For centuries, cocoa farming has been a lifeline for millions of smallholder farmers across the tropics. It is more than just an agricultural crop; it fuels a global chocolate industry valued at over USD 100 billion annually. 



From the lush plantations of Ghana and Brazil to the rainforests of Indonesia, cocoa remains central to both economic stability and cultural identity. However, as global demand rises, the industry faces an unprecedented challenge.



The need to produce more cocoa has driven the expansion of plantations and intensified farming methods. While this has boosted short-term yields, it has also placed immense pressure on biodiversity and long-term sustainability. 



Now, with climate change threatening production, researchers are urgently seeking solutions that balance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity</a> with ecological stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-cocoa">Climate change and cocoa</h2>



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, in collaboration with institutions from China, Brazil, and Germany, highlights the looming risks that climate change poses to cocoa farming. 



Rising temperatures and shifting weather patterns could significantly impact yields, making it harder for farmers to maintain production. The research focused on three key cocoa-producing countries - Brazil, Ghana, and Indonesia - which together account for 33% of the world’s cocoa supply.



The findings revealed a concerning trend. In locations where temperatures had risen by up to 7 degrees Celsius, cocoa yields dropped between 20-31%. These losses demonstrate how vulnerable cocoa-producing regions are to climate change. 



If global temperatures continue to rise, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-will-help-climate-proof-chocolate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa</a> farmers may face increasing challenges in maintaining both quality and quantity of production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-threat-to-cocoa-production">Hidden threat to cocoa production</h2>



While climate change presents a major threat, another key factor is limiting cocoa yields - pollination. Despite its importance, pollination has often been overlooked in discussions about improving cocoa productivity.



The study found that boosting pollination rates above current levels could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthier-chocolate-created-by-using-the-entire-cocoa-fruit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increase yields</a> by 20%, revealing that many cocoa plantations are not reaching their full potential.



"Cocoa is pollinated by tiny insects such as midges and thrips, and it comes as quite a surprise that most of the time there simply isn’t enough pollination happening to produce the cocoa crop that is possible," noted Dr. Acheampong Atta-Boateng, a co-author of the study.



This lack of pollination is limiting productivity, yet the good news is that there are practical solutions available. Unlike large-scale plantation expansion, enhancing pollination does not require clearing forests or using excessive fertilizers. 



Instead, small changes in farm management can create the conditions needed for better pollination and healthier yields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-cocoa-farming">Strategies for cocoa farming</h2>



The researchers identified several farming techniques that could both enhance pollination and help plantations adapt to climate change. 



Maintaining leaf litter and other understory biomass can support pollinator populations by providing them with shelter and breeding grounds. Preserving soil organic matter improves plantation health and reduces temperature fluctuations, which can make farms more resilient to climate extremes.



Another crucial approach is providing moderate shade. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cacao-trees-5000-year-odyssey-global-domestication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cocoa trees</a> naturally thrive under a canopy of larger trees, which helps regulate temperature and moisture levels. When farms integrate shade trees into their design, they not only create better conditions for cocoa but also encourage the presence of pollinators.



Additionally, reducing agricultural chemical use plays a major role in supporting pollinators. Many pesticides and herbicides harm the small insects responsible for cocoa pollination. 



By limiting chemical applications and using natural pest control methods, farmers can create a healthier ecosystem where both cocoa plants and their pollinators flourish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-sustainable-cocoa-farming">Call for sustainable cocoa farming</h2>



"This research shows that sustainable agricultural methods can significantly improve cocoa yields without farm expansion or intensification," noted Dr. Tonya Lander, the study's first author.



"By adopting biodiversity-centred, climate-resilient farming techniques, the cocoa sector can both increase production and safeguard farmers' livelihoods."



The research provides a roadmap for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-virus-threatens-global-chocolate-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa</a> farmers, industry leaders, and policymakers to rethink current farming practices. Instead of focusing solely on increasing land use, the industry must embrace biodiversity-friendly techniques that support both pollination and climate resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-cocoa-farming">The future of cocoa farming</h2>



"The rising demand for cocoa and the short-term economic benefits to farmers has led to plantation expansion and ecological homogenization at the expense of biodiversity and vital ecosystem services, like pollination," noted Dr. Tom Wanger of <a href="https://en.westlake.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Westlake University</a>, China.



"This study highlights the long-term risks of this approach, and how pollination can be a solution that works alongside climate-resilient agricultural systems to achieve long-term, ecologically and financially sustainable solutions."



The message from researchers is clear. Sustainable cocoa farming is not just about preserving forests - it is about ensuring long-term productivity and economic stability for millions of farmers.



By implementing smarter farm management practices, cocoa growers can protect their crops from climate change while improving yields through better pollination.



The future of cocoa farming depends on science-driven solutions that prioritize both agricultural success and environmental responsibility. If the industry embraces these changes, it can continue to thrive without sacrificing the landscapes and ecosystems that make cocoa cultivation possible.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02072-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Sustainable farming could save the future of chocolate

For centuries, cocoa farming has been a lifeline for millions...

People in many countries struggle with being overweight, and the global obesity issue has worsened in recent years. There is a constant search for easy additions to daily meals that might help with weight management and heart health.



Chia seeds have captured public interest for their fiber content, fats, and versatility. They have popped up in everything from breakfast puddings to nutrition bars. 



However, according to Dr. Abbas Karimi at the <a href="https://en.tbzmed.ac.ir/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tabriz University of Medical Sciences</a>, the reality is more nuanced than dramatic weight changes from a single supplement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-chia-phenomenon">Understanding the chia phenomenon</h2>



Chia seeds are promoted for their high concentration of alpha-linolenic acid and plant-based protein. Some people say they support fullness and maintain stable energy throughout the day.



Scientists have taken a closer look at the effects of including these seeds in a balanced diet, hoping to see improvements in cardiovascular markers such as blood pressure or lipid profiles. 



While some findings suggest a modest reduction in waist circumference, measurable changes in overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-now-affects-more-than-a-billion-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight</a> remain unpredictable.



Chia seeds are also known for their high content of soluble and insoluble fiber which can absorb liquid and form a gel-like consistency. This fiber may <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/87559129.2013.818014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slow carbohydrate breakdown</a> and contribute to a more balanced blood sugar after consumption. 



Small studies have hinted at better glucose control, though large-scale trials often show less dramatic shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blood-pressure-question">The blood pressure question</h2>



Research indicates that chia might help reduce systolic blood pressure by a few points. One idea is that the magnesium and potassium content supports healthy vascular function, which could relax blood vessels. 



However, not everyone sees these results, and individual factors may matter more than a simple addition of chia seeds.



There is also speculation about whether chia’s fiber can influence hormones that control blood pressure. If fiber leads to beneficial changes in gut health, the result might be indirect support for heart function. Still, any improvement might be modest and should be paired with the adoption of other healthy habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflammation-and-heart-markers">Inflammation and heart markers</h2>



According to experts, omega-3 fatty acids help reduce low-level inflammation. It has been speculated that chia’s alpha-linolenic acid might help bring down C-reactive protein, an indicator of chronic inflammation. 



