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Woman,With,Sun,Protection,Cream,On,Her,Shoulder,In,The

Sunburn is painful skin damage that we've all experienced after spending a bit too much time outdoors without protection from UV rays. 



Whether it's from a lazy beach day or an exhilarating hike, the aftermath tells a singular tale - crimson skin and a nagging sting.



We've long believed that stepping out into the sun requires ample sunscreen slathering, shade-seeking, and hat-wearing, especially between the peak hours of 12 noon and 3 p.m.



However, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> and <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanyang Technological University</a> (NTU Singapore) have made surprising new strides in our understanding of sunburn.



As it turns out, the DNA damage we've always associated with sunburn might not be the complete story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-rna-and-sunburn-damage">DNA, RNA, and sunburn damage</h2>



When it comes to sunburn, the prevailing wisdom suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-now-collect-human-dna-from-water-air-and-basically-everywhere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> damage triggers inflammation and subsequent cell death.



However, this recent research suggests that the real offender might be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-world-unraveling-mysteries-life-origin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA</a>, not DNA. 



"Sunburn damages the DNA, leading to cell death and inflammation. So the textbooks say," stated assistant professor Anna Constance Vind from the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine at the <a href="https://researchprofiles.ku.dk/en/organisations/institut-for-cellul%C3%A6r-og-molekyl%C3%A6r-medicin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a>. 



"But in this study we were surprised to learn that this is a result of damage to the RNA, not the DNA that causes the acute effects of sunburn." 



But what's the difference between DNA and RNA? While they share similarities, the two aren't interchangeable. 



DNA is a more consistent molecule, whereas RNA is more transitory. 



A particular type of RNA, messenger RNA (mRNA), carries information from DNA to create proteins - the fundamental building blocks of cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-rna">Importance of RNA</h2>



The importance of mRNA in our body's response to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UV radiation</a> can't be understated. 



"DNA damage is serious as the mutations will get passed down to progenies of the cells, RNA damage happens all the time and does not cause permanent mutations," Vind explained. 



"Therefore, we used to believe that the RNA is less important, as long as the DNA is intact. But in fact, damages to the RNA are the first to trigger a response to UV radiation."



Investigating more deeply into the matter was no small task.



The researchers embarked on a study involving both mice and human skin cells to better understand the consequences of UV radiation on the skin. They discovered a consistent response in both species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zak-alpha-and-sunburn-damage">ZAK-alpha and sunburn damage</h2>



RNA damage activates a response in ribosomes (protein complexes that interpret the mRNA to assemble proteins).



This process is managed by a protein known as ZAK-alpha, which triggers what is referred to as the "ribotoxic stress response."



Think of it like a vigilant watchman, always on the lookout for RNA damage. When it detects any, it won't hesitate to call for backup.



"We found that the first thing the cells respond to after being exposed to UV radiation is damage to the RNA, and that this is what triggers cell death and inflammation of the skin," explained Professor Simon Bekker-Jensen, who was also from the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine.



In mice exposed to UV radiation we found responses such as inflammation and cell death, but when we removed the ZAK gene, these responses disappeared, which means that ZAK plays a key role in the skin's response to UV-induced damage.



"So you could say that everything depends on this one response, which monitors all protein translations occurring,” Bekker-Jensen elaborated.



“The cells respond to the RNA damage, realizing that something is wrong, and this is what leads to cell death.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paradigm-shift">Paradigm shift</h2>



The study's findings question our long-held beliefs about sunburn and how our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skins-secret-strength-shields-against-puncture-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> safeguards itself. 



It suggests that RNA damage sparks a quicker, more efficient response, which safeguards the skin from additional harm.



"The fact that the DNA does not control the skin's initial response to UV radiation, but that something else does and that it does so more effectively and more quickly, is quite the paradigm shift," reflected Vind.



Knowing how our skin reacts to UV damage at a cellular level could potentially transform prevention and treatment approaches to sunburn and other inflammatory skin conditions.



"Many inflammatory skin diseases are worsened by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-parents-are-not-using-sunscreen-properly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sun exposure</a>. Thus, understanding how our skin responds at the cellular level to UV damage opens the door to innovative treatments for certain chronic skin conditions," explained Dr. Franklin Zhong, Nanyang assistant professor at NTU's Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine and a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-textbooks">Rewriting the textbooks</h2>



In closing, it seems now is the time to revise our textbooks and rethink how we perceive the effects of UV radiation on our skin. 



"This new knowledge turns things upside down. I think most people associate sunburn with DNA damage; it is established knowledge," Professor Simon Bekker-Jensen concluded. 



"But now we need to rewrite the textbooks, and it will affect future research on the effects of UV radiation on the skin."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1097276524008840" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Cell</a>.



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Main cause of sunburn is finally identified, and it's time to rewrite the textbooks

Sunburn is painful skin damage that we've all experienced after...

Record ocean heat has taken a devastating toll on one of the world’s greatest natural wonders, with coral bleaching on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef reaching “catastrophic” levels, a new study has found.&nbsp;



More than 50% of affected corals monitored near an island in the reef’s south were killed last year during the most severe and widespread bleaching to ever hit the area, according to a team of Australian scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-leading-to-coral-bleaching">Factors leading to coral bleaching</h2>



In 2024, the reef experienced its worst summer on record. Soaring ocean temperatures shattered previous highs, causing the reef’s seventh mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> event.&nbsp;



Corals are bleached white when marine heat waves put corals under stress, causing them to expel algae from their tissue, draining their color. This damaging process ultimately weakens the corals, leaving them vulnerable to disease and potential death.



The underlying cause is the ongoing combustion of planet-heating fossil fuels, which is driving global temperatures upward.&nbsp;



Coral damage was further accelerated last year by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-in-some-parts-of-the-world-actually-benefit-from-warming-el-nino-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> weather pattern, known for raising ocean temperatures in this region. As a result, reef areas that had never endured such intense heat came under severe strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-coral-mortality-and-disease">Extensive coral mortality and disease</h2>



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> tracked 462 coral colonies at One Tree Island over five months, beginning in early February when the heat wave was at its peak.&nbsp;



By May, 370 of these colonies had bleached; by July, more than half of the bleached corals were gone. Some coral species suffered mortality rates of up to 95%, with researchers observing “colony collapse,” a phenomenon in which the coral skeleton detaches from the reef and disintegrates.



The Goniopora species encountered additional damage, contracting black band disease that invades the corals’ tissues and often proves fatal.



“Our findings underscore the urgent need for action to protect coral reefs, which are not only biodiversity hotspots but also crucial for food security and coastal protection,” said lead author Maria Byrne from the University of Sydney’s School of Life and Environmental Sciences.



Byrne noted that the region studied is in a remote, protected area of the reef, far from tourist and industrial influences. However, the reef, “despite its protected status, was not immune to the extreme heat stress that triggered this catastrophic bleaching event,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-great-barrier-reef-under-threat">Great Barrier Reef under threat</h2>



Spanning nearly 133,000 square miles (345,000 square kilometers), the Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef system, hosting over 1,500 species of fish and more than 400 types of hard corals. Its significant contribution to Australia’s economy, mainly through tourism, underscores its global importance and the urgency of protective measures.



Nevertheless, recent bleaching episodes illustrate a troubling trend of more frequent and intense heat waves, making it increasingly difficult for corals to recover. 



The study’s authors warn that mass bleaching has become “a biennial event,” which “reinforces the need for urgent global action now to adhere to ambitious climate and reduced emissions targets.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-spreads-to-previously-unaffected-areas">Impact spreads to previously unaffected areas</h2>



The latest bleaching event also hit parts of the reef previously spared from mass bleaching, indicating that the crisis is extending into new territories. Even coral species once deemed resilient have exhibited signs of disease and elevated mortality rates.



“Seeing the impacts on a reef that has largely avoided mass bleaching until now is devastating,” said marine scientist and co-author Shawna Foo. “The high rates of mortality and disease, particularly in such a remote and pristine area, highlight the severity of the situation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-emergency-for-coral-reefs">A climate emergency for coral reefs</h2>



Severe bleaching events have occurred on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Barrier Reef</a> in 1998, 2002, 2016, 2017, 2020, and 2022. The 2022 episode was particularly concerning, as it coincided with a La Niña event - El Niño’s cooler counterpart - raising further doubts about the reef’s resilience to future climate extremes.



The new findings underscore the fragile condition of the reef and the urgent necessity to curb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-carbon-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuel emissions</a> that contribute to global warming.&nbsp;



With bleaching now seemingly inevitable in many locations, the survival of coral reefs hinges on global efforts to limit temperature rises, offering hope that the reef’s vibrant ecosystems can still be preserved for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lol2.10456" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Limnology and Oceanography Letters</a>.



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Coral bleaching has reached 'catastrophic' levels on the Great Barrier Reef

Record ocean heat has taken a devastating toll on one...

Shell-dwelling cichlids are known for their remarkable parental care, raising their young in abandoned snail shells.&nbsp;



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a> have uncovered the intricate dynamics inside these shells using 3D-printed models.&nbsp;



The findings reveal synchronized but independent routines between mothers and their larvae, offering valuable insights into the species' brood care behaviors and innate biological processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delicate-balancing-act-of-cichilds">Delicate balancing act of cichilds</h2>



For many species, deciding when offspring leave the safety of home is a delicate balancing act. 



If the young depart too early, they risk being ill-equipped to survive; staying too long, however, can overstrain the parents’ resources. This pivotal moment can greatly impact the survival of both parents and offspring across the animal kingdom.



The team at Herwig Baier’s research department focused on Lamprologus ocellatus, a species of shell-dwelling cichlids found in Africa’s Lake Tanganyika. These fish exhibit highly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-of-cichlid-fish-boosts-biodiversity-in-lake-tanganyika/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social behavior</a> and devoted parental care, which is uncommon among many fish species. 



Raising their offspring within abandoned snail shells adds an intriguing layer to their parenting, but until now, the activities within these homes remained largely a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creative-solution-to-study-hidden-behaviors">Creative solution to study hidden behaviors</h2>



To investigate the hidden world inside the shells, lead researcher Ash Parker and her colleagues devised an ingenious method. They used 3D printers to create modified snail shells, designed to function as optimal homes for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> while leaving one side open.&nbsp;



When these shells were placed against the aquarium glass, researchers could capture videos and photos of the cichlids' behaviors.



Using AI-assisted image analysis, the team identified fascinating behaviors unfolding in a precise sequence.&nbsp;



After the mother lays the eggs in the upper chamber of the snail shell, the father fertilizes them. After two to three days, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-reef-sounds-inspire-coral-larvae-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larvae</a> hatch and the mother carries them with her mouth to the lowest chamber of the shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dedicated-maternal-care-of-cichlids-nbsp">Dedicated maternal care of cichlids&nbsp;</h2>



Throughout the early days of the larvae’s development, the mother remains vigilant. She not only guards the shell but actively tends to the eggs and larvae by cleaning them with her mouth.&nbsp;



Additionally, she uses rapid movements of her rear fins to ensure a steady flow of fresh water inside the shell, maintaining optimal conditions for her young.



