Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of South Georgia, a remote and rugged island located in the southern Atlantic Ocean. 



"Linked with the South Sandwich Islands to form a British Overseas Territory, this southern Atlantic island is a haven for a vast array of wildlife," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Around five million seals call the islands home, as well as 65 million birds of 30 different species. Migrating whales and various fish species populate the surrounding waters and there is a large penguin population."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-and-wildlife-of-south-georgia">Climate and wildlife of South Georgia </h2>



The island is dominated by mountains, glaciers, and fjords. Its highest peak, Mount Paget, rises to 2,935 meters, making it one of the tallest in the region.



South Georgia’s location within the Antarctic Convergence gives it a cold, maritime climate. Although not part of the Antarctic Treaty System, its environment and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-are-not-enough-to-save-antarctic-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> are closely linked to Antarctica. 



The island is home to vast colonies of penguins, seals, and seabirds. The surrounding waters are rich with krill, providing an abundant food source for marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguins-adapted-to-harsh-environments">Penguins adapted to harsh environments </h2>



The most notable species found here are the king penguins, which are the second-largest penguin species in the world. South Georgia also hosts large populations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-the-gentoo-penguin-the-worlds-fastest-swimming-bird/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gentoo</a> and macaroni penguins. 



The island's harsh climate, characterized by strong winds, snow, and cold temperatures, makes it a tough environment, but the penguins have adapted well. 



Their colonies - some of which number in the hundreds of thousands - can be found along the island's rugged coasts and beaches. 



The island’s isolation, combined with its plentiful food supply, makes it a critical breeding ground for these penguins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-south-georgia">History of South Georgia </h2>



The island has a history of exploration and exploitation. Captain James Cook first claimed South Georgia for Britain in 1775. 



During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it became a hub for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/echoes-of-the-past-whalings-long-term-impact-on-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whaling</a> industry, with stations like Grytviken serving as operational centers. These stations have since been abandoned, and the island is now a haven for scientific research and ecotourism.



South Georgia is also notable for its role in Ernest Shackleton’s famed Endurance expedition. His crew reached the island in 1916 after an extraordinary open-boat journey from Elephant Island. Shackleton later died on South Georgia in 1922 and is buried in Grytviken.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pristine-nature-of-the-island">Pristine nature of the island</h2>



Today, South Georgia is a focus of conservation efforts. The eradication of invasive species, such as rats and reindeer, has been a significant success, allowing native wildlife to recover. 



Rats and mice were responsible for the decline of ground-nesting birds, including the South Georgia pipit, the island's only endemic bird. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reindeer-use-ultraviolet-vision-to-find-food-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reindeer</a>, which had been introduced for farming in the 19th century, caused extensive damage to the island’s vegetation, disrupting the habitat for native species.



South Georgia is uninhabited except for a small number of scientists and staff working at research stations and administrative facilities, emphasizing its role as a protected wilderness area and an essential site for understanding global environmental changes.



Its uninhabited status has helped preserve its pristine nature. Visitors to South Georgia must follow strict environmental guidelines to minimize human impact on this extraordinary island.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance-of-remote-islands">Scientific significance of remote islands </h2>



Remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-life-on-islands-loses-diversity-when-humans-arrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">islands</a> are scientifically significant for several reasons. They often serve as unique ecosystems that can provide insights into evolutionary processes, biodiversity, and adaptation. 



Due to their isolation, species on remote islands may evolve differently from their mainland counterparts, resulting in the development of endemic species that exist nowhere else in the world. 



These islands also act as natural laboratories for studying the effects of climate change, human activity, and ecological interactions, as they are more vulnerable to disturbances. 



Moreover, remote islands can offer valuable information on the health of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, as their ecosystems are often less impacted by human-induced factors. This makes them ideal for studying natural processes in relatively undisturbed environments. 



The isolation of these islands can also help scientists study the patterns of species migration, colonization, and extinction.