Other inflammatory markers, like interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, have shown less consistent change.



In addition, chia seeds contain polyphenols that can act as antioxidants. These compounds might fight oxidative stress, though the effect can vary and may be more dependent on a person’s baseline diet, their genetics, and lifestyle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weight-and-glucose">Weight and glucose</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chia-seeds-have-great-potential-to-improve-human-health/">Chia seeds</a> promote a feeling of fullness because the soaked seeds swell, which may help to limit snacking between meals. However, not all trials reveal striking weight loss or major body mass index changes after chia supplementation.



An analysis of multiple randomized controlled trials on overweight groups suggests that chia might help with waist size, but blood sugar measures, like fasting glucose levels, often stay in the same range. 



A single food rarely solves metabolic problems, so experts recommend viewing chia as just one piece of a broader plan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incorporating-chia-seeds-in-meals">Incorporating chia seeds in meals</h2>



Some enjoy stirring chia into oatmeal, combining it with yogurt, or blending it into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-say-this-is-the-best-fruit-to-eat-for-a-healthier-liver/">fruit smoothies</a>. Two tablespoons of chia can provide a dose of fiber, healthy fats, and protein without drastically altering the taste of a dish.



Others grind chia seeds to sprinkle on salads or to replace part of the flour in certain baked goods. Whole seeds can work well in breakfast bowls, though ground seeds may release nutrients more effectively.



Moderation helps avoid bloating, especially for those who are not used to a high-fiber diet. Chia seeds absorb water, so sufficient fluid intake is important to prevent any digestive discomfort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-latest-research-on-chia">The latest research on chia</h2>



The systematic <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39285289/">review</a> by Dr. Karimi and colleagues found that chia is not a magic solution for reducing LDL cholesterol or glucose levels. 



However, the potential to trim waist circumference and bring down certain inflammatory markers is worth noting for those with metabolic concerns.



Researchers emphasize that consistency matters. Adding seeds for a few days and expecting major changes can set people up for disappointment. 



On the other hand, including chia in a sustainable routine might show small but meaningful differences over several weeks or months.



The study is published in <a href="https://nutritionandmetabolism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12986-024-00847-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrition &amp; Metabolism</a>.



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These tiny seeds pack a powerful nutrient punch

People in many countries struggle with being overweight, and the...

Forests have long been resilient, adapting to shifting climates over centuries. However, the pace of modern climate change presents an unprecedented challenge. Trees that have thrived in certain regions for generations now face rising temperatures, prolonged droughts, and increasing disturbances from wildfires and pests. 



Scientists have expected tree species to migrate naturally, shifting toward cooler and wetter areas to survive. Yet, a recent study from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> reveals a different reality - tree populations in the interior U.S. West are shrinking, but they are not expanding into new, more favorable territories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-is-killing-trees">Climate change is killing trees</h2>



The study examined data from over 25,000 forest plots across the interior U.S. West. 



The researchers found that trees are struggling to regenerate in the hottest parts of their ranges, which aligns with expectations. However, the more alarming discovery is that they are not establishing themselves in cooler, wetter locations either.



Study lead author Katie Nigro emphasized the significance of this pattern, stating that trees play a crucial role in providing clean water, clean air, and essential habitat for wildlife. She noted that without intervention, some species may struggle to maintain their presence in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-in-the-wrong-place-can-make-cities-hotter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">landscape</a>.



"If forest managers want to keep certain trees on the landscape, our study shows where they can still exist or where they might need help," said Nigro.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-outpaces-tree-adaptation">Climate change outpaces tree adaptation</h2>



For decades, ecologists have assumed that as warming temperatures push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-crops-a-path-to-feeding-the-world-and-saving-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> out of certain areas, they will gradually expand into more suitable habitats. However, the study challenges this assumption by demonstrating that most species are not shifting as expected.



Shrinking ranges were observed in both undisturbed forests and those affected by wildfires, insect outbreaks, and disease. Researchers tested whether disturbances such as wildfires could clear the way for trees to establish themselves in cooler regions by removing competition. 



The expectation was that, with fewer adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> blocking sunlight and taking up resources, new seedlings could take root in more favorable microclimates. But the study found little evidence of such shifts occurring.



"Just like us and every species, trees can only function within a certain climatic tolerance, and different species have different climatic tolerances,” Nigro explained. “I thought we would find more shifts into cooler zones, especially in burned areas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-are-shrinking-faster-than-expected">Forests are shrinking faster than expected</h2>



The study, published in Nature Climate Change, provides a large-scale analysis of how trees are responding to changing conditions. The results highlight an overarching pattern - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> are disappearing from the hottest, driest parts of their range, yet failing to gain ground along the cooler, wetter margins.



Nigro pointed out that some tree species, particularly slow-growing subalpine varieties, may need more time to establish themselves in new areas. 



However, she also warned that the rapid pace of climate change may be outstripping the ability of trees to adapt naturally. More localized studies will be necessary to determine which species can survive where and whether interventions will be needed.



"One of the potential issues is that we may get bigger and bigger mismatches between where trees are living and their ideal climate," Nigro said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-barriers-prevent-tree-migration">Physical barriers prevent tree migration</h2>



Even when trees attempt to shift their ranges, they face numerous obstacles. Climate change is not only altering temperatures but also increasing wildfire frequency and intensity. 



These disturbances can prevent regeneration by eliminating seed sources. Additionally, seeds trying to move upslope to cooler temperatures must overcome significant physical barriers.



“There's a lot of things that prevent a seed from moving uphill, including gravity,” said co-author Monique Rocca, an associate professor of ecosystem science and sustainability. “A lot of conditions need to be in place for a tree to be able to move to cooler, wetter sites.”



The study highlights how trees remain restricted to their current locations due to environmental and physical constraints. 



Rocca noted that understanding where trees are naturally persisting versus where they need human intervention is key to ensuring future forest sustainability.



“This study digs into some of the details of where trees are staying on the landscape on their own versus where we may need to intervene if our goal is to keep Western landscapes covered in trees,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tough-trees-survive-climate-shifts">Tough trees survive climate shifts</h2>



While most tree species struggle to expand their ranges, a few have managed to regenerate successfully. 



The researchers identified four species that continued to regenerate despite climate challenges, wildfires, and disease outbreaks. However, three of these species were relatively rare, making it difficult to assess their long-term adaptability.



One species, Gambel oak, proved particularly resilient due to its ability to resprout even after disturbances. Unlike other species that rely on seed dispersal for regeneration, Gambel oak can regrow from its root system, allowing it to survive in harsh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-data-in-tracking-forest-change">Role of data in tracking forest change</h2>



The study used long-term data from the USDA Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis program, often referred to as the national “tree census.” This program continuously tracks tree growth and losses across the nation, providing invaluable insights into forest dynamics.