By the seventh or eighth day, the larvae begin feeding independently and make tentative attempts at swimming. However, they remain in the darker, lower chambers of the shell until the ninth day, when their behavior undergoes a dramatic shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cichlids-ready-to-leave-the-shell">Cichlids ready to leave the shell</h2>



On the ninth day after fertilization, the larvae show a sudden preference for brighter areas. This intrinsic change in light sensitivity appears to signal their readiness to leave the shell for the first time.



The timing of their emergence, however, also relies on their mother’s brood-care efforts.&nbsp;



When the researchers removed the mother from the setup, the larvae left the shell earlier, likely due to deteriorating water quality caused by the absence of her fin fanning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-independent-but-synchronized-schedules">Independent but synchronized schedules</h2>



Interestingly, the mother’s behavior follows a separate internal schedule. When presented with an older clutch of larvae that swam out earlier than she anticipated, she actively pushed them back into the shell, disregarding their advanced development.



These observations show that both the mother and the offspring follow independent, innate schedules that are nevertheless perfectly synchronized. Both mother and juveniles seem to instinctively align their routines, agreeing that the ninth day marks the ideal time for the young to leave the shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolution-and-behavior">Implications for evolution and behavior</h2>



This study offers a rare glimpse into the intricate processes governing parental care in shell-dwelling cichlids. By identifying innate behavioral patterns and their coordination, the research lays the groundwork for exploring the evolutionary and neurological underpinnings of such complex behaviors.



The findings also highlight the role of environmental conditions, maternal intervention, and innate biological timing in ensuring the successful transition of offspring to independence.&nbsp;



With 3D-printed technology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-hidden-climate-extremes-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a>-driven analysis, the researchers have provided an unprecedented view into the hidden dynamics of these fascinating fish.&nbsp;



Image Credit: MPI for Biological Intelligence/ Axel Griesch



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Fish leaving home: How cichlids perfectly time independence

Shell-dwelling cichlids are known for their remarkable parental care, raising...

A recent study&nbsp;by Global Fishing Watch has uncovered an immense quantity of previously untracked vessel activity at sea.



The ocean has long been a vast and mysterious frontier, covering over 70% of the Earth’s surface. It is the lifeblood of global trade, a crucial source of food, and a key player in energy production. Yet, despite its importance, much of what happens on its surface remains shrouded in secrecy. 



By leveraging satellite imagery, vessel GPS data, and artificial intelligence, researchers have created a detailed map of industrial vessel movements and offshore energy infrastructure.



The findings reveal staggering gaps in public tracking systems, raising urgent concerns about maritime transparency, environmental sustainability, and global security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-vessels-at-sea">Dark vessels at sea</h2>



For years, maritime organizations and governments have relied on the&nbsp;Automatic Identification System (AIS)&nbsp;to track vessel movements. While AIS is useful for monitoring registered ships, it has significant limitations. 



Not all countries mandate its use, and many vessels turn off their transponders to avoid detection, particularly those engaging in illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-gets-a-boost-from-genomics-roadmap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a>, smuggling, and other illicit activities.



The&nbsp;experts found that between&nbsp;72% and 76% of the world’s industrial fishing vessels are not publicly tracked - a striking figure that highlights the hidden scale of commercial fishing operations.



Even more concerning,&nbsp;21% to 30% of transport and energy vessel activity is missing from public monitoring systems, further obscuring the true scale of industrial use of the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-fishing-activity">Hidden fishing activity </h2>



Most of this untracked activity occurs in&nbsp;South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the northern and western coasts of Africa. These regions, rich in marine biodiversity, are also hotspots for illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-consequences-of-catch-and-release-sport-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a>, overexploitation of marine resources, and environmental degradation. 



Without a reliable and transparent tracking system, governments and conservationists struggle to enforce regulations, protect fish stocks, and monitor maritime security.



The implications of this dark vessel activity extend far beyond fishing. More than&nbsp;one billion people depend on the ocean as their primary food source, and&nbsp;260 million people are directly employed by global marine fisheries.



Additionally,&nbsp;80% of all traded goods are transported via ocean routes, and&nbsp;nearly 30% of the world’s oil production occurs offshore. Without accurate tracking, illegal activities such as&nbsp;forced labor, human trafficking, and environmental crimes&nbsp;can continue unchecked, undermining efforts to promote sustainable ocean management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-satellites-reveal-dark-vessels">AI and satellites reveal dark vessels </h2>



To address the limitations of AIS and other conventional tracking systems, the researchers turned to artificial intelligence and satellite technology.



They used deep learning models to scan a staggering&nbsp;two petabytes of satellite imagery&nbsp;from the&nbsp;European Space Agency’s Sentinel-1 satellite constellation. This AI-powered system was trained to detect and classify vessels with remarkable accuracy, far surpassing previous methods.



The team&nbsp;designed and trained three deep convolutional neural networks&nbsp;to analyze satellite imagery and vessel GPS data. 



These models achieved an&nbsp;object detection accuracy of over 97%, a&nbsp;classification accuracy of 98% for offshore infrastructure, and a&nbsp;90% accuracy rate for distinguishing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> vessels from non-fishing vessels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-untracked-vessel-activity">Unveiling untracked vessel activity</h2>



The dataset used for this analysis was massive. Researchers examined&nbsp;67 million image tiles, including&nbsp;53 billion AIS vessel positions, to determine which ships were actively broadcasting their location and which were operating in the shadows. 



The&nbsp;resolution of the satellite radar allowed the team to detect objects as small as 15 meters, making it possible to track industrial fishing vessels, cargo ships, tankers, and offshore infrastructure with unprecedented clarity.



"Our satellite mapping revealed high densities of vessel activity in large areas of the ocean that previously showed little to no vessel activity by public tracking systems," the research team stated.



The study’s findings have already&nbsp;reshaped our understanding of global maritime activity, revealing areas where fishing and transport vessels operate without oversight. 



This new method of tracking vessels will be&nbsp;instrumental in identifying illegal fishing hotspots, detecting human rights violations at sea, and improving enforcement of marine protected areas (MPAs).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rise-of-offshore-energy-wind-vs-oil">Rise of offshore energy: Wind vs. oil</h2>



Beyond vessel movements, the study also mapped the rapid expansion of offshore energy infrastructure. 



By&nbsp;2021, offshore wind turbines had surpassed oil structures in number, a significant milestone in the transition toward renewable energy. Wind power accounted for&nbsp;48% of all offshore structures, while oil installations made up&nbsp;38%.



Despite the growth of wind energy,&nbsp;oil-related vessel traffic still dwarfs that of wind infrastructure, with oil platforms generating&nbsp;five times more vessel activity&nbsp;than wind farms. The global shift to offshore renewables is happening, but oil remains dominant in terms of maritime traffic and industrial footprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-footprint-of-offshore-energy">Growing footprint of offshore energy</h2>



The study from <a href="https://globalfishingwatch.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Fishing Watch</a> found that offshore wind farms are&nbsp;highly concentrated in northern Europe (52%) and China (45%), with China experiencing an extraordinary&nbsp;900% increase in offshore wind turbines from 2017 to 2021. 



Meanwhile, offshore oil infrastructure remains concentrated in&nbsp;the Gulf of Mexico, the Persian Gulf, and Southeast Asia, with the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Indonesia leading in oil platform installations.



As renewable energy infrastructure continues to grow, understanding how these structures interact with existing maritime industries will be crucial. The study found that&nbsp;trawlers avoid fishing within one kilometer of oil platforms, likely to prevent net entanglement. 



However, other fishing activities&nbsp;increase around offshore infrastructure, as these structures can serve as artificial reefs that attract marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-maritime-surveillance">Future of maritime surveillance</h2>



In addition to satellite-based vessel tracking, new AI-driven technologies are set to&nbsp;revolutionize real-time ship detection. The&nbsp;Rapid Earth Monitoring Information System (REMIS), developed in partnership with&nbsp;<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>, <a href="https://www.stcorp.nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">S[&amp;]T</a>, <a href="https://www.vake.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vake</a>, and <a href="https://emlogic.no" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EmLogic</a> in Norway, promises to&nbsp;locate ships in hours instead of days.



Current satellite monitoring relies on&nbsp;downlinking images, processing them on the ground, and analyzing them manually, which can take days. By the time authorities receive data, dark vessels may have moved on, making enforcement difficult.



REMIS will&nbsp;pre-filter images in space, prioritizing those containing ships before sending them to ground stations. This drastically reduces&nbsp;data transmission time and processing costs, enabling authorities to&nbsp;track vessels in near real-time.



“If we can already identify ships onboard and potentially even combine it with AI systems, we could mark dark vessels and prioritize the scenes containing ships or their locations,” explains&nbsp;Maris Tali, the technical officer leading the project.



This system will be particularly valuable for&nbsp;detecting illegal fishing vessels, preventing ship collisions, and redirecting maritime traffic during emergencies. It represents a&nbsp;significant leap forward in global ocean monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-covid-19-on-fishing-activity">Impact of COVID-19 on fishing activity</h2>



The study also examined how maritime activity was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. While&nbsp;global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> activity dropped by 12% in 2020, it has&nbsp;not yet returned to pre-pandemic levels. However, transport and energy-related vessel activity remained relatively&nbsp;unaffected&nbsp;during the same period.



This decline in fishing is part of a&nbsp;longer-term trend. Since the 1980s,&nbsp;global marine fish catch has remained stagnant, as many fisheries have reached or exceeded sustainable limits. Meanwhile,&nbsp;offshore energy and maritime trade continue to expand, reshaping human interactions with the ocean.



As industrialization of the ocean accelerates, conflicts between fisheries, energy developers, and conservationists are likely to increase. 



Understanding these trends is essential for&nbsp;policymakers, environmental groups, and industry leaders&nbsp;to make informed decisions about marine resource management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-transparency-and-accountability">Call for transparency and accountability</h2>



The findings of this study highlight the urgent need for&nbsp;greater transparency in maritime activity. With three-quarters of industrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-freshwater-fish-toward-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> occurring&nbsp;outside public tracking systems, governments must adopt&nbsp;stricter regulations and better enforcement mechanisms.



AI-powered satellite monitoring and real-time detection systems like REMIS offer&nbsp;powerful new tools to combat illegal fishing, improve ocean governance, and enforce environmental protections.