Image Credit: ESA 



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South Georgia: One of the most remote islands in the world

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Messak Settafet, a rocky plateau located in the central Sahara Desert. It is part of the greater Messak Plateau, which stretches between the Erg Uan Kasa and the Murzuq Sand Sea.&nbsp;



The plateau's surface is characterized by blackened sandstone, sculpted by thousands of years of wind erosion. This dark patina, often referred to as "desert varnish," adds to its distinctive appearance. The region is starkly beautiful but harsh, with extreme temperatures and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-climate-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-image-of-the-messak-settafet">Image of the Messak Settafet</h2>



“Towering over the desert in southwestern Libya, the Messak Settafet plateau resembles the wall of a giant fortress, with its dark, erosion-resistant sandstone separating the Ubari Sand Sea to the north and the Marzūq Sand Sea to the south,” noted NASA.



“The large outcrop of Cretaceous rock features a sharp escarpment on its north side. The cliff, some 300 meters (1,000 feet) high in places, is lined with a thin dark shadow.”&nbsp;



“Dark debris from rockfalls is visible to the north. Note that an optical illusion called relief inversion can make high-elevation areas appear low and vice versa when shadows appear on the northern side of a feature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaeological-significance-of-the-plateau-nbsp">Archaeological significance of the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



Messak Settafet is often referred to as the "land of stone tools" because it is one of the world's largest sites for prehistoric tools.&nbsp;



The area is littered with countless <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fstone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> and artifacts dating back to various prehistoric periods, including the Acheulean and Neolithic. These tools offer insights into early human technology and adaptation to desert environments.



“Signs of ancient tool making cover much of the plateau’s surface,” said <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. “According to one archaeological survey, people discarded so many stone tools and rock fragments on the plateau over hundreds of thousands of years that roughly 75 artifacts per square meter now carpet the surface.”&nbsp;



“That makes this one of the earliest known examples of hominins modifying an entire landscape, according to the University of Cambridge archaeologists who conducted the survey.”



“Other signs of ancient activity include the bright spots that dot the image. These areas were likely quarrying pits where people dug up rocks and crafted them into tools, the archaeologists reported.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-art-on-the-plateau-nbsp">Rock art on the plateau&nbsp;</h2>



The plateau is home to numerous petroglyphs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negev-petroglyphs-ancient-art-rock-carvings-face-erosion-fungi-lichens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carvings</a>. These engravings depict animals, humans, and symbolic designs, providing valuable clues about the lives, beliefs, and environments of the region's ancient inhabitants.&nbsp;



“For instance, Wadi Mathendous, a prehistoric archaeological site located in the southern part of the plateau, contains engravings of rhinoceroses, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, fighting cats, giraffes, long-horned buffaloes, and elephants. The art is thought to be about 8,000 years old,” said NASA.



Some of the animals depicted, such as giraffes and elephants, indicate that the Sahara was once a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fa-lush-green-sahara-desert-helped-early-humans-migrate-out-of-africa%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">much wetter</a> and more hospitable environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-the-messak-settafet">Cultural significance of the Messak Settafet</h2>



Messak Settafet forms part of the Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985. This designation highlights the area's importance for understanding early human culture and environmental changes in the Sahara.



The plateau has been a critical area for studying the migration and adaptation of early humans. Its archaeological richness offers a glimpse into how humans thrived in this region during periods when the climate was wetter.



“Although the plateau now receives less than 0.4 inches of rain annually, clues in the landscape make clear it was once much wetter,” noted NASA.



“Deeply incised dried stream valleys, or wadis, crisscross the plateau, indicating significant past water flow. The small, bright features scattered across the plateau are sand and silt deposits left where water once pooled.”



The Messak Settafet, like many remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> regions, faces challenges such as erosion, vandalism of ancient rock art, and the potential impacts of development. 



Efforts to preserve its archaeological treasures are vital for protecting its cultural and scientific significance.