Study co-author Kristen Pelz highlighted the importance of the study’s findings.



"Dr. Nigro harnessed the power of our field-collected data to show how forests are changing across the interior West - not theoretically, but today," Pelz said.



By analyzing the leading and trailing edges of tree ranges, rather than just the overall average, the study offers a more detailed picture of how tree species are shifting. 



This information is particularly useful for land managers trying to make informed decisions about future forest conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assisted-migration-as-a-possible-solution">Assisted migration as a possible solution</h2>



Since trees are not expanding into better-suited environments on their own, the study suggests that human intervention may be necessary. 



Assisted migration involves helping tree species move to more favorable climates by planting them in areas where they are more likely to thrive.



"This research can help land managers and foresters decide whether to hang on to trees in the hottest portions of their ranges for as long as possible or to transition to a more heat- and drought-tolerant system,” Nigro said. 



She noted that in some cases, assisted migration might involve using seeds from the same species but sourced from populations already adapted to warmer conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-changing-forest-landscape">A changing forest landscape</h2>



Nigro continues her work as a postdoctoral fellow with the Rocky Mountain Research Station, where she is studying which seeds from a single species have the highest survival potential in harsher climates. 



Meanwhile, her Ph.D. adviser, co-author Miranda Redmond, is conducting related research at UC Berkeley, focusing on how tree species are adapting to climate change.



“These efforts are becoming increasingly critical due to the rapid pace and scale of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> die-offs from wildfires, drought, and other climate-driven disturbances, coupled with tree regeneration failures observed in many areas,” Redmond said.



As climate change reshapes the natural world, forests of the future may look quite different from those of today. Some tree species may disappear from certain landscapes, while others may need human intervention to persist.



"Planting likely will be required to keep trees on the landscape where they are most valued, and we may need to accept new ecosystems in areas that are inevitably going to change. Our future forests might look different and contain different trees than they do today," said Nigro.



The study makes it clear that trees alone may not be able to keep up with the rapid shifts in climate. Without intervention, some species could be lost, altering forest ecosystems in ways that could have lasting effects on wildlife, water resources, and air quality. 



The challenge now is determining the best strategies for ensuring forests remain a vital part of the Western landscape for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02235-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Trees are losing the battle against climate change

Forests have long been resilient, adapting to shifting climates over...

Cannabis has long been at the center of medical and scientific debates, especially regarding its component substances - cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). 



The psychoactive component of cannabis, THC, is known for both its benefits and drawbacks, and researchers continue to seek ways to enhance its therapeutic effects while minimizing unwanted side effects.



A breakthrough from researchers at the University of Mississippi may offer new possibilities. They have discovered how CBD, a non-psychoactive compound in cannabis, interacts with the same receptors as THC.



This discovery could lead to improved pain management treatments and new ways to mitigate THC’s negative effects, such as memory loss and nausea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-cbd">New perspective on CBD</h2>



Amar Chittiboyina, principal scientist and associate director of the <a href="https://pharm.olemiss.edu/ncnpr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Center for Natural Products Research</a>, has been exploring CBD’s properties with his team.



Their study sheds light on how CBD functions at a molecular level and how it may change the way THC interacts with the human body.



"This research will open a new avenue for anyone in the field of cannabis research," Chittiboyina said. "It actually opens up new prospects or a new horizon in modulating cannabinoid receptors and harnessing THC's beneficial effects for pain management."



CBD is just one of over 200 cannabinoids found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trema-micrantha-brazilian-plant-found-to-contain-cannabis-cbd-compound/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a>, but it has drawn significant attention because it does not cause intoxication like THC. 



The compound’s popularity surged in the United States following the 2018 Agricultural Improvement Act, which decriminalized hemp and allowed for the broader study of CBD’s effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cbd-and-thc-interact-in-the-body">How CBD and THC interact in the body</h2>



To understand the significance of this research, it is important to look at how cannabinoids affect the human body. 



A key component in this process is cannabinoid receptor type 1, a protein that regulates functions such as pain, mood, appetite, metabolism, and memory. Both THC and CBD bind to this receptor on cells throughout the body, but they do so in very different ways.



When THC attaches to the receptor, it acts like an off switch, shutting down pain signals but also causing unwanted side effects. These side effects include nausea, short-term memory impairment, and a higher potential for dependency.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-relieves-anxiety-without-the-risks-that-come-with-thc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CBD</a>, in contrast, works more like a dimmer switch. Instead of fully turning the receptor on or off, it adjusts its activity, allowing for a more balanced response. This means that CBD can help manage pain and other symptoms while reducing the negative consequences associated with THC.



The <a href="https://olemiss.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Mississippi</a> researchers have pinpointed the exact locations on this receptor where CBD binds. This knowledge paves the way for future research aimed at fine-tuning cannabinoid interactions to maximize therapeutic benefits while limiting the unwanted side effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeted-cannabis-based-treatments">Targeted cannabis-based treatments</h2>



Scientists believe this discovery could lead to synthetic versions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-use-during-pregnancy-has-unexpected-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CBD</a> that work even more effectively. By modifying how CBD interacts with receptors in the body, researchers may be able to develop improved treatments for pain, anxiety, and other conditions.



"Our primary objective is to harness the beneficial effects of THC while mitigating its undesirable side effects," said Pankaj Pandey, a research scientist in the center.



CBD’s ability to influence receptor activity offers new possibilities for targeted treatments. This is especially important in the medical field, where researchers are seeking safer alternatives to traditional medications that may carry risks of addiction or severe side effects.



Robert Laprairie, associate professor at the <a href="https://www.usask.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Saskatchewan</a> and co-author of the study, emphasized the broader implications of these findings.



"When people talk about cannabis, they tend to focus on or think of it just as a drug, as the plant," said Laprairie.



"But we have a treasure chest of drug possibilities here and what we're trying to do is pick out specific, very focused effects and refine those. We're trying to pull out the benefits and leave the harms behind," he stressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cbd-s-impact-on-opioid-use">CBD’s impact on opioid use</h2>



One of the major questions arising from this research is how CBD interacts with other drugs, particularly opioids. William Neal, a postdoctoral researcher at the Ole Miss center, is conducting studies to determine whether CBD has any effect on opioid receptors in the body.



"In the event that CBD binds to an opioid receptor, you could have negative interplay with opiate drugs like morphine," Neal said. "If you're getting pain relief from opiates, and if CBD negatively interferes with the opioid receptor, it's going to frustrate people who are prescribed opiates.



"As a result, CBD will reduce efficacy of opiates and could enhance the drug abuse liabilities."



If Neal’s research confirms that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-impacts-working-memory-and-brain-function/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CBD</a> influences opioid function, it could have significant implications for pain management. Many patients who use opioids also take cannabis-based products, believing that the combination provides better pain relief. 