As human activity in the ocean continues to grow, the need for&nbsp;accountability, sustainability, and international cooperation&nbsp;has never been greater. By illuminating the&nbsp;hidden industrial fleet&nbsp;operating in our oceans, science and technology are paving the way for a&nbsp;more transparent and sustainable future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06825-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: European Space Agency 



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Earth's oceans are filled with what scientists are calling "dark vessels"

A recent study&nbsp;by Global Fishing Watch has uncovered an immense...

Solar flares are fierce flashes of plasma erupting from the Sun, releasing jets and loops of charged particles into space - a breathtaking cosmic phenomenon.



But as awe-inspiring as these solar eruptions are, they also carry potential dangers for technology and astronauts in space and to humans on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-flares-and-flickering-loops">Solar flares and flickering loops</h2>



A group of dedicated researchers has made a significant breakthrough in understanding solar flares. The team has been using NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory to observe the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-the-suns-corona-hotter-than-its-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun's corona</a>, or outer atmosphere.



The experts focused their attention on a peculiar phenomenon: loops of light flickering in the Sun's corona. 



According to their observations, these flickering loops seem to serve as a lighted beacon signaling the onset of a massive solar flare.



This discovery holds enormous potential. It could assist NASA, along with other organizations involved in space and technology, to anticipate and protect against the harmful effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-weather-poses-significant-risks-to-railway-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coronal-loops-and-solar-flares">Coronal loops and solar flares</h2>



The research was led by Emily Mason, a heliophysicist at <a href="https://www.predsci.com/portal/home.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Predictive Sciences Inc</a>.



The team examined structures known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-covered-with-moss-peculiar-structure-sunspot-groups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coronal loops</a>, which are arching, shimmering waves of light that jet out from magnetically charged areas of the Sun. It's in these active regions that solar flares find their birthplace.



The researchers analyzed coronal loops in close proximity to 50 strong solar flares. They observed the fluctuation in brightness of these loops in the hours leading up to the flare, and compared them to loops above areas of the Sun where no flares occurred.



The findings were intriguing: the loops above flare-active regions showed significantly more variations, serving as a kind of cosmic warning system.



"We found that some of the extreme ultraviolet light above active regions flickers erratically for a few hours before a solar flare. The results are really important for understanding flares and may improve our ability to predict dangerous space weather,” said Mason.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-solar-flares-the-basics">Understanding solar flares - the basics</h2>



Solar flares are powerful explosions on the Sun’s surface that release immense amounts of energy, primarily in the form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-can-comets-tell-us-about-solar-activity-and-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-rays and ultraviolet radiation</a>.



These powerful eruptions appear in active areas around sunspots, where the Sun’s magnetic fields gets twisted and tangled. 



When these magnetic fields suddenly snap back into place, through a process called magnetic reconnection, they shoot out particles at nearly the speed of light and blast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-sparks-the-discovery-of-a-new-electromagnetic-wave/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electromagnetic radiation</a> into space.



The high-energy particles and radiation from a flare can mess with our planet’s magnetosphere, causing problems for satellites, GPS signals, and even power grids. 



Plus, solar flares often come hand-in-hand with coronal mass ejections (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-issues-severe-geomagnetic-storm-watch-first-time-since-2005/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMEs</a>), which are huge bursts of solar wind and magnetic fields that can trigger geomagnetic storms.



But it’s not all bad news - solar flares also play a key role in creating those stunning auroras we love to watch, like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kinetx-rocket-experiment-how-are-auroras-made-closer-look-at-northern-lights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Lights</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-on-previous-research">Building on previous research</h2>



The experts noted that more research is needed to strengthen the correlation, especially concerning stronger flares from the Sun where the flickering seems to peak earlier.



Various other groups of scientists have turned to different methods to predict solar flares, such as studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-dynamo-sun-magnetic-field-origin-generated-near-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields on the Sun</a> or searching for consistent patterns in other coronal loop features. 



However, Mason and her colleagues propose that monitoring the brightness variations in coronal loops might offer a more accurate warning, as they predict incoming flares 2 to 6 hours in advance with a 60 to 80 percent accuracy rate.



“A lot of the predictive schemes that have been developed are still predicting the likelihood of flares in a given time period and not necessarily exact timing," explained Seth Garland, a team member from the <a href="https://www.afit.edu/ABOUT/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Air Force Institute of Technology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-towards-a-safer-space">Towards a safer space</h2>



The researchers believe their observations about coronal loops could significantly boost safety measures in space and on Earth, as they could protect astronauts, spacecraft, electrical grids, and other assets from harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientist-sun-umbrella-tethered-to-an-asteroid-will-mitigate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar radiation</a>.



An automated system could potentially monitor real-time images of coronal loop brightness shifts from the Solar Dynamics Observatory, thus enabling scientists to issue timely alerts.



“We could build on this and come up with a well-tested and, ideally, simpler indicator ready for the leap from research to operations," said Vadim Uritsky, an expert in space physics at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GSFC</a>) and <a href="https://www.catholic.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Catholic University</a> in Washington D.C.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flickering-loops-on-the-sun">Flickering loops on the Sun</h2>



The discovery of flickering coronal loops as a precursor to solar flares opens up transformative possibilities in both research and technology. 



By incorporating these findings into predictive algorithms, researchers hope to see the development of automated systems capable of monitoring solar activity in real-time.



Such systems could alert satellite operators and power grid managers to potential disruptions, minimizing economic losses and enhancing global preparedness.



Moreover, this breakthrough has implications for deep space exploration. As human missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond become more ambitious, the ability to predict solar flares with precision could be a vital tool for astronaut safety. 



Protective measures, such as temporary shielding or adjustments to mission schedules, could be implemented based on timely warnings, which would ensure that missions proceed with minimal risk.



Ultimately, this research could serve as a foundation for the integration of solar weather data into everyday life, influencing decisions ranging from airline route planning to GPS optimization.



The team presented their findings at the 245th meeting of the American Astronomical Society. The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad94dd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



Image Credit: NASA/Solar Dynamics Observatory



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Warning lights: Flickering "loops" appear on the Sun before it erupts

Solar flares are fierce flashes of plasma erupting from the...

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet has captivated scientists and the public alike for generations. Now, an intriguing new study on fossils suggests we might be looking in the wrong places for their earliest ancestors. 



While we've found countless dinosaur fossils in places like Argentina and Zimbabwe, the very first dinosaurs might have emerged from the steamy equatorial regions of ancient Earth - areas that today make up the Amazon rainforest, Congo basin, and Sahara Desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gap-in-the-dinosaur-fossil-record">Gap in the dinosaur fossil record</h2>



The oldest known dinosaur fossils date back around 230 million years and have been found in Argentina, Brazil, and Zimbabwe. 



However, the differences between these fossils indicate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> had already been evolving for millions of years before these specimens emerged. This implies an even earlier origin, but direct fossil evidence of this has yet to be found.



The new study, published in the journal Current Biology, addresses this issue by using advanced modeling techniques to account for gaps in the fossil record.



The researchers analyzed fossils, evolutionary trees, and ancient geography to reconstruct the likely emergence of dinosaurs. 



Instead of assuming that fossils have not been found in certain areas because they never existed there, the study treats those regions as simply missing data.



“Dinosaurs are well studied but we still don’t really know where they came from. The fossil record has such large gaps that it can’t be taken at face value,” noted study lead author Joel Heath from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-dinosaurs-and-their-world">First dinosaurs and their world</h2>



According to the study, the earliest dinosaurs likely appeared in western low-latitude Gondwana, a region that was hot and dry, resembling today’s deserts and savannas. This challenges the previous assumption that dinosaurs first evolved in more temperate environments. 



Despite the study’s findings, no fossils from these early dinosaurs have been discovered in the Amazon or central Africa. 



Heath suggests that this is due to a combination of accessibility issues and a lack of focused research in these regions.



The world of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> was vastly different from the one their descendants would later dominate. During the Late Triassic period, dinosaurs were only a minor part of a diverse ecosystem filled with other reptilian creatures. 



These included the ancestors of crocodiles, known as pseudosuchians, some of which grew up to 10 meters (33 feet) long. 



Another major group in this prehistoric world was pterosaurs, the first vertebrates to develop powered flight. These flying reptiles would eventually evolve into species as large as modern fighter jets.



In contrast to their massive successors like Diplodocus or Tyrannosaurus rex, the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> were much smaller, typically the size of a chicken or a medium-sized dog.



They walked on two legs, making them agile hunters and scavengers, and most were likely omnivorous. Their small size and adaptability may have helped them survive in the challenging environments of early Gondwana.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-dinosaurs">The rise of dinosaurs</h2>



For millions of years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-triassic-fossil-gondwanax-paraisensis-may-rewrite-history-of-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> remained in the shadow of their reptilian cousins. That changed around 201 million years ago, when a series of massive volcanic eruptions led to the end-Triassic mass extinction. 



This catastrophe wiped out many of the dominant reptile species, creating an ecological vacuum that the surviving dinosaurs quickly filled. 



With their competitors gone, dinosaurs began to spread and diversify, eventually becoming the dominant land animals for the next 135 million years.



The modeling study suggests that dinosaurs and other reptiles may have first evolved in low-latitude Gondwana before spreading outward. 



They expanded southward into what is now Argentina and Zimbabwe, and northward into Laurasia, the northern supercontinent that would later split into Europe, Asia, and North America. 



This idea is supported by fossil evidence showing that some of the dinosaurs’ closest relatives, including early crocodile-like reptiles, were found in northern Laurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-link-in-dinosaur-evolution">Missing link in dinosaur evolution</h2>



One of the study’s key findings concerns the evolutionary relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-worlds-best-preserved-psittacosaurus-dinosaurs-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early dinosaurs</a> and their close relatives. There is ongoing debate about how different groups of dinosaurs evolved from their reptilian ancestors. 



To address this, the researchers tested their model against three different evolutionary trees. The strongest support for a Gondwanan origin came from a model that classified silesaurids, traditionally seen as distant cousins of dinosaurs, as direct ancestors of ornithischians.



This finding is significant because ornithischians - one of the three major dinosaur groups, which later included the stegosaurs and Triceratops species - are mysteriously absent from the fossil record in the earliest years of dinosaur history.



If silesaurids were indeed their ancestors, this would help fill a major gap in the evolutionary tree and provide a clearer picture of how dinosaurs diversified over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-and-climate-adaptation">Dinosaurs and climate adaptation</h2>



The study also sheds light on how dinosaurs adapted to different climates over millions of years. “Our results suggest early dinosaurs may have been well adapted to hot and arid environments,” noted Professor Philip Mannion, a senior author of the study.



This is particularly evident in sauropods, the group that includes massive plant-eaters like Brontosaurus and Diplodocus. These dinosaurs appear to have retained their preference for warm climates, remaining in lower latitudes throughout their existence.