The image was captured November 17, 2024 by the Operational Land Imager-2 (OLI-2) on Landsat 9 on&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Messak Settafet plateau in the Sahara Desert

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 6744 - a large, barred spiral galaxy located approximately 30 million light-years away in the constellation Pavo.&nbsp;



The galaxy is often considered a close analog to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> due to its similar structure and size, spanning about 175,000 light-years across.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The image was captured by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid</a> space telescope. NGC 6744 stands out as a prime example of the galaxies currently forming the majority of stars in the nearby universe, making it an ideal subject for study with the Euclid mission.&nbsp;



Euclid’s extensive field-of-view allows it to capture the entire galaxy, showcasing not only its large-scale spiral structure but also revealing intricate details on smaller scales across various wavelengths. These details include feather-like dust lanes, known as “spurs,” emerging from the spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-6744">Star formation in NGC 6744</h2>



Euclid's observations enable scientists to count individual stars within NGC 6744, trace the distribution of stars and dust throughout the galaxy, and map the dust associated with the gas that fuels the development of new stars. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star formation</a> is a key process in the growth of galaxies, making these studies crucial for understanding galaxy evolution.



Researchers are utilizing Euclid’s data to explore the relationship between dust, gas, and star formation; to map the distribution of different stellar populations and identify regions of active star formation; and to investigate the underlying physics of spiral galaxy structures.&nbsp;



Spiral arms play a significant role in star formation by compressing gas, yet the precise mechanisms behind this process are still unclear. The presence of “spurs” along NGC 6744’s spiral arms offers valuable insights into the dynamics of star formation within these structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-new-dwarf-galaxies-nbsp">Discovering new dwarf galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, Euclid's dataset will help scientists identify clusters of old stars (globular clusters) and discover new dwarf galaxies around NGC 6744. Remarkably, Euclid has already identified a new dwarf satellite galaxy of NGC 6744 - a surprising discovery given that the galaxy has been studied extensively.



With Euclid’s detailed observations, scientists are gaining a deeper understanding of the processes shaping galaxies, providing essential clues to the evolution and appearance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universes-expansion-rate-hubble-tension-puzzles-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ngc-6744">More about NGC 6744</h2>



NGC 6744's disk is rich in star-forming regions and contains numerous young, bright blue stars. The galaxy's nucleus is slightly elongated and has a bar structure, which influences the motion of the stars and gas within it.&nbsp;



The spiral arms of NGC 6744 are well-defined and extend outward, wrapping around the central bar. Additionally, NGC 6744 has a smaller companion galaxy, NGC 6744A, which is interacting with it, adding to the complexity and interest of this distant system.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-galaxies">Spiral galaxies</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are one of the most common types of galaxies in the universe, characterized by their distinct, spiral-shaped structure.&nbsp;



The galaxies typically consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, along with a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. This bulge is often surrounded by a halo of older stars.&nbsp;



The spiral arms, which extend from the central bulge, are regions of active star formation and are rich in young, hot stars, giving them a bright, bluish appearance.&nbsp;



These arms are also sites where interstellar gas and dust are concentrated, leading to the formation of new stars.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on the tightness of their spirals and the size of their central bulge, with classifications ranging from tightly wound arms in Sa galaxies to more loosely wound arms in Sc galaxies. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our home galaxy, is a prime example of a spiral galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-pavo">The constellation Pavo</h2>



Pavo, which means "peacock" in Latin, is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in the late 16th century, based on observations made during the Dutch explorations of the southern hemisphere. 



Pavo is one of the 12 constellations created by Plancius from the records of explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. 



The constellation is known for its distinctive shape, resembling a peacock with a long, curved tail. Pavo is not visible from most of the northern hemisphere, but it can be seen from the southern hemisphere, particularly during the winter months.



The constellation contains several interesting celestial objects, including the star Peacock, also known as Alpha Pavonis, which is the brightest star in the constellation. This star is a blue-white subgiant located about 179 light-years from Earth.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA&nbsp;



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Spiral galaxy NGC 6744 in the constellation Pavo

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name "Antennae" comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions, offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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The violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a compilation of European cities that resemble stars. 