However, if CBD weakens the effects of opioids, it may lead to complications for those relying on prescription painkillers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-research-on-thc-and-cbd">More research on THC and CBD</h2>



Neal’s study is just one example of the many new research opportunities emerging from this discovery. Chittiboyina believes this work will help answer broader questions about the combined use of cannabis, opioids, and other substances for pain relief.



"That's what I mean when I say this is a new horizon for cannabinoids research," Chittiboyina said. "Often, to mitigate pain, patients combine opiates with cannabis, kratom, and other substances. Is this approach beneficial or detrimental?"



Answering these questions requires further research, but scientists are optimistic that understanding CBD’s molecular effects will lead to medical advancements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-cbd-in-medicine">Future of CBD in medicine</h2>



Although these findings are promising, more studies are needed before researchers can draw firm conclusions. The complexity of cannabinoid interactions means that every new discovery leads to more questions.



"But if we can pinpoint how CBD interacts with multiple targets on a molecular level, we will be in a stronger scientific position to develop solutions that are relevant to public health," Chittiboyina said.



This research has the potential to change how cannabis-based treatments are used in medicine. By improving the understanding of CBD and THC’s effects, scientists may develop more precise therapies that help patients without causing unwanted side effects.



This study received support from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS), the National Science Foundation <a href="http://www.xsede.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">XSEDE</a> Bridges allocation, and the Mississippi State-sponsored National Center for Cannabis Research and Education.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acschemneuro.4c00343" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Chemical Neuroscience</a>.



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CBD reduces the unwanted side effects of THC

Cannabis has long been at the center of medical and...

Artists have explored tree-like images in art for centuries. Many people see these scenes and instantly recognize them as trees, even when the art is strangely stylized or lacks detail.



A new study suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-time-and-space-interact-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability</a> to spot trees in art may hinge on a simple quantity related to how branch thickness scales across different sizes.



The research was conducted by Jingyi Gao, currently at the University of Wisconsin, and Mitchell Newberry, an assistant professor at the University of New Mexico.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tree-proportions-trick-your-brain">How tree proportions trick your brain</h2>



Trees appear in many cultural depictions, yet the features that trigger our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-brain-processes-visual-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> to recognize them are not always obvious. Some artwork has curvy shapes, while others show bold, blocky forms that look nothing like leaves or bark.



The new <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/2/pgaf003/7996468?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> shows that one hidden pattern stands out. When smaller branches maintain a certain relationship to their parent branches, viewers see a tree right away.



By keeping the ratio between small and large branch diameters consistent, artists preserve an essential quality that suggests tree-like growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizable-trees-in-art">Recognizable trees in art</h2>



A fractal is a shape that repeats itself on different scales. These patterns appear in snowflakes, clouds, and real tree branches. They can also show up in hand-carved shapes or painted lines, as long as the size pattern remains similar across large and small areas.



In this study, the researchers explored whether fractals could explain why certain artworks display recognizable trees. They focused on a "branch diameter scaling exponent," which acts like the fractal dimension for tree branches.&nbsp;



“There are some characteristics of the art that feel like they’re aesthetic or subjective, but we can use math to describe it,” said Gao, the lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-behind-tree-like-shapes">Math behind tree-like shapes </h2>



Branch diameter scaling resembles the standard Pythagorean theorem, which often shows up in middle school geometry.



By squaring the diameters of child branches and relating them to the parent branch, the researchers identified a numerical factor that separates a tree-like feel from other forms.



This number can vary from about 1.5 to 3 for real trees in nature. Artists, whether knowingly or not, often work near that range. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-art-from-different-eras">Art from different eras</h2>



The team analyzed carvings from the Sidi Saiyyed Mosque in India, a Japanese painting from the 1700s, and early 1900s Dutch abstract art. Each of these cultural pieces showed a similar balancing act in how thick the branches were compared to their bigger trunks.



Even when lines were curved like snakes or reduced to bold strokes on a gray background, observers still saw a tree if the diameter scaling stayed in that “sweet spot.”&nbsp;



“It’s at the core of a lot of different depictions of trees, even if they’re in different styles and different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brains-bend-time-to-adapt-to-lifes-rhythm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultures</a> or centuries,” said Newberry, senior author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-discoveries">Unexpected discoveries</h2>



In some surprising cases, an art piece that looked more realistic had a slightly off scaling exponent, while a more stylized carving had a value closer to real-life trees. This hints that realism is not the only requirement for a convincing tree image.



A highly abstract example from Piet Mondrian’s series offers a glimpse at this idea. Even with just a few black lines and no obvious leaves, one painting has a scaling exponent that lands in the natural range.



When Mondrian removed that scaling in a later piece, people began interpreting the lines in all sorts of other ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-and-art-connect-in-tree-images">Math and art connect in tree images</h2>



The study stems from a background of interdisciplinary thinking. Mathematics can unite seemingly separate fields, especially when it comes to repeated patterns found in biology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-our-brains-neurons-make-and-retrieve-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">art</a>.



This project also highlights how looking at a painting can reveal deeper truths about nature. The researchers combined artistic analysis with core geometry to capture a consistent formula.



By tapping into fractals, the experts unlocked a new way of explaining how we recognize tree shapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blending-science-and-creativity">Blending science and creativity</h2>



The research might also spark fresh discussions about the blending of science and creativity. The study focuses on the idea that something as subjective as art appreciation might have a quantitative backbone. 



Scientists continue to investigate whether our brains latch onto these branching proportions from an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-pathway-discovered-that-suppresses-fear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary standpoint</a>, given our familiarity with natural trees that grew around us for thousands of years.



The visual pull of art might be less mysterious than previously believed. It could boil down to numbers that we subconsciously pick up whenever we spot repeating forms. The same principle might extend to different styles of illustration or design, from digital graphics to architecture.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/2/pgaf003/7996468?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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How and why our brains can instantly recognize trees, even in abstract art

Artists have explored tree-like images in art for centuries. Many...

Solar energy has fascinated scientists and engineers for decades. Many wonder how leaves harness sunlight to produce energy with remarkable efficiency.



<a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/photosynthesis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photosynthesis</a>, the process that drives energy capture in green organisms, employs subtle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-instead-of-oil-or-coal-powers-a-new-kind-of-engine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a> to avoid waste. This link between molecular events and advanced physics once seemed far-fetched, but new research is changing minds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-quantum-effects-shape-plant-function">How quantum effects shape plant function</h2>



Research by Professor Jürgen Hauer from the Technical University of Munich and first author Erika Keil suggests that fragile molecular states hold more power than expected. Observations in chlorophyll molecules reveal that electrons move through different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/google-record-shattering-quantum-ai-chip-accesses-parallel-universes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy levels</a> in a seamless way.



This happens when light enters a leaf and triggers electronic changes inside each pigment. Instead of scattering energy, the system finds pathways that keep losses to a bare minimum.