On the other hand, theropods - the group that includes T. rex and modern birds - and ornithischians seem to have developed the ability to generate their own body heat.



This adaptation allowed them to expand into colder regions, including the polar regions, by the time of the Jurassic period. This shift in climate tolerance may have contributed to their long-term evolutionary success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dinosaur-fossils">Future research on dinosaur fossils</h2>



Despite the study’s compelling findings, direct fossil evidence of the earliest dinosaurs in the Amazon, Congo, or Sahara remains absent. 



Future expeditions to these regions may uncover this elusive evidence that could redefine our understanding of dinosaur origins.



If dinosaurs did originate in equatorial Gondwana, as the study suggests, their earliest ancestors may still lie buried beneath the dense rainforests of the Amazon or the shifting sands of the Sahara. 



These areas remain some of the least-explored fossil sites on Earth, meaning that the missing chapters of dinosaur evolution may still be waiting to be revealed.



As paleontologists continue to refine their understanding of early dinosaur evolution, this study highlights the importance of exploring new frontiers in fossil research. 



The true story of dinosaur origins is still being written, and future discoveries in these regions could change everything we thought we knew about the dawn of the dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01722-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Where did dinosaurs come from? Scientists say they figured it out

The story of how dinosaurs came to rule our planet...

Have you ever noticed how aggression plays a role in people's personalities, with some seeking competition while others prefer to avoid confrontation?



Much like humans, mice engage in territory and mate competitions, displaying increased confidence and aggression as they accumulate victories.



A recent study has revealed the critical influence of dopamine, a potent brain chemical, in aggressive behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dopamine-and-male-aggression">Dopamine and male aggression</h2>



While dopamine has been associated with male aggression for many years, the influence of past experiences on this relationship has remained a mystery. 



A group of researchers from <a href="https://nyulangone.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU Langone Health</a> decided to dig deeper, particularly focusing on the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-enhances-brain-function-during-exercise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine</a>.



The team discovered that young, inexperienced male mice, when given a dopamine boost, fought twice as long as they would naturally fight.



Blocking the release of dopamine from certain cells made these novice fighters completely passive. 



However, this was not the case for males with extensive fighting experience. Regardless of the increase or decrease of dopamine, the duration of their attacks remained the same. 



Interestingly, the researchers noted that more victories bred more challenges, with victorious mice instigating more fights in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dopamine-aggression-and-fighting-experience">Dopamine, aggression, and fighting experience</h2>



Study senior author Dr. Dayu Lin is a professor in the Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience at NYU Grossman School of Medicine.



“Our findings offer new insight into how both ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’ shape aggression in males,” said Dr. Lin. "While aggression is an innate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>, dopamine - and fighting experience - is essential for its maturation during adulthood.”



The research wasn't restricted to the relationship between dopamine and aggression. The team also explored the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-daydream-to-awareness-the-brains-alert-mechanism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain mechanisms</a> at play during aggression learning.



They blocked dopamine release in certain brain areas related to aggression regulation and observed that novices stopped learning to fight, while experienced fighters continued their aggressive behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-diminishing-role-of-dopamine">The diminishing role of dopamine</h2>



As the mice gained experience, the initial dopamine release in the brain became less potent, suggesting dopamine’s critical role in initial aggression learning. 



The research also debunked any similar role of dopamine in female aggression, as altering dopamine levels did not affect female mice's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tourists-cause-anxiety-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggressive behaviors</a>.



Dr. Lin believes the results could potentially assist in addressing mental health conditions characterized by intense mood and behavior shifts, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and borderline personality disorder.



“Our results suggest that targeting dopamine may not be an effective tool when treating those with a long history of aggression,” noted Dr. Lin. “As a result, healthcare providers may need to consider a patient’s history, as well as their age and sex, when considering which therapy to use.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antipsychotic-medications-in-humans">Antipsychotic medications in humans</h2>



These findings may further explain why antipsychotic drugs have a stronger and longer-lasting effect in children than in adults, as adult aggression often resurfaces once they stop receiving medication. 



However, Dr. Lin cautions that while mice share similar brain chemistry with people and the current findings echo human clinical results, further research is needed to establish the influence of past behavior on the effectiveness of antipsychotic medications in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-behavior-and-mental-health">Implications for human behavior and mental health</h2>



Even though the study was focused on mice, the findings open up intriguing questions about human aggression and behavior regulation.



The experts believe that the interplay between dopamine and experience could help explain why some individuals exhibit persistent aggressive tendencies, while others learn to regulate their responses over time.



This research may have implications for understanding behavioral disorders such as conduct disorder, intermittent explosive disorder, and even workplace aggression.



Management strategies for aggression are complex. Interventions that focus exclusively on dopamine systems may not be effective, as long-standing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pandemic-restrictions-had-a-lasting-effect-on-behavior-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns of behavior</a> often require a more comprehensive approach.



Experts propose that a well-balanced application of behavioral therapy and medication for such conditions may result in better handling of aggression-related conditions.



While exploring the connection between brain chemicals and learned behaviors, scientists aim to develop more precise methods for treating mental health conditions, taking into account an individual’s life experiences and unique neurochemical responses.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08459-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Dopamine's role in male aggression fades with fighting experience

Have you ever noticed how aggression plays a role in...

Picture this: You're a male bird trying to get lucky. Traditional wisdom says pump up those testosterone levels, fight off the competition, and strut your stuff. But some clever birds have figured out a totally different game plan - one that involves producing more testosterone than their macho counterparts, only to destroy it moments later.



Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, in collaboration with international colleagues, have discovered that these birds produce a super enzyme that rapidly breaks down testosterone. 



The findings reveal that a single gene drives this process and that it happens in the blood, a tissue previously overlooked in hormone regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-testosterone-in-male-behavior">Role of testosterone in male behavior</h2>



Testosterone is a key hormone in male physiology. It plays an essential role in sexual development, aggression, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-moving-north-and-breeding-earlier-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive behavior</a>. 



Most testosterone is produced in the testes, where it supports sperm production and influences secondary sexual characteristics. The blood then carries the hormone to other parts of the body, including the brain, where it affects aggression and courtship behavior.



Traditionally, scientists have viewed high testosterone levels as advantageous for male animals, helping them compete for mates and establish dominance. However, recent research led by Clemens Küpper challenges this notion in ruffs. 



The researchers found that some males actively eliminate testosterone from their bloodstream, raising an important question: why would a sexually competitive bird species reduce a hormone typically linked to mating success?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-morphs-with-distinct-mating-strategies">Three morphs with distinct mating strategies</h2>



Male ruffs are unique because they exist in three different morphs, each with a distinct appearance and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wild-bird-is-expecting-again-at-74/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive strategy</a>. The majority of males belong to the "Independent" morph, characterized by darker plumage and territorial behavior. 



These males compete aggressively in mating arenas known as leks, where they defend small territories and display for females. Their high testosterone levels support this assertive and dominant approach.



The second morph, known as "Satellites," is slightly smaller and has lighter-colored plumage. Unlike Independents, Satellites do not defend territories. Instead, they form alliances with Independents, peacefully positioning themselves within the lek to increase their chances of attracting a mate. 



Their mating success does not depend on aggression, making high testosterone levels unnecessary.



The rarest morph, "Faeders," takes an entirely different approach. These males mimic females in both size and appearance, allowing them to slip into the lek unnoticed. 



Disguised as females, they avoid direct competition while still managing to mate. For both Satellites and Faeders, excess testosterone could be a disadvantage, as it promotes aggressive behaviors that conflict with their alternative strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basis-of-testosterone-regulation-in-birds">Basis of testosterone regulation in birds</h2>



Until recently, little was known about the genetic mechanisms that regulate testosterone in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-blue-tits-have-a-mating-advantage-that-involves-cheating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. 



The study of ruffs has provided key insights, as the three male morphs differ due to a single "supergene" - a section of DNA containing approximately 100 genes.



This genetic variation emerged around four million years ago when a chromosome fragment broke off and reinserted itself in the opposite direction, leading to the evolution of distinct morphs.



As researchers analyzed gene expression, they identified a crucial gene within the supergene that codes for an enzyme responsible for breaking down testosterone. This enzyme was produced in high quantities in Satellites and Faeders but was absent in Independents.



Surprisingly, when the team measured testosterone levels in the testes, they found that Satellites and Faeders actually produced more testosterone there than Independents. 



This finding raised another question: if these males produce more testosterone in their testes, how do they maintain significantly lower levels of the hormone in their blood?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-super-enzyme-in-the-blood">Super enzyme in the blood</h2>



The answer lies in an exceptionally powerful enzyme - what researchers call a "super enzyme" - that rapidly degrades testosterone.



This enzyme is present in large amounts in the blood of Satellites and Faeders, breaking down the hormone before it can circulate through the body. 



In contrast, Independents completely lack this enzyme in their bloodstream, allowing them to maintain high testosterone levels that fuel their aggressive territorial behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-breaking-down-testosterone">Birds breaking down testosterone </h2>



Before this discovery, scientists assumed that testosterone breakdown occurred primarily in the liver and other organs, with little to no regulation occurring directly in the blood. 



"Based on previous research in other animals, we had assumed that this enzyme plays no role in the blood," explained Alex Zemella, one of the first authors of the study from <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a>.



"But our results revealed a previously unknown site there that the enzyme acts on. This means that the amount of circulating testosterone can be regulated directly in the blood – something that had previously been overlooked."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-single-gene-shapes-complex-behavior">A single gene shapes complex behavior</h2>



This discovery highlights the sophisticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/island-bird-communities-are-changing-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> male ruffs have evolved to maximize their reproductive success. Instead of relying solely on aggression, Satellites and Faeders have adapted a biochemical mechanism to regulate their behavior in a way that benefits their unique mating tactics.



"All males need testosterone in their testes for producing sperm," noted Jasmine Loveland, a lead author of the study.



"But the hormone also has other effects, for example in the brain, where it can promote aggressive and courtship behavior. It is interesting that the non-aggressive ruffs seem to have increased levels of the super enzyme throughout the brain too, especially in the hypothalamus." 



"These results, along with the low testosterone levels in the blood, likely play an important role in shaping their mating strategies."



The ability to control testosterone levels so precisely allows Satellites and Faeders to optimize their reproductive success without the drawbacks of excessive aggression. 



By modifying the way testosterone circulates in the body, they have developed a more subtle but equally effective way to compete for mates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-birds-and-testosterone">Future research on birds and testosterone</h2>



The finding that a single gene can significantly influence testosterone regulation opens up new possibilities for research. Understanding how hormone levels shape complex social behaviors in ruffs may provide broader insights into other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-struggle-to-survive-spring-migration-after-bad-winters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, including mammals.



