compelling. There’s the potential for a brief walk or a little extra movement to give you a boost,” noted Hakun.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frequent-activity-yields-greater-benefits">Frequent activity yields greater benefits</h2>



The study also found that those who were active more frequently enjoyed more cognitive benefits compared to those with lower levels of physical activity. This suggests that cognitive health gains may increase with regular movement.&nbsp;



However, Hakun cautioned that further research is necessary to pinpoint how much activity, along with its frequency and timing, influences cognitive improvements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Looking ahead, Hakun and his team plan to expand their research to include longer study durations to assess how everyday movement impacts cognitive health over time.&nbsp;



Pairing ecological momentary assessments with physical activity monitoring tools may allow researchers to more accurately track the relationship between activity levels and brain health.



By focusing on everyday movement as a means to boost brain function, the study highlights an accessible approach to improving cognitive health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaae059" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Behavioral Medicine</a>.



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Physical activity instantly boosts your brain speed - by years 

Physical activity is known for its long-term benefits for brain...

As families across America prepare to gather for the holidays, new research from the University of Michigan’s National Poll on Healthy Aging highlights the importance of grandchildren in the lives of older adults.&nbsp;



The findings emphasize how grandparents not only cherish these family connections but may also gain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-crisis-half-of-the-worlds-population-will-be-affected-by-age-75/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> benefits and reduced feelings of loneliness from regular interactions with their grandchildren.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-loneliness-and-better-mental-health">Reduced loneliness and better mental health</h2>



The poll surveyed adults aged 50 and older, revealing that 60% have at least one grandchild, including adopted and step-grandchildren. 



Grandparents, especially those over age 65, report lower feelings of isolation compared to those without grandchildren. 



Seventy-two percent of grandparents say they “hardly ever” feel isolated, compared with 62% of people without grandchildren. Additionally, fewer grandparents rate their mental health as “fair or poor” than those without grandchildren.



“For many older people, becoming a grandparent is a major milestone in their lives,” said Kate Bauer, an associate professor of Nutritional Sciences at the <a href="https://sph.umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan School of Public Health</a>.&nbsp;



Bauer hopes these findings will encourage policy discussions about social interaction's role in the well-being of people over 50, especially those raising young grandchildren.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grandparents-provide-essential-care">Grandparents provide essential care</h2>



Grandparents often provide essential care for their grandchildren, with nearly half of those with grandchildren under 18 offering regular support.&nbsp;



Around 20% provide care at least weekly, and 8% offer near-daily care. Notably, Hispanic grandparents are more likely to care for a grandchild daily or nearly so (15%) than their non-Hispanic white (7%) and Black counterparts (9%).



Financially, grandparents also play a significant role. Nearly one-third (32%) reported supporting their grandchildren in the past year. This includes 23% who contributed to daily expenses and 10% who helped with educational costs or other large expenses like summer camps and sports.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-joy-of-visits-with-grandchildren">The joy of visits with grandchildren </h2>



The poll found that grandparents who frequently see their grandchildren report lower feelings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pandemic-isolation-blurred-our-sense-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">isolation</a>. Among those who see their grandchildren daily, 78% say they rarely feel isolated.&nbsp;



The trend continues even with weekly or monthly visits, where 73% reported low levels of isolation. In contrast, 65% of grandparents who see their grandchildren only every few months or less feel this way.



Older adults who see their grandchildren often also report better mental health. Only 4% of those who see their grandchildren weekly say their mental health is fair or poor, compared with 13% of those with less frequent visits. 



This trend highlights the social and emotional benefits of regular intergenerational connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-meals-cooking-and-social-bonding-nbsp">Sharing meals, cooking, and social bonding&nbsp;</h2>



Beyond caregiving and financial support, grandparents connect with their grandchildren through shared meals and cooking. 



The poll revealed that 61% of grandparents with grandchildren aged one to 17 shared at least one meal in the past month, and 36% cooked or baked together.