“Star-shaped cities are scattered across Europe, their geometric designs most appreciated when viewed from above,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2024/12/Earth_from_Space_Star_cities" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-star-shaped-cities">Development of star-shaped cities</h2>



The development of star-shaped fortresses, also known as bastion forts, emerged during the Renaissance in Italy as a response to the rapidly evolving art of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migrating-eagles-have-been-rerouted-by-the-war-in-ukraine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warfare</a>.&nbsp;



Traditional medieval fortifications, characterized by high, straight walls and square towers, became vulnerable with the advent of gunpowder weaponry. Cannons could easily reduce these structures to rubble, rendering them obsolete.



The star-shaped design addressed these vulnerabilities by incorporating wide moats and projecting bastions - angled structures that jutted outward from the main walls.&nbsp;



These bastions provided overlapping fields of fire, allowing defenders to cover blind spots and effectively repel attackers attempting to approach or scale the walls.&nbsp;



Additionally, the sloped walls of these fortresses, known as glacis, were designed to deflect cannonballs rather than absorb their impact, further enhancing their resilience.



This innovative design not only improved defensive capabilities but also transformed the battlefield, forcing attackers to develop new siege techniques. It marked a pivotal moment in military engineering, influencing fortress construction across Europe and beyond for centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-of-star-shaped-cities">Examples of star-shaped cities</h2>



“Four examples of such cities can be seen here, arranged clockwise from the top left: Bourtange in the Netherlands, Palmanova in Italy, Almeida in Portugal, and Neuf-Brisach in France,” said ESA.



“The green and red hues evoke a Christmas vibe, achieved through different band combinations during image processing to generate true-color (green) and false-color (red) visuals.”



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bourtange-netherlands">Bourtange, Netherlands </h3>



Fort Bourtange, nestled in the picturesque countryside of northeast Netherlands near the German border, is a remarkable example of Renaissance military architecture and urban planning.&nbsp;



Constructed in 1593 during the Eighty Years' War, it was strategically positioned to control the only road linking Germany to the Dutch city of Groningen - a vital route for military and trade purposes.&nbsp;



Its unique pentagonal, star-shaped design featured angled bastions, wide moats, and interconnected defensive structures, making it nearly impenetrable to enemy forces equipped with the era's artillery.



In 1851, after centuries of military service, Fort Bourtange was decommissioned and transformed into a peaceful village.&nbsp;



Despite the change in purpose, its original geometric layout, defined by precise angles and symmetrical patterns, remained intact. The pentagonal walls, surrounding waterways, and radial street design continue to showcase the ingenuity of its designers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-palmanova-italy">Palmanova, Italy </h3>



Palmanova, located in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of northeast Italy, is a masterpiece of Renaissance urban and military planning.&nbsp;



Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site, it exemplifies the idealized city envisioned during the late Renaissance, combining beauty, functionality, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-u-s-military-bases-for-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">military</a> innovation.&nbsp;



Constructed in 1593 by the Republic of Venice, Palmanova was strategically designed to protect the Republic’s northeastern borders from external threats - particularly the Ottoman Empire.



The city’s layout embodies the principles of symmetry and order characteristic of the Renaissance. Its unique radial design spreads out from the central hexagonal square, known as Piazza Grande or Piazza del Duomo, which serves as the civic and social heart of the city.&nbsp;



From this central hub, six straight avenues fan outward, connecting the square to the surrounding neighborhoods and gates. This design was not only aesthetically pleasing but also practical, allowing for efficient movement and communication within the city.



Today, Palmanova is celebrated not only for its historical and architectural significance but also as a rare example of a perfectly preserved star fortress.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-almeida-portugal-nbsp">Almeida, Portugal&nbsp;</h3>



Perched on a high plain in northeast Portugal near the Spanish border, the fortress of Almeida is a striking example of military engineering and a symbol of Portugal’s resilience.&nbsp;



Built to secure the nation’s eastern frontier, Almeida has played a significant role in Portuguese history, particularly during its early years of independence and throughout various military conflicts, including the Peninsular War.