Going forward, the research team aims to explore how these genetic mechanisms affect brain function and social interactions in ruffs. They also plan to investigate how similar processes might influence reproductive strategies in other animals. 



By continuing to study the genetic basis of behavioral diversity, scientists hope to uncover new details about the intricate relationship between hormones, genes, and mating success.



This study challenges conventional wisdom about testosterone and aggression, showing that high testosterone is not always an advantage. 



In ruffs, a well-adapted enzyme allows some males to take a completely different route to reproductive success - proving that in evolution, strategy matters just as much as strength.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp5936" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Some birds trick their way into mating by removing testosterone from their bodies

Picture this: You're a male bird trying to get lucky....

The stark reality of how education shapes our lifespan has never been clearer. New research reveals a troubling gap in life expectancy between Americans with different education levels - one that's been steadily widening. 



The divide has grown so dramatic that college graduates in some U.S. counties are living nearly four decades longer than those without a high school diploma in others.



A new study from the&nbsp;Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME)&nbsp;at the&nbsp;University of Washington analyzed data from more than 3,000 U.S. counties and found that the gap in life expectancy between the most and least educated has widened dramatically over the past two decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-and-life-expectancy">Education and life expectancy</h2>



The findings reveal that education plays a crucial role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-healthspan-people-are-living-longer-but-not-healthier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">determining lifespan</a>. In 2000, the gap in life expectancy between the most and least educated individuals was about eight years. By 2019, this disparity had grown to nearly eleven years. 



Over this period, individuals with higher education levels saw notable increases in their life expectancy, while those with lower levels of education experienced little to no improvement.



College graduates saw the most significant gains, with their average lifespan increasing by 2.5 years to 84.2 years. Those who completed some college experienced a more modest increase of 0.7 years, reaching an average lifespan of 82.1 years. 



High school graduates saw only a slight improvement of 0.3 years, with their life expectancy reaching 77.3 years. Most concerning, individuals without a high school diploma saw no increase in life expectancy over the two decades, remaining at 73.5 years.



These findings highlight how formal education is closely tied to economic stability, health outcomes, and overall longevity.



"In the US, more formal education often translates to better employment opportunities, including higher-paying jobs that have fewer health risks. This puts people in a better position to build a healthy life and, when needed, obtain high-quality health care," noted Laura Dwyer-Lindgren, the study’s senior author and an associate professor at <a href="https://www.healthdata.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IHME</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-differences-in-life-expectancy">Geographic differences in life expectancy</h2>



Beyond education, geography plays a significant role in determining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-high-resilience-live-up-to-ten-years-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life expectancy</a>. The study found that lifespans varied widely across U.S. counties. When examining all education levels combined, life expectancy ranged from 68.2 years in the lowest counties to 93.2 years in the highest counties.



However, the disparities were particularly striking among those with the least education. Life expectancy for individuals without a high school diploma varied by more than three decades, from 57.9 years in some counties to 90.1 years in others. 



In contrast, life expectancy among college graduates showed less variation, ranging from 75.2 years to 93.9 years, a difference of 18.7 years.



To put this into perspective, college graduates in the U.S. county with the highest life expectancy (93.9 years) are living&nbsp;36 years longer&nbsp;than those without a high school diploma in the county with the lowest life expectancy (57.9 years). 



These disparities are staggering even on a global scale. If U.S. college graduates were considered as a separate country, their life expectancy would have ranked fourth in the world in 2019. In contrast, individuals with less than a high school diploma would have ranked 137th out of 199 countries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regions-with-declines-in-life-expectancy">Regions with declines in life expectancy</h2>



The study identified specific regions where life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/longevity-pills-for-dogs-could-help-humans-live-longer-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expectancy</a> has declined the most, particularly among individuals with lower levels of education. 



Counties in the&nbsp;Southeast, Appalachia, and parts of South Dakota&nbsp;had some of the lowest life expectancies, particularly for those without a high school diploma.



Among those with some college education, significant declines in life expectancy were observed in counties across&nbsp;Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Florida, as well as in northern&nbsp;Arizona.



For high school graduates, counties in&nbsp;Virginia, the Carolinas, Texas, Louisiana, and Nebraska&nbsp;experienced some of the steepest declines. However, the largest declines for individuals without a high school diploma were concentrated in&nbsp;Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and West Virginia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-and-lifespan-in-california">Education and lifespan in California</h2>



While many parts of the country experienced declining life expectancy for those without a high school diploma, California stood out as an exception. 



In several counties, individuals with low education levels actually saw&nbsp;significant increases in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-less-could-extend-your-lifespan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life expectancy</a>. Researchers suggest that&nbsp;California’s large immigrant population&nbsp;may be a key factor behind this trend.



Studies have shown that immigrants in the U.S. tend to have&nbsp;longer life expectancies than their U.S.-born counterparts, likely due to the selective nature of immigration. 



Individuals who migrate to the U.S. are often healthier than the general population, and they may also benefit from&nbsp;stronger community ties, healthier lifestyle habits, and lower rates of smoking and substance abuse&nbsp;compared to native-born Americans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-education-for-men">Role of education for men</h2>



The study also highlighted&nbsp;significant gender disparities in life expectancy, particularly among those with lower education levels. Women consistently outlived men, with the gap being most pronounced among those with the least education.



Nationally, women without a high school diploma had an average life expectancy of&nbsp;almost 72 years, while men in the same category had an average lifespan of&nbsp;just under 68 years. 



Over the two decades studied, the gap between the least and most educated grew more for men than for women, suggesting that education plays an even&nbsp;more critical role in determining men’s longevity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-as-a-determinant-of-lifespan">Education as a determinant of lifespan </h2>



This study is the first to analyze&nbsp;educational disparities in life expectancy across 3,110 U.S. counties over a 20-year period, providing a comprehensive look at how education influences health outcomes. 



The findings make it clear that education is more than just a pathway to better job opportunities - it is a fundamental determinant of health and longevity.



The widening gap in life expectancy underscores the urgent need for policies that address&nbsp;educational inequalities, economic disparities, and access to quality healthcare. 



Investing in education could not only improve economic outcomes but also&nbsp;help close the health divide&nbsp;that continues to grow between the most and least educated Americans.



As the gap widens, the consequences become harder to ignore. Without targeted efforts to improve education and health equity, the U.S. risks becoming a country where lifespan is increasingly dictated by socioeconomic status and geographic location. 



Addressing these disparities will require a&nbsp;comprehensive approach&nbsp;that includes&nbsp;improving access to education, increasing economic opportunities, and expanding healthcare access for the most vulnerable populations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS2468-2667(24)00303-7/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Public Health</a>.



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Education and lifespan: College graduates live an average of 11 years longer

The stark reality of how education shapes our lifespan has...

A species of free-living coral, Cycloseris cyclolites, defies traditional coral behavior by actively migrating toward light using a movement strategy reminiscent of jellyfish.



A new study from Queensland University of Technology (<a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">QUT</a>) sheds light on the coral’s sophisticated navigation and mobility mechanisms, with implications for understanding its survival strategies amid changing environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-free-living-corals-that-migrate">Free-living corals that migrate</h2>



Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/isolated-coral-reefs-survive-with-the-help-of-their-local-network/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most corals</a> that remain anchored to the reef substrate, Cycloseris cyclolites is a solitary, free-living mushroom coral capable of migrating in search of better habitats. 



Dr. Brett Lewis, the lead author from QUT’s School of Atmospheric and Earth Sciences and the <a href="https://gbrrestoration.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program</a>, emphasized the unique lifestyle of these mobile corals.



“Not all corals are attached to the substrate; some are solitary and free-living, allowing them to migrate into preferred habitats,” Lewis explained. 



Despite their remarkable behavior, the mechanisms underlying their movement and navigation have largely remained a mystery - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-strategy-of-corals">Migration strategy of corals</h2>



Using high-resolution time-lapse imaging, the research team discovered that Cycloseris cyclolites moves through a process called pulsed inflation. 



This mechanism involves rhythmic inflating and deflating of the coral’s tissue, propelling it forward in a manner strikingly similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jellyfish</a> locomotion.



“Our findings suggest that pulsed inflation is not just a survival strategy but a critical mechanism for migration and navigation,” Lewis noted.



This movement enables the coral to perform several essential functions, including righting itself when flipped upside down, expelling sediment that might bury it during storms, and migrating toward optimal environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corals-move-to-optimal-depths-nbsp">Corals move to optimal depths&nbsp;</h2>



One of the study’s key findings was the coral’s strong preference for blue light. When exposed to various light sources, 86.7% of the corals migrated toward blue light, compared to only 20% for white light. 



This behavior aligns with the coral’s preference for deeper water habitats, where blue wavelengths dominate.



“The ability of Cycloseris cyclolites to move towards specific light sources is a fascinating parallel to other marine species like jellyfish, which suggests they are more neurologically sophisticated than previously thought,” Lewis said.



This light sensitivity likely helps the corals navigate to optimal depths, where conditions are better suited for survival, reproduction, and dispersal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sgnificance-of-coral-migration">Sgnificance of coral migration</h2>



The discovery of such advanced mobility and light sensitivity in Cycloseris cyclolites offers new insights into the evolution of nervous systems.&nbsp;



The study draws parallels between the coral’s behavior and the movement strategies of jellyfish, a key evolutionary point in the development of centralized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-arms-function-with-unparalleled-precision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nervous systems</a>, which humans also possess.



But the findings aren’t just an evolutionary curiosity - they carry important ecological implications. 



By understanding how these migratory corals navigate their environment, scientists can better predict how they might adapt to the escalating challenges posed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-not-adapt-quickly-enough-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-and-climate-change-the-basics">Coral reefs and climate change - the basics</h2>



As ocean temperatures rise, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-coral-reefs-deeper-zones-currently-safe-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals become stressed</a> and expel the tiny algae that give them their vibrant colors and provide them with essential nutrients. 



This process, known as coral bleaching, leaves the corals pale and weak, making it harder for them to survive and grow. 



Without these algae, the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-coral-transplants-could-revolutionize-reef-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef ecosystem</a> struggles, affecting countless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a> that rely on the reefs for shelter and food.



On top of the warming waters, ocean acidification is another major threat corals are facing. 



Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are being absorbed by the oceans, lowering the pH levels and making it harder for corals to build their calcium carbonate skeletons. 



This not only slows their growth but also makes them more vulnerable to erosion and breakage from storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corals-migrate-to-survive">Corals migrate to survive</h2>



As sea surface temperatures rise and other climate-driven changes impact coral habitats, the ability of Cycloseris cyclolites to migrate toward more favorable conditions could be crucial.&nbsp;



By moving to deeper waters dominated by blue wavelengths, these corals may escape the warming and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/60-percent-global-coral-reefs-face-bleaching-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> events that devastate many other reef species.