“Eating, and especially cooking, with grandchildren can be an opportunity for older adults to make important social and cultural connections,” Bauer said.&nbsp;



She emphasized that grandparents often pass down family recipes and positive messages about nutrition during these activities, fostering healthy eating habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grandfamilies-and-living-arrangements">Grandfamilies and living arrangements</h2>



About 6% of grandparents live in the same home as at least one grandchild, with this percentage slightly higher among Black and Hispanic older adults (9%) than white adults (5%).&nbsp;



Additionally, 3% of all grandparents over 50 hold primary custody of a grandchild, with this figure doubling among those aged 50 to 64.



Bauer notes that grandparents raising grandchildren, often called “grandfamilies,” play a critical stabilizing role, especially during challenging family circumstances. She calls for further research to understand the needs and impact of these family structures on children’s well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-older-adults">Insights from older adults</h2>



A closer look at Michigan’s older adults, thanks to funding from the Michigan Health Endowment Fund, found similar trends.&nbsp;



Sixty-three percent of Michiganders aged 50 and older are grandparents, and those in northern and central Michigan are more likely to have grandchildren than those in southeastern areas.&nbsp;



The poll also showed a higher percentage of Black grandparents in Michigan providing daily care (25%) compared to the national average.



In addition, 30% of Black Michigan grandparents see their grandchildren daily, compared to 15% of white grandparents. Older women in Michigan are also more likely to spend time with grandchildren every day (21%) compared to men (11%).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meaningful-role-of-grandchildren-nbsp">Meaningful role of grandchildren&nbsp;</h2>



The poll’s findings, based on responses from 3,486 adults across the U.S., emphasize the meaningful role that grandchildren play in the lives of older adults.&nbsp;



By fostering connections with grandchildren, older adults may experience improved mental health and reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-causes-people-to-have-more-nightmares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">loneliness</a>. 



Dr. Jeffrey Kullgren, the poll director, encourages healthcare providers to consider grandparents’ roles in their patients’ lives as a way to address loneliness, even if those connections are virtual.



As the holiday season approaches, these findings highlight the lasting bonds between grandparents and grandchildren, reinforcing the vital role of family connections in supporting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">well-being</a> of older adults.



More information about the National Poll on Healthy Aging can be found <a href="https://www.healthyagingpoll.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.



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Grandchildren are a source of joy and well-being for older adults

As families across America prepare to gather for the holidays,...

Antarctic ice often holds secrets waiting to be discovered, and sometimes an unexpected event can reveal them.



This was exactly the case when an autonomous Seaglider, charmingly named Marlin and launched by the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/about/school-of-environmental-sciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East Anglia's School of Environmental Sciences</a>, became unintentionally trapped beneath the vast expanse of the Ross Ice Shelf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unplanned-path-led-to-unseen-depths">Unplanned path led to unseen depths</h2>



In December 2022, Marlin was launched out over the Ross Sea, programmed to venture north towards open waters, collecting significant data for climate studies on the way.



Contrary to the plan, Marlin ended up embarking on an unscheduled expedition under the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-force-moves-ross-ice-shelf-antarctica-every-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ross Ice Shelf</a>, after being dragged there by a southward-flowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-circumpolar-current-speed-increasing-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">current</a>.



The little voyager was under the ice for four days, during which it conducted 79 deep dives into the cavity beneath the ice shelf and collected water measurements up to 200 meters beneath the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surge-of-somewhat-warm-water">A surge of somewhat warm water</h2>



During its unintended sojourn, the sensors onboard Marlin detected a layer of relatively warmer water, about 50 meters thick, that had made its way into the shelf cavity from the open sea. 



The temperature of this water intrusion ranged from -1.9°C to a marginally warmer -1.7°C under the ice.