Superposition states allow energy to overlap across multiple electronic configurations. These overlaps explain why leaves can transfer energy to reaction centers so efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-solar-panels-mimic-leaf-energy-efficiency">Can solar panels mimic leaf energy efficiency?</h2>



Developers of solar panels dream of mimicking natural energy transport in leaves. Basic strategies borrowed from plants might improve devices that struggle with reflection, heat, and other hurdles.



Nature uses pigments to harvest light across a wide range of wavelengths. Researchers aim to create synthetic analogs with better spectral coverage and minimal losses.



Some systems rely on specialized organic molecules designed to emulate chlorophyll. Others seek to combine biological components with man-made scaffolds to form hybrid solar cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-quantum-steps-matter">Why quantum steps matter</h2>



Classical physics alone cannot fully explain the speed and efficiency of light harvesting. Scientists suspect that quantum coherence, even if it lasts briefly, helps direct energy through an optimal route.



Coherence means electron waves remain in sync long enough to guide energy transfer. These fleeting periods can reduce random losses by funneling energy into the right channels.



Although short-lived, such coherence has been detected in photosynthetic bacteria and algae, hinting at a universal trick shared by green organisms. Observations confirm that multiple energy states interact in ways that defy classical explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-the-spectrum">Probing the spectrum</h2>



Scientists categorize chlorophyll absorption in plant leaves into two main zones, called the Q band and B band. Each leaf uses these zones to capture different wavelengths, allowing chlorophyll to gather light from various parts of the solar spectrum.



Studies suggest that these bands do not operate independently. Instead, they communicate through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-giant-leap-forward-breakthrough-ultra-pure-silicon-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> couplings that enable a steady flow of energy inside the leaf.



Once energy arrives in the lower electronic states, cooling removes excess energy as heat. This ensures the system remains stable and prevents damage from overexcitation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-experimental-observation">Challenges in experimental observation</h2>



Capturing events that happen in a few trillionths of a second is no small task. Ultrafast spectroscopy uses laser pulses to freeze these moments and map the flow of energy.



Researchers must sift through complicated data, since chlorophyll molecules vibrate and rotate while transferring energy. Careful modeling helps interpret the signals and tease apart overlapping states.



Advanced simulations also guide the design of future experiments. These combined approaches reveal hidden pathways that allow nature to avoid large losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaf-physics-and-solar-technology">Leaf physics and solar technology</h2>



Lessons from plants often inspire new strategies in the lab. Scientists build prototypes to see if they can harness the same quantum features found in leaves.



One idea is to insert synthetic pigments into specialized arrays that mimic the arrangement of chlorophyll in a photosynthetic complex. Another approach is to embed such pigments in robust materials, creating stable systems for light capture.



Although no device can match leaf efficiency yet, progress in controlling molecular interactions suggests a path forward. The ultimate goal is to replicate nature’s nearly perfect energy transfer on larger scales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-discoveries-in-leaves">Quantum discoveries in leaves</h2>



Global demand for renewable power has skyrocketed. Solar panels offer a dependable alternative to fossil fuels, but improvement is always welcome.



Understanding quantum behavior in leaf structures might boost solar capture rates, driving down costs and raising output. Increased efficiency means more energy from less sunlight, a valuable gain for any region.



Quantum-driven devices could also be tailored to specific light environments, much like plants that grow in shade or bright sun. Engineers see potential for flexible systems that adapt to changing conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



Scientists still debate how long these quantum states last under normal biological settings. Some measurements hint at coherence persisting longer than expected, while others find extremely brief periods.



Many suspect the protein environment around chlorophyll keeps the states stable enough to guide energy. Pinpointing which factors extend or shorten coherence is a primary focus of research.



Clarity on these mechanisms may help build artificial complexes with more robust quantum effects. As a result, energy could move through synthetic systems with the same near-zero waste found in leaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striving-for-clarity-in-complex-systems">Striving for clarity in complex systems</h2>



Quantum biology is not just about single molecules. It examines how entire networks of pigments and proteins cooperate to channel energy.



The synergy between theory and experiment leads to more precise models. Each insight refines our understanding of how plants achieve such efficiency.



Researchers are also exploring how environmental factors like temperature and hydration affect energy flow. This knowledge may shape solar technology suited to varied climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Scientists want to harness <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum effects</a> beyond photosynthesis. Some envision quantum computing concepts that rely on similar phenomena to process data.



These connections remind us that nature is a powerful teacher. Studies of chlorophyll continue to influence fields like photonics and materials science.



The connection between light and molecular structure could lead to technology that was once thought impossible. A deeper understanding of plant energy transfer and leaf structure may pave the way for next-generation solar solutions.



Photosynthetic research encourages people to look at leaves with newfound respect. Their ability to gather sunlight with astonishing precision may prove to be a breakthrough for a more sustainable future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/sc/d4sc06441k" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chemical Science</a>.



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Tiny leaf pigments might hold the key to better solar power

Solar energy has fascinated scientists and engineers for decades. Many...

Climate change is reshaping ecosystems at an alarming rate. While much attention goes to the loss of animal species, plants are also vanishing. Since 1750, around 600 plant species have gone extinct, a number twice as high as animal extinctions. 



Yet, little is known about which plants are most at risk and how biodiversity shifts affect ecosystems.



Scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute have taken a deep look into the past to answer these questions. Using ancient DNA preserved in lake sediments, they reconstructed how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant life</a> changed between 15,000 and 11,000 years ago, a period of significant global warming. 



This research, recently published in the journal Nature Communications, sheds light on how past extinctions could predict future biodiversity loss. The study provides a clearer picture of how plant communities shift under warming conditions and what this could mean for ecosystems today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-forgotten-side-of-plant-extinction">The forgotten side of plant extinction</h2>



The loss of plants rarely makes headlines, even though they form the foundation of life. Many people recognize the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> of large mammals like the woolly mammoth, but few think about the plants that vanished alongside them. 



This oversight is partly due to the difficulty of studying plant extinctions. Traditional methods rely on fossilized pollen, which cannot always identify individual species.



“Everyone knows that the woolly mammoth went extinct, but virtually no-one mentions the plants that were lost at the end of the last ice age,” said Professor Ulrike Herzschuh from the Alfred Wegener Institute. “Until recently, we lacked suitable methods for investigating the extinction of plant species in detail.”



To overcome this challenge, the researchers used advanced techniques to extract and analyze ancient DNA from lake sediments. These sediments contain genetic material from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-darkspots-need-urgent-attention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> that lived up to 30,000 years ago.



By enriching and sequencing these DNA fragments, scientists could compare them with modern databases and reconstruct past plant communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-alters-plant-interactions">Climate change alters plant interactions</h2>



Shifts in climate do not just affect which plants survive but also how they interact with one another. The research revealed that plant communities undergo drastic transformations as temperatures change.