“Understanding their movement strategies could help scientists predict how migratory corals might resist, survive, or adapt to changes in environmental conditions,” Lewis explained. “With these climate-driven factors increasing, the faster the migration, the higher the chance of survival.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-climate-change-and-the-future">Coral, climate change, and the future</h2>



This research highlights the remarkable adaptability of Cycloseris cyclolites, offering a new perspective on coral resilience and survival.&nbsp;



As climate change continues to threaten coral reefs worldwide, these insights provide a foundation for further studies on coral behavior and potential conservation strategies.&nbsp;



By unraveling the mechanisms that allow corals to thrive in dynamic and challenging environments, scientists hope to uncover new ways to protect these vital marine ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315623" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Corals that walk and migrate? Fascinating climate change survival strategy discovered

A species of free-living coral, Cycloseris cyclolites, defies traditional coral...

The existence of water on Mars has long been a subject of curiosity and debate. A recently published study presents compelling evidence of ancient "wave ripples" in rocks that were shaped by Martian water and winds billions of years ago.



These ripples, imprinted on the Martian surface, speak to a time when shallow bodies of water were open to the Martian air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-ripples-on-mars">Mysterious ripples on Mars</h2>



The importance of these ripples cannot be overemphasized as they provide clear evidence of the existence of a standing body of water on Mars approximately 3.7 billion years ago.



This profound discovery paints a picture of a time when the Martian climate was seemingly warm enough to support liquid bodies water, not just frozen ice fields, that were open to the air.



"The shape of the ripples could only have been formed under water that was open to the atmosphere and acted upon by wind," observed Claire Mondro, a postdoctoral scholar from The California Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CalTech</a>) and the study's first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-mars-ripples-tell-us">What the Mars ripples tell us</h2>



Dr. Michael Lamb, a geology professor at Caltech, painstakingly created computer models based on these ripples to estimate the size of the ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-samples-bunsen-peak-rock-jezero-crater-martian-lake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian lake</a>.



Lamb’s extensive experience in studying sediment, water, and atmosphere interactions on Earth lent credibility to this model. 



The ripples, a mere 6 millimeters high and spaced 4 to 5 centimeters apart suggest the existence of a shallow lake, no deeper than about 2 meters (6.5 feet).



Mondro’s observations lend further weight to these inferences. “Extending the length of time that liquid water was present extends the possibilities for microbial habitability later into Mars's history,” she pointed out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-finding-liquid-water-on-mars-matters">Why finding liquid water on Mars matters</h2>



Discovering that Mars once had liquid water is a game-changer for our understanding of the planet and the broader possibilities of life beyond Earth. 



Water is a fundamental ingredient for life as we know it, so finding evidence of past liquid water raises exciting questions about whether Mars could have supported microbial life.



Beyond the search for life, knowing that Mars had liquid water has practical implications for future human missions. Water is a crucial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-radiation-levels-are-measured-for-the-first-time-and-will-help-astronauts-prepare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resource for astronauts</a>, not only for drinking but also for producing oxygen and even rocket fuel. 



If remnants of ancient water sources or ice deposits exist on Mars, they could be tapped into to support long-term human habitation and exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-martian-surface">Exploring the Martian surface</h2>



These marvelous ripples went unnoticed until NASA's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-mars-rover-finds-more-compelling-evidence-for-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity rover</a> documented them in 2022 during its expedition across the Gale Crater region of Mars, a region that was once home to wind-blown dunes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mars_lakes_ponds_ice-free_ripples_rock-formation_credit-Science-Advances_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mars_lakes_ponds_ice-free_ripples_rock-formation_credit-Science-Advances_1s.webp" alt="Symmetric ripple marks in the AMB outcrop. Credit: Science Advances (2025)." class="wp-image-1957535"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Symmetric ripple marks in the AMB outcrop. Credit: Science Advances (2025).</figcaption></figure>



A nearby band of rock, the Amapari Marker Band, hinted at the existence of another lake, approximately 6.5 feet (2 meters) deep, that formed slightly later in Mars's history than the previous one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-mars-ripples-matter">Why do Mars ripples matter?</h2>



“The discovery of wave ripples is an important advance for Mars paleoclimate science," noted John Grotzinger, the Harold Brown Professor of Geology at Caltech.



"The Curiosity rover discovered evidence for long-lived ancient lakes in 2014, and now, 10 years later, Curiosity has discovered ancient lakes that were free of ice, offering an important insight into the planet's early climate,” added Grotzinger, a former project scientist for Curiosity's Mars Science Laboratory (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/msl-curiosity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSL</a>) mission.



It seems we are just scratching the surface of understanding the red planet’s past, and with each discovery, we inch closer to unraveling the mysteries of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-may-be-lurking-deep-underground-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars and its potential for supporting life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-mars-climate-evolution">Clues to Mars' climate evolution</h2>



The discovery of these ancient ripples offers a crucial glimpse into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-mars-past-climate-supportive-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars's climate history</a>, providing scientists with valuable data to reconstruct the environmental conditions that existed billions of years ago.



The presence of liquid water suggests that Mars once had a significantly thicker atmosphere that was capable of sustaining warmer temperatures.



Over time, the planet's climate underwent drastic changes, leading to the loss of surface water and the thinning of its atmosphere. 



Understanding these transitions is key to determining how long Mars could have supported habitable conditions and whether it might have once harbored microbial life. 



Scientists believe that further exploration of ripple formations could shed light on the duration and stability of these ancient lakes, helping to piece together the timeline of Mars' environmental shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-mars-missions">Implications for future Mars missions</h2>



The findings from Curiosity's observations could play a pivotal role in shaping the objectives of upcoming Mars missions. 



Future rovers and landers, equipped with more advanced instruments, may focus on analyzing ripple formations in greater detail, searching for chemical signatures that indicate past life-supporting conditions. 



The Perseverance rover, currently exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a>, has already been tasked with collecting samples that might contain traces of ancient microbial activity.



These efforts align with NASA's long-term goal of bringing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian samples</a> back to Earth for comprehensive laboratory analysis.



The ripple evidence on Mars is also encouraging for future crewed missions, as understanding past water sources could help identify potential locations for human exploration and resource utilization.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr0010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Clear evidence of liquid water, not just frozen ice, discovered on Mars

The existence of water on Mars has long been a...

According to new research, Homo erectus, one of our early ancestors, was able to live and thrive in the tough, desert-like areas of Eastern Africa over a million years ago.



As the first hominin species to spread out of Africa, they demonstrated levels of adaptability and perseverance that was previously underestimated by the scientific community. 



This conclusion overturns the long-standing assumption that only Homo sapiens, modern humans, had the ability to survive and flourish in extreme environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cradle-of-humankind">Cradle of Humankind</h2>



Olduvai Gorge, often referred to as the “Cradle of Humankind,” has yielded a wealth of archeological findings over the years. 



The main author of the study, Professor Julio Mercader Florín from the <a href="https://ucalgary.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>, along with his team, discovered evidence that Homo erectus repeatedly returned to specific locations, signifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategic use of resources</a>.



“By doing archeology, what we can see is that Homo erectus keeps coming back to the same place in the landscape over thousands of years,” Mercader explained.&nbsp;



“It’s not a one-time camp. There is thickness to the accumulation of archeological remains and fossils that is telling us that a species was targeting a very specific point in the landscape to do what they came here to do.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-homo-erectus-the-basics">Understanding Homo erectus - the basics</h2>



Homo erectus lived from around 1.9 million to 110,000 years ago, making them one of our longest-lived ancestors. They had a more modern body with longer legs and shorter arms, which allowed them to walk and run efficiently across Africa, Asia, and Europe. 



Their skulls featured thick brow ridges and robust jaws, and they used sophisticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acheulean stone tools</a> while being among the first to control fire for cooking and protection. 



Socially, Homo erectus likely lived in groups, which would have helped them survive in diverse and sometimes harsh environments. 



They showed signs of complex behavior, such as planning hunts and possibly even early forms of communication to coordinate within their groups.



Living in groups, Homo erectus exhibited complex behaviors like planning hunts and early forms of communication, helping them adapt to diverse climates. 



With a varied diet that included <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-thrived-on-plant-based-diets-not-meat-alone-780000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">both meat and plants</a>, Homo erectus played a crucial role in human evolution, bridging the gap between earlier ancestors and the rise of Homo sapiens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-east-africa-s-harsh-past">East Africa’s harsh past</h2>



To reconstruct the environmental conditions during the time of Homo erectus, the research team used advanced modeling techniques.&nbsp;



Study co-author Jed Kaplan, a Canada Research Chair in global systems modeling at the University of Calgary, simulated East Africa’s landscapes to analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a>, vegetation, and ecological pressures faced by early humans.



“Things like extreme climate change leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oases-grow-by-human-effort-but-face-threats-from-desertification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desertification</a> would have been really difficult for hominins to survive,” Kaplan noted. 



“What we discovered in the study is that, in fact, we find plenty of evidence for hominin activity under environmental conditions - so climate, vegetation - that suggest really hot and dry periods.”



These findings challenge previous assumptions that early humans avoided extreme environments. Instead, Homo erectus appears to have demonstrated a remarkable ability to adapt to varying and often inhospitable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-beyond-expectations">Adapting beyond expectations</h2>



The research reveals that Homo erectus had an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quick-species-adaptability-shapes-long-term-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptability</a> comparable to that of modern humans, who emerged 200,000 to 300,000 years ago and spread across diverse environments, from Arctic tundras to tropical rainforests.&nbsp;



“It’s well known that by the time modern humans come on the landscape, we are really adaptable. We not only spread out in Africa but also start inhabiting all of these really different environments - everything from the Arctic tundra to the Sahara desert and the tropical rainforest and everything in between,” Kaplan explained.



Kaplan noted that Homo erectus not only inhabited diverse ecosystems, they may have even built boats to cross oceanic straits.



“It’s still unknown whether they could talk or had language, but they may have been able to communicate in other ways to find resources such as water or rocks for making tools or fire,” Kaplan said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The study’s findings have profound implications for understanding human evolution and adaptability. By demonstrating that Homo erectus could thrive in a range of extreme environments, the research expands our view of early human resilience and survival strategies.&nbsp;



“It is a contribution to a better understanding of our planet and humans’ role in it,” Kaplan said.



The interdisciplinary nature of the research, which involved experts in archaeology, paleoclimate science, and biogeochemistry, highlights the value of collaboration in addressing complex questions about the past.