Its warmth was capable of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-shelves-are-fracturing-from-meltwater-weight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting the ice shelf's base</a>, unlike the freezing-point waters that it probably replaced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-view-on-antarctic-ice-melting">Long-term view on Antarctic ice melting</h2>



The surprise insights from Marlin's stuck-under-the-ice saga led the researchers to re-examine all available measurements from the past four decades. 



The result? Heat transported into the cavity has undoubtedly increased over the past 45 years, largely due to the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-fish-are-increasingly-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> that has warmed the Ross Sea.



"While the temperature increase - four thousandths of a degree a year - might not seem all that much, it could lead to around 20 to 80 cm of additional ice loss per year over the 45 years we look at," explained Dr. Peter Sheehan, the lead author of the study.



"We found the waters of the intrusion were warm enough to melt the underside of the ice shelf, unlike the freezing-point waters they likely displaced."&nbsp;



"What's new here is that we can track the warm water pretty much from the open water of the Ross Sea at the ice front, back into the cavity. We have not seen one of these intrusions happening directly before."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-winds-and-the-rising-concern">The role of winds and the rising concern</h2>



The research further suggested that certain wind patterns could drive warm surface water under the Ross Ice Shelf, leading to a southward flow in the surface ocean and directly into the ice shelf cavity.



These wind-driven, ocean-surface flows, known as Ekman currents, carry heat, effectively increasing the melting rate of the overlying ice.



"It appears reasonable to expect that the magnitude of the Ekman heat flux, and of the melting that it drives, will increase yet further as climate change drives continued <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-is-subtly-changing-the-tides/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a>. This trend is a concern in itself," said study co-author Professor Karen Heywood.



"The influence of surface-water intrusions, alongside the trends and variability in the Ekman dynamics that can drive these, must be incorporated into climate models, not least given continued uncertainty in the response of Antarctic land-based ice to climate change."



This is particularly relevant as oceans absorb and redistribute a significant proportion of the Earth's heat. This means that changes in this system could have significant impacts on global weather, sea levels, and temperature trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-continuous-voyage-into-antarctic-ice-dynamics">Continuous voyage into Antarctic ice dynamics</h2>



This is the first time such a comprehensive, multi-decadal data set has been used to study this process. 



Earlier knowledge about surface-water intrusions came from studying hydrography in open water using observations from tagged seals, ship data, and ice moorings deployed inside a cavity.



As we prepare for the future, the chance encounter of Marlin with the Ross Ice Shelf highlights the importance of integrating the influence of surface-water intrusions and Ekman dynamics into climate models.



It also serves as a reminder of our enduring quest to understand the ever-changing dynamics of our precious blue planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ado6429" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h2>



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‘Lost’ seaglider reveals new details about the fate of Antarctic ice

Antarctic ice often holds secrets waiting to be discovered, and...

It appears that kids are not necessarily the champions of learning new skills, contrary to what we've always assumed. In fact, a recent study suggests that young adults outpace children in learning new skills - but there's a catch, they also tend to forget these skills faster.



Children are often seen as superlearners, picking up everything from new languages to cartwheeling or grooving to TikTok dances. 



After all, science has often declared the pre-puberty phase as a "golden age for motor skills learning." But now, a study from the University of Copenhagen calls for a reevaluation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-related-differences-in-motor-skill-learning">Age-related differences in motor skill learning </h2>



Our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-it-comes-to-practice-and-learning-variety-is-key/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning proficiencies</a> across different age groups has mostly been groundless. 



"There's no actual physiological basis for this so-called golden age," said Jesper Lundbye-Jensen, an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a>'s Department of Nutrition, Exercise, and Sports.



His curiosity prompted him to go deeper into understanding how age-related differences in our central nervous system affect motor skill learning.



In a fascinating study featured in the journal Developmental Science, Professor Lundbye-Jensen's team tested the motor learning skills of 132 participants from four different age groups (8-10, 12-14, 16-18, and 20-30 years).