“We’ve now been able to determine in detail when and where species appeared and disappeared in Alaska and Siberia,” noted Ulrike Herzschuh.



“Our research shows that the composition of plant species changed substantially at the end of the last ice age, and that this was accompanied by fundamental changes in the ecological conditions.”



One of the most striking findings was the shift in how plants interact. During cold periods, plants often support each other, creating environments where multiple species can thrive and reduce the risk of extinction.



However, in warm periods, competition becomes dominant. This pattern is still visible today in tundra regions where cushion plants provide shelter for other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



“In the DNA from the lake sediments, we found e.g. many cushion plants, which most likely supported the expansion of other species by forming sheltered habitats,” said Herzschuh. This sheltering effect was essential for biodiversity in colder climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-destructive-cycle-for-arctic-plants">Self-destructive cycle for Arctic plants</h2>



Today, cushion plants continue to play a vital role in Arctic ecosystems. However, their ability to help other plants survive could ultimately lead to their own decline. 



As Arctic temperatures rise, trees and shrubs are expanding into tundra regions where cushion plants once dominated. These larger plants benefit from the shelter cushion plants provide, allowing them to spread more quickly.



“Since the warming of the Arctic has already progressed quite far, woody plants can survive even in the high latitudes. The cushion plants could facilitate their spreading, hastening their own extinction in the process,” noted the study authors.



This unintended consequence of plant interactions highlights the delicate balance of Arctic ecosystems. While cushion plants once promoted diversity, they may now accelerate their own disappearance by aiding the spread of larger, more competitive species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-plants-most-at-risk-of-extinction">The plants most at risk of extinction</h2>



The study also sought to determine which plant species are most vulnerable to extinction. At the end of the last ice age, some plant communities vanished entirely. One of the most notable losses was the mammoth steppe, a vast ecosystem that once stretched across the Northern Hemisphere.



Identifying extinct plants proved difficult because genetic databases focus on modern species. “To identify the species that no longer existed, we had to use a trick,” said Herzschuh.



The researchers examined all DNA fragments from sediment samples, then used statistical models to isolate DNA that did not match any known modern species.



Through this method, they found that grasses and shrubs face the highest risk of extinction in a warming world. Unlike woody plants, which can spread into new areas as temperatures rise, these smaller species often struggle to compete. 



Additionally, plants in regions with high biodiversity are more vulnerable than those in less diverse environments.



One surprising discovery was that plant extinction rates peaked at the beginning of the current warm phase. Often, species disappeared thousands of years after the initial environmental changes. 



“That means the full impacts of today’s human activities might not become apparent until the distant future,” said the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-today-s-arctic">What this means for today’s Arctic</h2>



The findings provide essential insights into how climate change affects biodiversity. 



For the first time, scientists have been able to measure plant extinction rates, offering valuable reference data for predicting future changes. The results indicate that Arctic ecosystems are particularly at risk as temperatures continue to rise.



“Our studies show how important it is to understand biodiversity and ecological interactions, also in the long term, in order to better predict the impacts of climate change,” said Herzschuh.



By studying ancient DNA, researchers can uncover the long-term effects of climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-centinela-mass-extinction-really-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant communities</a>. This knowledge is crucial for conservation efforts and for understanding how ecosystems will respond to further warming. 



The lessons from the past suggest that the most significant impacts of climate change on plant biodiversity are yet to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56176-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Warming climates force plants to compete with each other

Climate change is reshaping ecosystems at an alarming rate. While...

Invasive species pose a threat to ecosystems worldwide. They disrupt native habitats, outcompete local species, and create long-term ecological challenges.



Scientists have struggled to predict where these species will spread next, as their movements are often unpredictable. This unpredictability makes it difficult for conservationists and policymakers to develop effective strategies to contain or prevent their spread.



The spotted tilapia is just one example of an invasive species that continuously moves into new environments. These alien species adapt quickly, making it hard for researchers to simulate their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a>.



Traditional climate-based models provide some insights, but they often lack accuracy in forecasting future invasions. 



Researchers at the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (<a href="https://ifas.ufl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UF/IFAS</a>) set out to refine these predictions by taking a deeper look into what makes certain areas more susceptible to invasion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-way-to-predict-invasive-species">Better way to predict invasive species</h2>



The scientists identified a missing piece in existing invasion models. They proposed an updated approach to environmental resistance (ER) modeling, which accounts for factors beyond just climate conditions. 



This new method provides a better understanding of why some areas are more vulnerable to invasions than others.



Environmental resistance measures how difficult it is for an invasive species to establish itself in a new habitat. One of the key factors influencing this difficulty is the similarity between the native species in a given area and those in an already invaded region. 



If a new location has native species that are similar to those in an invaded area, it is more likely to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-non-native-species-are-saving-themselves-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experience an invasion</a>.



An invasive species is more likely to spread to areas where native species resemble those in already invaded regions.



This study focused on the eastern United States, a region heavily impacted by invasive species. Florida, for example, has more invasive vertebrates than any other state. Meanwhile, the Great Lakes region and the Northeast face significant challenges from invasive plants. 



Understanding the patterns of invasion in these regions helps researchers determine which factors play the most significant role in either allowing or preventing the spread of non-native species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-new-models-for-prediction">Testing new models for prediction</h2>



To refine ER modeling, the scientists considered several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental factors</a>. Traditional climate-based models assume that if an invasive species thrives in one location, it will do well in a similar climate elsewhere.



However, this approach has its limitations. It does not account for how quickly invasive species can adapt to new conditions or how existing ecosystems might resist their spread.



Yunpeng Liu is a postdoctoral researcher at UF/IFAS and lead author of the study.



“Most important, traditional modeling strategies do not predict invasion spread well if we do not know much about the suitable climates of the invasive species or we are not sure about their adaptation after they colonize into new habitats,” said Liu.



“What we came up with is an update to ER modeling that adds the necessary layer that has been missing.”



The researchers tested different versions of ER modeling, incorporating factors such as soil type and human activity. They simulated real-world invasion patterns and compared which models most accurately predicted the spread of invasive species. 



The results revealed that models based on native species similarity were the most effective in predicting invasions, outperforming those based on climate and other environmental factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-native-species-similarity-matters">Why native species similarity matters</h2>



One of the most important findings of the study was that native species similarity played a crucial role in predicting invasion spread. When native species in an area resemble those found in an already invaded region, the risk of invasion increases significantly.



“The ER model based on native species similarity was the best model for predicting current spread, not just for invasive plants but also a suite of invasive animals,” Liu explained.



This insight challenges previous assumptions that climate is the dominant factor in determining where invasive species will thrive. While climate remains important, the interaction between native and invasive species is often a stronger predictor of whether an invasion will succeed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-impact-on-invasive-species">Climate change impact on invasive species</h2>



As temperatures shift due to climate change, ecosystems will experience transformations that could make them more or less vulnerable to invasion. 