“It illustrates how modern climate research works,” Mercader said. “It is a model for addressing the science of past and present-day climate science research.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-homo-erectus-and-modern-humans">Homo erectus and modern humans</h2>



This study reshapes our understanding of early human capabilities. Long before modern humans emerged, Homo erectus demonstrated resilience and ingenuity, thriving in environments ranging from arid deserts to lush rainforests.&nbsp;



The findings highlight the adaptability of one of humanity’s most prominent ancestors, offering valuable insights into how humans came to occupy nearly every corner of the planet.



By piecing together evidence from diverse scientific disciplines, researchers have provided a vivid glimpse into the lives of our ancient predecessors, affirming their resourcefulness and setting the stage for further exploration of the human evolutionary journey.



This interdisciplinary study was led by Professor Julio Mercader Florín and researchers from the University of Calgary, the University of Manitoba, and 17 other global institutions examined archeological and environmental evidence from Olduvai Gorge, a UNESCO World Heritage site in Tanzania.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01919-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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New details about Homo erectus prove that humans aren't as special as we thought

According to new research, Homo erectus, one of our early...

The ripple effects of divorce stretch far beyond the immediate emotional upheaval. A groundbreaking study has revealed that experiencing parental divorce during childhood may significantly increase the risk of stroke later in life. 



This surprising connection persists even after accounting for well-known stroke risk factors, suggesting that early-life family disruption could have more profound health implications than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-divorce-linked-to-higher-stroke-risk">Divorce linked to higher stroke risk</h2>



The study, which analyzed survey data from over 13,000 older Americans, found that one in nine individuals aged 65 and older who had experienced parental divorce had been diagnosed with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eyes-serve-as-an-early-warning-system-for-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a>. 



In contrast, only one in 15 of those whose parents remained together during their childhood reported the same health issue.



Mary Kate Schilke, a university lecturer in the Psychology Department at <a href="https://www.tyndale.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyndale University</a>, is the study’s first author.



“Our study indicates that even after taking into account most of the known risk factors associated with stroke - including smoking, physical inactivity, lower income and education, diabetes, depression, and low social support - those whose parents had divorced still had 61% higher odds of having a stroke,” noted Schilke. 



The association between parental divorce and stroke was found to be as strong as two well-known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dramatic-temperature-changes-linked-to-half-a-million-stroke-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke risk factors</a>: diabetes and depression. 



These results align with research conducted nearly a decade ago, which also demonstrated a significant link between childhood parental divorce and increased stroke risk in adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parental-divorce-and-stroke-connection">Parental divorce and stroke connection</h2>



Although the study establishes a clear correlation between childhood parental divorce and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-blood-type-determine-your-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a>, the researchers are still working to determine the underlying causes of this connection.



Study senior author Esme Fuller-Thomson, a professor at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, acknowledged that more research is needed to understand the mechanisms at play.



“We need to shed light on the mechanisms that may contribute to this association,” she said. “While these types of survey-based studies cannot establish causality, we are hoping that our consistent findings will inspire others to examine the topic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-types-of-childhood-adversity">Other types of childhood adversity</h2>



To ensure the results were not influenced by other adverse childhood experiences, the researchers carefully excluded participants who had a history of physical or sexual abuse.



Even after removing these cases, the link between parental divorce and stroke remained strong.



“We found that even when people hadn’t experienced childhood physical and sexual abuse and had at least one adult who made them feel safe in their childhood home, they still were more likely to have a stroke if their parents had divorced,” noted co-author Philip Baiden, an associate professor in the School of Social Work at the <a href="https://www.uta.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Arlington</a>.



Surprisingly, other types of childhood adversity - such as emotional abuse, neglect, exposure to household mental illness, substance abuse, and domestic violence - were not significantly associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-light-pollution-could-increase-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke risk</a> in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-biological-and-social-factors">Role of biological and social factors</h2>



While the study does not establish a direct cause-and-effect relationship, the researchers believe that both biological and social factors may contribute to the increased risk of stroke among those who experienced parental divorce in childhood.



One possible explanation is related to chronic stress and its long-term physiological effects. Fuller-Thomson highlighted how childhood parental divorce may lead to prolonged exposure to high levels of stress hormones. 



“From a biological embedding perspective, having your parents split up during childhood could lead to sustained high levels of stress hormones,” she explained. “Experiencing this as a child could have lasting influences on the developing brain and a child’s ability to respond to stress.”



The stress associated with parental divorce may also contribute to unhealthy coping mechanisms and behavioral patterns later in life. 



Individuals who experienced divorce during childhood might be more prone to chronic stress, which has been linked to increased inflammation, high blood pressure, and other conditions that elevate stroke risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-stroke-prevention">Implications for stroke prevention</h2>



The study was focused on data from the 2022 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey. The researchers examined survey responses from 13,205 older Americans, of whom 13.9% had experienced parental divorce during childhood.



If this association is confirmed, childhood family history could become an important consideration in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-adults-with-migraines-have-a-greater-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a> prevention and healthcare strategies. Schilke noted that these findings could eventually help medical professionals tailor stroke prevention programs.



“If future research finds similar links between parental divorce and stroke, it is possible that knowledge about whether or not their patient grew up in an intact family will be used by health professionals to improve targeted outreach for stroke prevention and education,” said Schilke.



While the study cannot definitively prove that parental divorce causes an increased risk of stroke, it raises important questions about how childhood experiences shape long-term health outcomes. 



As research in this area continues, understanding the long-term health consequences of early-life stress could lead to more effective interventions and support systems for individuals at higher risk.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316580" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Shock study: Children of divorced parents are at higher risk of having a stroke

The ripple effects of divorce stretch far beyond the immediate...

For 130 years, the enigmatic nature of the orchid Stigmatodactylus sikokianus puzzled scientists and botanists alike.



Named in 1889 by renowned Japanese botanist MAKINO Tomitaro, the fungus-consuming plant features a distinct appendage reminiscent of a tiny finger on its stigma - the part of the flower that accepts pollen.



But why is this appendage there, and what purpose does it serve? Despite its popularity among Japan's iconic orchids, the function of this unique feature remained a mystery - until now.



<a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> botanist SUETSUGU Kenji specializes in orchids that feed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-fungi-determine-the-gradient-of-forest-diversity-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil fungi</a> rather than sunlight. Stigmatodactylus, he realized, fit this bill perfectly.



“I’m particularly interested in their pollination mechanisms, employing an interdisciplinary approach that integrates taxonomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology," said Kenji.



His fascination with these unique orchids propelled him to investigate further, questioning the purpose and ecological role of the finger-like appendage that had attracted so much attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-orchid-that-self-pollinates">The orchid that self-pollinates </h2>



Kenji's research sheds light on a unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-apocalypse-australasia-is-facing-a-hidden-pollination-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> method. He found that Stigmatodactylus sikokianus predominantly self-pollinates, which means it doesn’t require insects to transport pollen from one plant to another.



Interestingly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-faced-with-competition-some-plants-learn-to-self-pollinate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-pollination</a> occurs roughly three days after the flower opens. This delay bears significant ecological implications.



Given the plant's natural habitat in dark forest understories, it is rarely visited by potential pollinators.



“While self-pollination likely guarantees reproductive success, relying solely on this method risks inbreeding. This may drive the evolution of mechanisms that combine the benefits of self-pollination and outcrossing," said Kenji.



"Delayed self-pollination, postponed until opportunities for outcrossing are exhausted, is likely one such adaptation - a failsafe mechanism.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-novel-self-pollination-mechanism">Novel self-pollination mechanism </h2>



While meticulously observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, Kenji noticed that the finger-like appendage plays a crucial role in self-pollination.



On the third day after the flower opens, the stigma collapses and makes contact with the pollen-carrying anther, aided by the finger-like appendage, thereby fertilizing the plant. 



“The movement of the stigma appendage represents, to the best of our knowledge, a novel self-pollination mechanism in orchids,” said Kenji.



He noted that since there are 28 species in the Stigmatodactylus family, many of which share this unique appendage, this self-pollination mechanism could be common in other species too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-traditional-research-with-modern-science">Bridging traditional research with modern science</h2>



Kenji hopes his work will help bridge the gap between historical botanical research and contemporary scientific inquiries. 



“The significance of this discovery lies in its ability to bridge historical botanical research and contemporary scientific inquiry. It underscores the value of integrating meticulous taxonomic analysis with ecological and evolutionary studies to gain novel insights," said Kenji.



"This study demonstrates that traditional natural history research, unifying taxonomy, evolution and ecology, still has the power to uncover new phenomena today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchids-self-pollinate-to-survive">Orchids self-pollinate to survive</h2>



Understanding the unique pollination mechanism of Stigmatodactylus sikokianus offers significant implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/despite-their-incredible-adaptability-orchids-are-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchid conservation</a> efforts.



Many orchid species are highly specialized and depend on specific ecological conditions to thrive. 



The newfound knowledge about the self-pollination strategy of Stigmatodactylus sikokianus sheds light on how other orchid species may have evolved to adapt to low-pollinator environments.



This insight can guide conservationists in designing better habitat protection strategies and cultivation techniques to ensure the survival of orchids facing similar ecological challenges. 



Furthermore, it highlights the need to preserve the dark forest understories where these delicate plants flourish, as habitat destruction poses a major threat to their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-evolutionary-significance">Broader evolutionary significance</h2>



The discovery of the delayed self-pollination mechanism in Stigmatodactylus sikokianus raises intriguing questions about the broader evolutionary adaptations of orchids and other flowering plants.



In ecosystems with scarce pollinators, plants must develop creative reproductive strategies to ensure their survival. 



This ability to self-pollinate suggests that evolution has equipped some orchids with a dual approach - allowing time for potential cross-pollination before resorting to self-fertilization as a last resort.



The findings contribute to our understanding of plant reproductive biology and may inspire further research into similar mechanisms in related plant families.



By studying these adaptations, scientists can better comprehend how plants respond to environmental pressures and how they might adapt to future changes, such as climate shifts and habitat fragmentation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



Image Credit: IKEDA Tetsuro



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Some orchids have 'fingers' to pollinate themselves

For 130 years, the enigmatic nature of the orchid Stigmatodactylus...

The,Interior,Of,Main,Public,Baths,In,Ruins,Of,Ancient

Many of us are aware that the ancient city of Pompeii met a catastrophic end, sealed under a relentless downpour of ash and pumice from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. 



Recently, though, archaeologists have managed to unearth an incredible reminder of the grandeur of Pompeii's heyday - an elaborate private bathhouse, believed to be the largest of its kind within a private home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extravagant-roman-life">Extravagant Roman life</h2>



Nestled within the confines of a wealthy residence, the bathhouse serves as a poignant reminder of the city's affluent inhabitants. 



Only the elite could afford such luxury, so this bathhouse indicates the presence of thriving industry in the city, alongside robust financial and political networks.