The fortress's defining star-shaped ramparts consist of twelve points, each projecting outward to eliminate blind spots and provide overlapping fields of fire against advancing enemies.&nbsp;



The thick walls, surrounding moats, and angular bastions made Almeida a formidable stronghold capable of withstanding prolonged sieges.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neuf-brisach-france">Neuf-Brisach, France</h3>



Neuf-Brisach, located in the Alsace region of northeastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">France</a> near the German border, is another fascinating example of military and urban design.&nbsp;



The town was constructed in 1697 after the loss of Breisach, which stood on the opposite bank of the Rhine River in Germany.&nbsp;



The name "Neuf" (meaning "new" in French) reflects its creation as a strategic replacement and fortification to strengthen France's defense along its eastern border.



Designed by Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, the renowned military engineer under King Louis XIV, Neuf-Brisach is part of the extensive network of fortifications that Vauban designed to protect France from external threats.&nbsp;



Vauban's expertise in defensive architecture is evident in the town's star-shaped layout, which was intended to optimize defense while accommodating civilian life within the fortifications.&nbsp;



The fortifications were built to withstand sieges and were strategically positioned to control movement across the Rhine River and defend against potential invasions. The outer star-shaped ramparts extend in a way that creates a nearly impenetrable defensive perimeter.



Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Star-shaped cities scattered across Europe

NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has achieved an incredible feat, venturing closer to the Sun than ever before. On December 24, 2024, the spacecraft made a record-breaking approach, flying just 3.8 million miles from the Sun’s surface.



The probe is the fastest human-made object in history. Its daring journey occurred at an astonishing speed of 430,000 miles per hour.



A beacon tone received on December 26 confirmed the spacecraft’s safety and functionality, marking a significant milestone in space exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historic-achievement-of-parker-solar-probe">Historic achievement of Parker Solar Probe</h2>



The mission represents humanity’s first attempt to “touch” a star. 



"Flying this close to the Sun is a historic moment in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-parker-solar-probe-reaches-closest-approach-to-the-sun-perihelion-survival-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humanity’s first mission</a> to a star,” said Nicky Fox, Science Mission Directorate leader at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>. 



By studying the Sun’s behavior up close, scientists hope to better understand its impact on the solar system, including effects on Earth’s technology and insights into stellar processes across the universe. 



This knowledge could aid in the search for habitable worlds beyond our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-the-parker-solar-probe">Journey of the Parker Solar Probe</h2>



Launched in 2018, Parker Solar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parker-solar-probe-will-fly-through-suns-atmosphere-tomorrow-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Probe</a> has spent six years preparing for this achievement. Seven Venus flybys adjusted its trajectory, bringing it closer to the Sun with each orbit. The spacecraft reached its optimal orbit after its final Venus flyby on November 6, 2024.



This unique path allows Parker Solar Probe to study the Sun’s enigmatic processes every three months while maintaining a safe distance to avoid excessive heat and radiation. This orbit will remain unchanged for the duration of the mission.



“Parker Solar Probe is braving one of the most extreme environments in space and exceeding all expectations,” said Nour Rawafi, project scientist at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APL</a>). 



“This mission is ushering a new golden era of space exploration, bringing us closer than ever to unlocking the Sun’s deepest and most enduring mysteries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-marvel-withstanding-extreme-heat">Engineering marvel: Withstanding extreme heat</h2>



Operating in the Sun’s corona, where temperatures exceed 1 million degrees Fahrenheit, Parker Solar Probe relies on a specially designed carbon foam shield. 



This shield endures temperatures up to 2,600 degrees Fahrenheit while keeping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-the-fastest-human-made-object-ever-nasas-parker-solar-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spacecraft’s</a> instruments at room temperature. 



“It’s monumental to be able to get a spacecraft this close to the Sun,” said John Wirzburger, mission systems engineer at APL. 



Decades of technological advancement made this achievement possible, addressing challenges first identified in 1958.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-rules-of-solar-science">Rewriting the rules of solar science</h2>



Parker Solar Probe is rewriting the rules of solar science. By flying through the corona, it collects unprecedented data to answer longstanding questions about solar processes. 



Researchers aim to understand why the corona is so hot, how the solar wind originates, and how particles accelerate to incredible speeds.



“The data is so important for the science community because it gives us another vantage point,” said Kelly Korreck, a heliophysicist at NASA. 