Native species distributions will change, potentially increasing the similarity between previously distinct ecosystems. This could create new opportunities for invasive species to expand into areas where they previously could not survive.



“The findings suggest that native species groupings could become more similar in the future than what they are today, leading to an increase in the spread of most of the invasive species, especially for those who have already occupied a wide range of habitat,” Liu said.



Urban areas, particularly those near large cities in Florida, are likely to face the highest risk. As human activity alters natural landscapes and climate shifts continue, these regions may become hotspots for future invasions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-and-conservation-efforts">Applications and conservation efforts </h2>



The findings of this study provide valuable insights for ecologists, land managers, and policymakers. Understanding the relationship between invasive species and native biodiversity allows experts to take proactive measures before an invasion occurs. 



Rather than relying solely on climate-based predictions, conservationists can now use ER modeling to identify areas at the highest risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-become-one-of-the-worlds-most-invasive-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasion</a>.



One key takeaway from the research is the importance of preserving the unique composition of native species in different regions. If native species become too similar across different environments, it could create more opportunities for invasive species to spread. 



Conservation efforts should prioritize maintaining the diversity of native ecosystems to strengthen their natural resistance against invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-progress-in-managing-invasive-species">Progress in managing invasive species</h2>



This study marks a significant advancement in predicting and managing invasive species. By refining ER modeling and focusing on species similarity, researchers have developed a more accurate tool for assessing invasion risk. 



This approach not only helps scientists better understand the spread of invasive species but also provides land managers with the knowledge needed to protect vulnerable ecosystems.



As invasive species continue to challenge native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-plants-alter-the-soundscape-of-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>, innovative research like this plays a critical role in shaping conservation strategies. 



With a better understanding of how invasive species interact with their surroundings, experts can implement targeted solutions to safeguard biodiversity and maintain ecological balance.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jbi.15089" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Biogeography</a>. 



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Why some places are prime targets for invasive species

Invasive species pose a threat to ecosystems worldwide. They disrupt...

Micro- and nanoscale plastic particles can greatly increase how much toxic chemicals enter plants and human cells, according to two studies led by Rutgers University. The findings deepen concerns about plastic pollution.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that these minute plastic particles, in combination with environmental pollutants, can intensify the uptake of poisons, heightening food safety risks.



One study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452074825000011?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NanoImpact</a>, showed that lettuce plants exposed to both nanoparticles of plastic and common pollutants - such as arsenic - absorbed significantly more toxins than when exposed to the pollutants alone.&nbsp;



A second study published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8929/4/1/4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> demonstrated a comparable effect in human intestinal tissue, signaling that these tiny plastics may be promoting more efficient transfer of both contaminants and plastics into our bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heightened-levels-of-plastics-and-toxins">Heightened levels of plastics and toxins</h2>



Together, these studies point to a potentially harmful cycle. As plastic degrades into micro- and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-could-help-remove-nanoplastics-from-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanoplastics</a>, it pollutes soil and water, enabling plants to absorb more dangerous substances.&nbsp;



Humans, consuming these plants, may then absorb heightened levels of toxins and plastic particles, posing elevated health risks.



Philip Demokritou is the director of the Nanoscience and Advanced Materials Center at the Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute at <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rutgers University</a> and senior author on both papers.&nbsp;



“We’ve already put about 7 billion metric tons of plastics into the environment that keep breaking apart,” said Demokritou. "They pollute everything around us - the water we drink, the food we eat, the air we breathe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escalated-toxin-uptake-in-human-cells">Escalated toxin uptake in human cells</h2>



Using a simulated digestive system and lab-grown models of the human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-migrate-from-the-gut-to-other-organs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small intestine</a>, the Rutgers researchers documented that nano-scale plastic particles increased the amount of arsenic absorbed by nearly sixfold compared to arsenic exposure alone.&nbsp;



The same phenomenon was observed with the commonly used pesticide boscalid.



Even more concerning, in the presence of these chemicals, the cells also took in considerably more plastic. Plastic particle uptake roughly doubled when toxins were present.



“We know nanoscale materials can bypass biological barriers,” said Demokritou. “The smaller the particles, the more they can bypass biological barriers in our bodies that protect us.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-and-toxin-absorption-in-lettuce">Plastics and toxin absorption in lettuce</h2>



In a separate study on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-lettuce-nasas-plans-to-grow-nutritious-plants-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lettuce</a>, scientists exposed the plants to two sizes of polystyrene plastic particles - 20 nanometers and 1,000 nanometers - along with arsenic and boscalid.&nbsp;



The researchers found that the smaller particles exerted the greatest influence, increasing arsenic levels in edible plant tissue nearly threefold compared to arsenic exposure alone.



These effects remained evident in both hydroponic systems and soil-based experiments. Using high-resolution imaging, the researchers verified that smaller plastic particles can travel from roots into the above-ground tissues of the plant, allowing them to accumulate in areas people typically eat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-keep-breaking-down">Plastics keep breaking down</h2>



Micro- and nanoplastic pollution arises mainly from the progressive degradation of larger plastic debris. According to Demokritou, stopping new plastic production won’t erase what is already out in the environment.



“Even if we stop today producing plastics or using plastics, we have plenty of plastic waste unfortunately out there,” Demokritou said.



Because these smaller particles seem to raise absorption levels of both toxins and plastics, food contamination from plastic pollution could persist indefinitely, with potential impacts on overall public health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-and-possible-solutions">Future directions and possible solutions</h2>



The team’s findings come from a broader <a href="https://www.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USDA</a>-funded project focused on ensuring food safety amid micro- and nanoplastic pollution. 



The researchers argue for heightened efforts to minimize further plastic waste while also searching for long-term resolutions.



“We need to stick with the ‘three-R’ waste hierarchy - reduce the use of plastics, reuse, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-recycling-day-creating-a-healthier-planet-for-all/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recycle</a>,” Demokritou said. “For areas where you cannot apply these three Rs, like in agriculture where so much plastic is used for weed control and other things, use biodegradable plastics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-substitutes-for-conventional-plastic">Substitutes for conventional plastic</h2>



To address pollution, the scientists are developing new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-plastic-materials-do-not-biodegrade-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodegradable materials</a> as substitutes for conventional plastics. They are also refining techniques to detect and measure plastic contamination in food and water.&nbsp;



Still, Demokritou stressed that fully mitigating plastic pollution will require grappling with social, economic, and technological obstacles.



“It’s not that technically we cannot address some of these issues. But it will definitely be a challenge to retain all the benefits from this very useful material while reducing the harms that it does. There are social and economic obstacles related to plastic production and use to overcome,” Demokritou concluded.



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Plastics supercharge toxin absorption in plants and humans

Micro- and nanoscale plastic particles can greatly increase how much...

Wildfires have long been a part of North America’s forests, shaping ecosystems and maintaining ecological balance. Yet, recent research suggests that today’s forests burn far less than they did in previous centuries. 