The remnants of two people who sought refuge in a smaller room capture the terrifying moment that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tragic-end-of-pompeii-was-not-solely-caused-by-mount-vesuvius/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vesuvius</a> erupted, their fate sealed by a collapsed wall and a lethal flood of volcanic gas and ash.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pompeii-s-lavish-bathhouse">Pompeii's lavish bathhouse</h2>



The bathhouse featured a range of rooms designed to cater to different bathing needs.



Primary among these was a large plunge pool that was surrounded by scarlet columns and frescoes of athletes.



There were hot, cold, and warm rooms, each serving its unique purpose. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_plumbing_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_plumbing_1s.webp" alt="An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths, complete with plumbing systems, to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park" class="wp-image-1957642"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths, complete with plumbing systems, to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park</figcaption></figure>



A warm room, presumably for oil massages, led to a sauna-like hot room. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sauna-bathing-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauna</a> had a specially designed suspended floor that allowed hot air to flow underneath the room.



Beyond these comforts, the bathhouse was resplendent with a changing room that boasted a mosaic floor adorned with geometric patterns that were made using marbles sourced from across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-ai-to-decode-the-legacy-of-the-roman-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Empire</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-pompeii-s-final-moments">Glimpse into Pompeii’s final moments</h2>



A team of archaeologists, accompanied by a crew from the BBC and Lion TV, have discovered an entire city block, which also houses a laundry, bakery, and a grand banquet hall, apart from the luxurious private residence containing the bathhouse. 



The block is believed to have been owned by Aulus Rustius Verus, a notable Pompeii politician.



Near a small prayer room, the remains of two individuals were found - a woman aged between 35 and 50 who was clutching jewelry and coins, and a young man in his late teens or early twenties.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_1s.webp" alt="An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park" class="wp-image-1957625"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park</figcaption></figure>



"The pyroclastic flow from Vesuvius came along the street just outside this room, and caused a wall to collapse, and that had basically crushed him to death," said Dr. Sophie Hay, an archaeologist at Pompeii, as she described the tragic scene.



"The woman was still alive while he was dying - imagine the trauma - and then this room filled with the rest of the pyroclastic flow, and that's how she died."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reality-of-the-pompeii-bathhouse">Reality of the Pompeii bathhouse</h2>



The grand bathhouse, a once-in-a-century find, also bears witness to the grim reality of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-ancient-rome-smelled-like-patchouli/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman life</a>. 



Behind the hot room, a sweltering boiler room lies, where slaves would have had to toil in intolerable heat.



In the coming weeks, the excavation will conclude, and the public will get a chance to witness this incredible find.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_public-bath-house_ornate-frescoes_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_public-bath-house_ornate-frescoes_1s.webp" alt="In comparison, this was the inside of a public bathhouse in Pompeii. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park" class="wp-image-1957628"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In comparison, this was the inside of a public bathhouse in Pompeii. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park</figcaption></figure>



Apart from the bathhouse discovery, a previous study, led by the University of Naples Federico II, also shed light on a massive Alexander the Great mosaic that was unearthed in Pompeii in 1831.



The mosaic, made of nearly two million pieces, may have utilized rocks from various Mediterranean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lead-pollution-may-have-caused-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mining</a> areas, including Greece, Tunisia, and the Iberian Peninsula, which supports the idea that the Roman Empire had far-reaching connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pompeii-s-ash-locked-history-in-time">Pompeii's ash locked history in time</h2>



The extraordinary preservation of Pompeii’s structures and artifacts, including the recently discovered bathhouse, is a reflection of the unique conditions created by Mount Vesuvius' eruption. 



The volcanic ash and pumice that blanketed the city acted as a protective seal, preserving architectural details, organic materials, and even human remains in remarkable detail. 



Layers of fine ash solidified over time, creating a mold of the city's final moments and allowing modern archaeologists to reconstruct daily life with unparalleled accuracy.



Advanced imaging techniques have played a crucial role in revealing hidden structures beneath the hardened layers of volcanic debris. 



These technologies not only help locate previously unknown sites but also allow researchers to study fragile artifacts without intrusive excavation.



The bathhouse discovery highlights the ongoing importance of scientific innovation in archaeology. 



As the excavation progresses, experts hope to uncover even more details about the materials used, the engineering marvels of the time, and the social dynamics of Pompeii’s elite.



The full study was reported in a BBC <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c15zgvnvk4do" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">press release</a>.



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Wealthy Pompeii homes had opulent bathhouses with plumbing before the volcano struck

Many of us are aware that the ancient city of...

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All-American Pressure Canner/Cooker - 10.5 quart

The "All-American" is the best among home pressure canners. With...

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure canners. With proper care it will last a lifetime. Made in the USA since 1930. Read more Overview Only All-American Pressure Cookers/Canner feature an exclusive, precision machined "metal-to-metal" sealing system. Positive action clamping locks align the cover to the base, forming a steam-tight seal. At the same time, this metal-to-metal seal automatically permits venting under unusual pressure conditions, providing an extra margin of safety over conventional rubber or composition gasket cookers. The All-American Pressure Cooker/Canner is, first and foremost, a canner. It is large and heavy-cast for processing larger quantities of food per load. The USDA recommends pressure canning as the only safe way to can meat, fish, poultry and vegetables. "Pressure cookers" are not recommended for canning because a fully loaded canner takes a longer time for heating and cooling. This time is taken into account when determining processing times in standard canning timetables. Features & Benefits: Crafted of the finest hand cast aluminum Stay-cool bakelite top handle Geared steam gauge Pressure regulator weight with settings of 5, 10 and 15 psi Smooth, easy to clean satin finish Exclusive metal-to-metal seal - no gaskets to crack, burn, replace or clean Double thickness edges for additional protection on points of heaviest wear Automatic overpressure release Includes canning rack and instructions Available in 6 sizes Made in the USA since 1930 Specifications for Model 915: Capacity - 15 1/2 Quarts (Liquid), 7 Quart Jars, 10 Pint Jars* Inside diameter - 12 5/8 inches Inside Height - 7 3/4 inches Overall Height - 12.5 inches Weight - 15 pounds Includes 1 rack *Jar capacities based on standard Mason jar sizes. All-American Pressure Cooker/Canners are intended for home use applications. Models 910, 915, 921 and 925 are suitable for use on newer glass/flat top ranges. We recommend verifying weight restrictions with your stove manufacturer. Larger models 930 and 941 are heavy and not suitable for glass top ranges. "We bought an All-American Pressure Canner (Model 921) over 30 years ago, and have used it exclusively for all our canning. It is still as good as new." Greg Seaman, Founder, Eartheasy.com

All-American Pressure Canner/Cooker - 15.5 quart

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure...

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure canners. With proper care it will last a lifetime, which is why we recommend getting the best. Made in the USA since 1930. Read more Overview Only All-American Pressure Cookers/Canner feature an exclusive, precision machined "metal-to-metal" sealing system. Positive action clamping locks align the cover to the base, forming a steam-tight seal. At the same time, this metal-to-metal seal automatically permits venting under unusual pressure conditions, providing an extra margin of safety over conventional rubber or composition gasket cookers. The All-American Pressure Cooker/Canner is, first and foremost, a canner. It is large and heavy-cast for processing larger quantities of food per load. The USDA recommends pressure canning as the only safe way to can meat, fish, poultry and vegetables. "Pressure cookers" are not recommended for canning because a fully loaded canner takes a longer time for heating and cooling. This time is taken into account when determining processing times in standard canning timetables. Features & Benefits: Crafted of the finest hand cast aluminum Stay-cool bakelite top handle Geared steam gauge Pressure regulator weight with settings of 5, 10 and 15 psi Smooth, easy to clean satin finish Exclusive metal-to-metal seal - no gaskets to crack, burn, replace or clean Double thickness edges for additional protection on points of heaviest wear Automatic overpressure release Includes canning racks and instructions Available in 6 sizes Made in the USA since 1930 Specifications for Model 921: Capacity - 21 1/2 Quarts (Liquid), 7 Quart Jars, 19 Pint Jars Inside diameter - 12 5/8 inches Inside Height - 10 1/2 inches Overall Height - 16 inches Weight - 17.75 pounds Includes 2 racks *Jar capacities based on standard Mason jar sizes. All-American Pressure Cooker/Canners are intended for home use applications. Models 910, 915, 921 and 925 are suitable for use on newer glass/flat top ranges. We recommend verifying weight restrictions with your stove manufacturer. Larger models 930 and 941 are heavy and not suitable for glass top ranges. "We bought an All-American Pressure Canner (Model 921) over 30 years ago, and have used it exclusively for all our canning. It is still as good as new." Greg Seaman, Founder, Eartheasy.com

All-American Pressure Canner/Cooker - 21.5 quart

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure canners. With proper care it will last a lifetime. Made in the USA since 1930. Read more Overview Only All-American Pressure Cookers/Canner feature an exclusive, precision machined "metal-to-metal" sealing system. Positive action clamping locks align the cover to the base, forming a steam-tight seal. At the same time, this metal-to-metal seal automatically permits venting under unusual pressure conditions, providing an extra margin of safety over conventional rubber or composition gasket cookers. The All-American Pressure Cooker/Canner is, first and foremost, a canner. It is large and heavy-cast for processing larger quantities of food per load. The USDA recommends pressure canning as the only safe way to can meat, fish, poultry and vegetables. "Pressure cookers" are not recommended for canning because a fully loaded canner takes a longer time for heating and cooling. This time is taken into account when determining processing times in standard canning timetables. Features & Benefits: Crafted of the finest hand cast aluminum Stay-cool bakelite top handle Geared steam gauge Pressure regulator weight with settings of 5, 10 and 15 psi Smooth, easy to clean satin finish Exclusive metal-to-metal seal - no gaskets to crack, burn, replace or clean Double thickness edges for additional protection on points of heaviest wear Automatic overpressure release Includes canning racks and instructions Available in 6 sizes Made in the USA since 1930 Specifications for Model 925: Capacity - 25 Quarts (Liquid), 7 Quart Jars, 19 Pint Jars Inside diameter - 12 5/8 inches Inside Height - 12 1/4 inches Overall Height - 16 3/4 inches Weight - 18.25 pounds Includes 2 racks *Jar capacities based on standard Mason jar sizes. All-American Pressure Cooker/Canners are intended for home use applications. Models 910, 915, 921 and 925 are suitable for use on newer glass/flat top ranges. We recommend verifying weight restrictions with your stove manufacturer. Larger models 930 and 941 are heavy and not suitable for glass top ranges. "We bought an All-American Pressure Canner (Model 921) over 30 years ago, and have used it exclusively for all our canning. It is still as good as new." Greg Seaman, Founder, Eartheasy.com