Observations from Parker Solar Probe have already revealed unexpected features like spikes and valleys in the corona’s outer boundary and pinpointed the origins of switchbacks in the solar wind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-discoveries-in-the-solar-system">Broader discoveries in the solar system</h2>



Beyond studying the Sun, Parker Solar Probe has made important discoveries about the inner solar system. It showed that&nbsp;coronal mass ejections (CMEs) - massive eruptions from the Sun - act like giant vacuums, sweeping up dust particles as they move through space.



This process helps scientists understand how solar events influence the environment between planets.



The spacecraft also provided detailed information on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-solar-storm-warning-issued-as-two-cmes-will-hit-earth-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar energetic particles</a>, which are high-energy particles ejected by the Sun. These particles play a critical role in space weather, affecting satellites, astronauts, and even communication systems on Earth.



During its flybys of Venus, Parker Solar Probe made remarkable observations. It detected natural radio emissions from Venus’s atmosphere, providing a better understanding of the planet’s atmospheric conditions.



Additionally, the probe captured the first-ever complete image of Venus’s orbital dust ring - a collection of fine particles that encircle the planet along its orbit. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-data-will-soon-reach-earth">Valuable data will soon reach Earth</h2>



The spacecraft’s recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-has-officially-reached-its-solar-maximum-period-in-this-solar-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar</a> pass produced valuable data which will soon be transmitted to Earth.



"The data that will come down from the spacecraft will be fresh information about a place that we, as humanity, have never been,” said Joe Westlake, NASA’s Heliophysics Division director.



With upcoming close approaches scheduled for March 22 and June 19, 2025, Parker Solar Probe promises to deepen our understanding of the Sun and its influence on the solar system. 



These efforts mark a significant step forward in humanity’s quest to unlock the secrets of the cosmos.



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Parker Solar Probe completes closest-ever approach to the Sun

NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has achieved an incredible feat, venturing...

We’ve come a long way from viewing robots merely as tools. Today, artificial intelligence (AI) and AI-enabled robots play increasing roles in human lives - from assisting us in mundane everyday tasks to aiding in complex scientific research.



They’re becoming our partners and social entities, blurring the boundaries between human and machine.



And this transition is not without its pitfalls. This transformation challenges existing legal and ethical frameworks, raising pressing concerns about privacy, safety, and regulation. 



A new publication, The Cambridge Handbook of the Law, Policy, and Regulation for Human-Robot Interaction, addresses these issues. The book provides a roadmap for navigating this rapidly evolving landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexities-of-human-robot-interactions">Complexities of human-robot interactions </h2>



Edited by Woodrow Barfield, Yueh-Hsuan Weng, and Ugo Pagallo, the handbook gathers insights from social sciences, computer science, and engineering. 



It stands as the first book to focus on the legal, policy, and regulatory aspects of human-robot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dancing-robots-the-future-of-human-robot-interactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a>.



“Humanities are crucial to AI development,” said Yueh-Hsuan Weng, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a> and <a href="https://www.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a>.



“Tech professionals can create cutting-edge systems, but without input from legal and humanities perspectives, these systems may struggle to coexist with humans. We hope this book serves as a compass for developers, ensuring AI systems better benefit our society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-core-issues-of-human-robot-interaction">Core issues of human-robot interaction </h2>



The handbook’s 46 chapters are organized into four parts, each tackling a critical dimension of human-robot interaction:



<ol class="wp-block-list">
<li>Legal and ethical challenges: This section introduces foundational issues like trust in robots and anthropomorphism - where humans attribute emotions or intentions to non-human entities.</li>



<li>Societal impacts: This part explores whether AI entities should have legal personhood and the societal adjustments needed for greater human-robot integration.</li>



<li>Ethical and cultural values: Value alignment between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-can-feel-emotions-for-robots-especially-those-in-distress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI systems and human societies</a> is examined, highlighting regional and cultural differences. Topics include robots in long-term assistance and religious settings.</li>



<li>Legal evolution: The final section delves into how consumer, criminal, and constitutional laws must adapt to accommodate intelligent systems.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-ai-pacing-problem">Addressing the AI pacing problem</h2>



“A major issue I addressed in the book is the AI pacing problem,” noted Professor Weng.