In a lab setup, the participants were tasked to move a cursor on a computer screen using quick and precise finger movements. Their performance was measured at three stages - baseline, during the training session, and 24 hours later post-training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-curve-across-ages">Learning curve across ages</h2>



Surprisingly, participants who were 16-18 years old and 20-30 years old showed significantly more improvement than the 8-10 year-old group.



Study lead author Mikkel Malling Beck is a former PhD student at the University of Copenhagen who now works as a researcher at the Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance at <a href="https://www.hvidovrehospital.dk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hvidovre Hospital</a>.



“So, it appears that both teenagers and younger adults are better equipped to quickly acquire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-adult-depression-linked-to-worse-memory-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new skills</a> compared to children, who showed smaller and slower improvements. At least when it comes to short-term learning and motor skills which this study investigated," noted Malling Beck.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mature-cognitive-functioning">Mature cognitive functioning</h2>



What could account for adults learning faster? The research team proposes a few theories. 



For example, adults may derive more from task instructions due to advanced cognitive development and an increased ability to process information.



Or, it's possible that the fully developed nervous system in adults forms a better structure for learning. After all, years of education and learning experiences might render adults as more efficient learners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-sleep-in-learning">Role of sleep in learning</h2>



The study reveals an interesting dynamic when it comes to retaining what's been learned – children seem to have the upper hand. 



"While the youngest participants actually improve overnight, adults lose some of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddlers-learn-faster-after-witnessing-impossible-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to perform</a>," noted Malling Beck.



Could it be that sleep enhances children's learning and memory more? Or, it might be that older individuals - who typically sleep less and have more activities competing for their attention - have less focused memory-consolidation processes.



"Memory-consolidation processes in the nervous system continue for hours after the training ends," noted Professor Lundbye-Jensen.



“When a math class ends, the brain keeps working on what was taught, and in doing so, reinforces memory. Sleep is known to aid consolidation."



"But engaging in other activities in the hours after - especially those that involve learning - can interfere with memory processes and the consolidation of what was just learned."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-educational-systems">Implications for educational systems</h2>



These findings invite educators and policymakers to reevaluate current educational strategies. Traditional views emphasize the early years as a cornerstone for developing essential skills. 



However, this study suggests that educational systems could benefit from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tailored approaches</a> that leverage the heightened learning capacities of older children and young adults.



Harnessing the potential of cognitive maturity could lead to innovative curricula that align more strategically with the optimal learning windows presented across different ages.



This may include more advanced cognitive tasks for older groups or diversifying skills training throughout adolescence to take full advantage of their learning peaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The study not only challenges preconceived notions about learning abilities across age groups but also sparks a broader conversation about lifelong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-is-essential-for-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning and adaptability</a>.



Moving forward, research could focus on how cognitive and neurological development continues to influence learning processes beyond early adulthood. 



Furthermore, understanding individual differences in learning speeds and retention could lead to personalized educational tools and techniques. 



Future studies might uncover how environment, lifestyle, and even technology play roles in shaping our learning trajectories well into adulthood. With ongoing research, the promise of more inclusive and effective learning models becomes increasingly attainable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-learner-kids-or-adults">Better learner: Kids or adults?</h2>



While the overall learning outcome doesn't show drastic variations across age groups, the learning process itself - influenced by the maturity of the central nervous system - does differ.



“For anyone aiming to improve their skills, it's crucial to structure training so that each individual gets the most out of their time," noted Professor Lundbye-Jensen.



This understanding of age-related differences could well inspire changes in teaching and training methods in fields like sports, music, and even rehabilitation practices.



So, who's truly the better learner - children or adults? Well, it appears both have their unique strengths and weaknesses. Essentially, learning isn't a one-size-fits-all model. Perhaps it's time to reassess our learning strategies based on individual requirements and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-ai-systems-learn-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">capabilities</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/desc.13536" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Developmental Science</a>.



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Adults learn skills faster than children, but there's a catch

It appears that kids are not necessarily the champions of...