This concept highlights the gap between rapid AI advancements and slower legislative responses. While efforts to regulate AI are underway globally, comprehensive laws often lag behind technological progress.



Professor Weng proposes solutions like global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-deception-how-do-humans-respond-to-lying-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> ethics standards developed by the IEEE, where he leads a working group. This initiative aims to modularize core issues and region-specific concerns, helping developers apply ethical guidelines effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-privacy-anthropomorphism-and-boundaries">Privacy, anthropomorphism, and boundaries</h2>



The handbook delves into key issues like anthropomorphism, robots in healthcare, and privacy protection, which are becoming increasingly relevant as robots integrate into human society. 



Anthropomorphism, where robots are designed to exhibit human-like behaviors or emotions, can enhance interaction but raises ethical concerns about trust and potential manipulation. 



In healthcare, robots play vital roles as caregivers, especially for older adults, assisting with tasks like mobility and medication reminders. 



However, these interactions can lead to emotional complexities, as individuals may perceive robotic caregivers as true companions, resulting in dependency or confusion. 



Privacy protection emerges as another critical concern, as robots collect vast amounts of personal data to deliver high-quality services. Without proper safeguards, this data could be misused, making robust and innovative regulatory solutions essential to address these challenges responsibly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-perspective-on-human-robot-interaction">Global perspective on human-robot interaction</h2>



The handbook brings together experts from various countries and presents case studies from across the globe, promoting a global dialogue on ethical dilemmas in human-robot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-humans-react-to-coexisting-with-robots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a>. 



“As human-AI interactions become more common, I hope designers, manufacturers, and users of robots will engage with our book. Responsible research and innovation are crucial for the development of AI and robots, and this requires input from people across various societal sectors,” said Professor Weng.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-the-future-of-ai-and-robotics">Shaping the future of AI and robotics</h2>



The Cambridge Handbook of the Law, Policy, and Regulation for Human-Robot Interaction&nbsp;offers a comprehensive framework for understanding and addressing the complexities of AI-enabled robots. 



By sparking discussions across disciplines, it aims to guide the responsible integration of robots into society. “We warmly invite everyone to explore this book and join us in creating IEEE’s global standards for AI ethics,” said Professor Weng.



The <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-handbook-of-the-law-policy-and-regulation-for-humanrobot-interaction/5740D8AEA42968E6A195BEDF5CBD0E5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">book</a> is now available online, providing essential insights for navigating the future of human-robot interaction.



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Human-robot interaction: Are we prepared for the ethical challenges?

We’ve come a long way from viewing robots merely as...

Plans to revisit the Moon by the end of this decade promise an exciting step for space exploration. Experts now caution that our arrival could bring unexpected hazards by creating thin, short-lived, toxic atmospheres made of moon dust right above the lunar surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-footprints-new-frontiers">Human footprints, new frontiers</h2>



Our natural satellite has little more than an extremely sparse layer of gas around it at any given moment, which scientists call an exosphere. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-plans-to-build-house-on-the-moon-by-2040/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In the near future</a>, astronaut activities, mining efforts, and rocket launches may change that fragile environment and kick up large amounts of <a href="https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/letss/regolith.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regolith</a> that jeopardize missions and equipment.



<a href="https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/sci/bio/rosemary.killen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosemary Killen</a>, a planetary scientist at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a>, has voiced concerns about tiny dust particles swirling into the air and endangering explorers. “One thing that really worries us is that the dust raised by the explorers and so on will be loaded,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-moon-dust-clouds">Tiny moon dust clouds</h2>



Moon dust, or regolith, has formed over billions of years from space rock impacts and solar wind effects. 



The fine grains <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273117724008615" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pose health risks</a> when stirred up by rocket boosters and rovers, and their static-like buildup may affect visibility, respiratory health, and electronic instruments.



Exhaled vapors, leakages from spacecraft, and even little bits of water from life support systems can also add gas to the surrounding area. 



Although these additions may be short-lived, they can spread across miles before settling and freezing in the Moon’s shaded regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lunar-science-at-stake">Lunar science at stake</h2>



Researchers intend to unlock ancient secrets by analyzing pristine ice in permanently shadowed craters, where water may have existed for ages. 



But human-introduced <a href="https://baas.aas.org/pub/2024i009/release/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water vapor</a> can confuse those findings, since it can freeze in the same dark spots and obscure chemical clues about the Moon’s past.



Many instruments and experiments depend on analyzing dust and gases with as little contamination as possible. 



Equipment set up to measure local atmospheric makeup might be thrown off by unwanted clouds of exhaust or recycling byproducts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spaceships-and-moon-dust-blasts">Spaceships and moon dust blasts</h2>



NASA has partnered with commercial groups to ferry astronauts and cargo to the Moon in an effort often referred to collectively as the Artemis missions (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Artemis</a>). Large vehicles, including Starship variants, might cause forceful landings that fling moon dust up at high altitudes and create brief “atmospheric” pockets of gas and tiny particles.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-nasa-plans-to-keep-people-in-space-after-the-iss-is-gone/">Space agencies</a> say they will try to minimize these effects by choosing suitable landing sites and carefully planning flight paths. 



Yet observers warn that a few seconds of rocket thrust could hurl moon dust long distances and deposit fresh contaminants in remote locations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-moon-dust-causes-concern">Why moon dust causes concern</h2>



Moon dust is not just an irritant: it can damage lungs, scratch surfaces on suits, and clog machinery. 



Some analysts compare it to the harm that soot or coal dust causes to miners if inhaled over time, which might reduce the safety margin for extended <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-new-lunar-fss-mission-will-explore-moon-far-side-moonquakes/">Moon missions</a>.



Astronauts also risk tracking moon dust back inside their living quarters. Dirty suits, tools, and rovers can transport the debris into airlocks and the interiors of space craft, which raises concerns about health impacts and mechanical damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-scientific-treasures">Protecting scientific treasures</h2>



High-priority research targets include regions that have barely changed in billions of years. Certain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103517307340?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shadowy craters</a> may hold ice that could reveal how water arrived on Earth and the Moon, and offer clues about our planet’s beginnings.



Adding even a small amount of new water or gas can make existing data hard to interpret. Some scientists recommend carefully planned operations and restricted zones to preserve these ancient substances until samples can be taken under controlled conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-exploration-with-caution">Balancing exploration with caution</h2>



No one wants to halt progress in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-has-unexpected-effects-on-gut-health/">space travel</a>. But specialists suggest that mindful mission designs, gentle landing technologies, and well-managed mining or drilling are necessary to keep the lunar surface intact.



<a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> aims to collect enough data to separate what is truly native to the Moon from anything brought by humans. 



Such efforts will help us learn the limits of lunar resources, the dangers of moon dust, and the best ways to safeguard explorers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-dust-and-lunar-exploration">Moon dust and lunar exploration</h2>



Our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lunar-glass-may-rewrite-the-geological-history-of-the-moon/">renewed presence on the Moon</a> introduces a host of fascinating possibilities. Yet it also places the spotlight on how fragile the lunar environment can be, reminding us that every footprint, launch, or sample has an impact.



From potential dust hazards to artificial atmospheric bursts, new lunar developments call for cooperation among space agencies, scientists, and private companies.&nbsp;



If handled wisely, tomorrow’s Moon missions will open a window to incredible discoveries while preserving our cosmic neighbor for future generations.



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NASA alert: Humans risk creating a toxic atmosphere on the Moon

Plans to revisit the Moon by the end of this...

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Simplifying object detection in autonomous cars Today&#8217;s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> explains how researchers are addressing the challenges of enabling self-driving cars to identify nearby objects. 
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is one very accurate method for object detection, but the technology is also expensive and energy inefficient. 
Researchers at Cornell University are working to develop a simple, low-cost alternative to LIDAR that allows autonomous cars to detect 3D objects with high accuracy.
&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Video Credit: Cornell University