At first glance, this might seem like a positive change, but scientists warn that fewer wildfires could lead to more severe and destructive fires in the future.



A study published in Nature Communications reveals that modern forests are experiencing a significant “fire deficit.” 



This gap allows flammable materials such as dead wood and dry vegetation to accumulate, setting the stage for larger, more intense wildfires.



The study’s findings challenge the common belief that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-fire-risk-has-grown-exponentially-in-a-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> are increasing in frequency. Instead, they highlight how fire suppression has created dangerous conditions for both forests and communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-deficits-in-north-america">Fire deficits in North America</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (<a href="https://cires.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIRES</a>) at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a> and the U.S. Forest Service’s <a href="https://research.fs.usda.gov/rmrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky Mountain Research Station</a>.



The experts compared wildfire activity between two distinct periods: 1984-2022 and 1600-1880. They also analyzed 1,850 tree-ring records from historically burned areas and compared them with modern fire maps from Canada and the United States.



The results show a sharp decline in wildfire frequency over the past century. Despite recent record-breaking fire seasons, modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-have-identified-the-key-driver-of-severe-wildfires-in-canada/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> burn significantly less land than they did before 1880. 



The researchers found that North American forests currently experience only about 20 percent of the fire activity they once did.



Historically, fire regularly cleared away underbrush, limiting the buildup of dry vegetation. The absence of these smaller fires has created an environment where large, uncontrollable wildfires are more likely to occur.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-maintains-healthy-forests">Fire maintains healthy forests</h2>



Fire has long played a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Frequent low-intensity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-season-of-2023-redefined-what-is-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fires</a>, such as those common before 1880, helped maintain a balance by preventing excessive fuel accumulation. 



These fires cleared away smaller vegetation while leaving most mature trees unharmed.



“It’s a harbinger for far more bad fires to come unless we can get more beneficial management fires on the landscape,” said Chris Guiterman, a CIRES research scientist and member of NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information (<a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NCEI</a>) paleoclimate team.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="Jessie Thoreson" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/forest-fires_north-america_timeline-comparison_credit-Jessie-Thoreson_1s.webp" alt="Conceptual figure illustrates the impacts of fire exclusion and suppression on area burned and fire severity in historically frequent-fire North American forests and woodlands represented by the majority of the fire scar sites used in our analysis. Credit: Jessie Thoreson" class="wp-image-1959635"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Conceptual figure illustrates the impacts of fire exclusion and suppression on area burned and fire severity in historically frequent-fire North American forests and woodlands represented by the majority of the fire scar sites used in our analysis. Credit: Jessie Thoreson</figcaption></figure>



Before European colonization, Indigenous peoples practiced controlled burns to manage landscapes and reduce fire hazards. These intentional fires were essential for preventing the unchecked growth of flammable materials. 



In addition, naturally occurring wildfires - often sparked by lightning - further contributed to this process. This fire-adapted system helped maintain biodiversity and kept wildfires from reaching catastrophic levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-suppression-changed-forest-landscapes">Fire suppression changed forest landscapes</h2>



Over the past century, humans have significantly altered the natural fire cycle. 



Widespread fire suppression policies, aimed at protecting human settlements and commercial timber, have prevented natural and controlled burns. 



Livestock grazing has also contributed by reducing grassy fuels that once carried low-intensity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-activity-surged-during-ice-age-climate-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fires</a>.



As a result, many forests now contain a dense accumulation of fuel. Instead of experiencing frequent, smaller fires that rejuvenate ecosystems, forests are now at risk of massive wildfires that destroy everything in their path. 



The shift from regular, low-intensity burns to infrequent, high-intensity wildfires marks a dangerous transformation in fire behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-risk-of-severe-wildfires">Growing risk of severe wildfires</h2>



Even though wildfires burned larger portions of the landscape in the 18th and 19th centuries, those fires were often less destructive. 



Many trees recorded the presence of fire in their growth rings but survived to continue growing. In contrast, modern wildfires are so intense that they leave forests barren, littered with dead trees.



The study suggests that these severe fires are a direct consequence of human-driven changes in fire management. Without regular burning, forests have become overcrowded with vegetation, creating a dangerous stockpile of flammable material. 



Once ignited, these dense forests burn at extreme temperatures, making them more destructive to both ecosystems and human communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfires-and-climate-change">Wildfires and climate change</h2>



Recent research indicates that modern wildfires are not only more severe but also increasingly linked to climate change. Warmer temperatures, prolonged droughts, and shifting weather patterns create conditions that make forests more susceptible to large fires. 



However, the study also suggests that historical fires coincided with drought periods but remained less destructive due to the presence of frequent, smaller burns.



This finding challenges the assumption that climate change alone is responsible for today’s extreme wildfires. While rising temperatures do contribute to wildfire risk, the absence of fire as a natural process plays an equally significant role. 



The current approach to fire management, which prioritizes suppression over controlled burns, has made forests more vulnerable to large-scale devastation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-a-fire-adapted-future">Preparing for a fire-adapted future</h2>



Wildfires will always be a part of North American ecosystems. Instead of trying to eliminate fire altogether, scientists and land managers emphasize the importance of adopting strategies that reduce the likelihood of severe fires.



One of the most effective approaches is the use of mechanical fuel treatments and prescribed burns. These methods involve deliberately setting controlled fires or removing excess vegetation to reduce fire hazards. 



Research shows that such techniques align with Indigenous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-wildfires-are-gaining-even-more-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fire management</a> practices, which successfully maintained healthy forests for centuries.



“It’s heartbreaking to witness how recent wildfires are devastating people, communities, and forests,” said Sean Parks, research scientist with the U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station and lead author of the study.



“Wildfires are inevitable, so preparing our forests for these events through fuel reduction treatments and prescribed fire will reduce their impacts to communities and forests.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-fires-for-forest-health">Restoring fires for forest health</h2>



The study highlights the urgent need to rethink fire management policies. Returning to a more balanced approach - one that includes controlled burns and recognizes fire as a necessary ecological process - may help reduce the severity of future wildfires.



As researchers continue to analyze historical fire patterns, one thing remains clear: fire is not the enemy of forests. In fact, its absence may be causing more harm than good. 



By learning from the past and restoring traditional fire practices, we may be able to create a future where wildfires are less destructive and forests remain resilient.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56333-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Fewer forest fires happen today than in the past, ironically causes bigger issues

Wildfires have long been a part of North America’s forests,...

Imagine your child being able to enjoy the simple pleasure of a peanut butter sandwich without worrying about a potential allergic reaction. For parents of children with peanut allergies, this may no longer be a distant dream, but an attainable reality.



Researchers have found a promising new treatment strategy and the secret ingredient is regular, store-bought <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/midnight-snack-the-best-foods-for-a-good-nights-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peanut butter</a>.



The study revealed that, after ingesting peanut butter at incremental doses over an 18-month period, all children with a moderate level of peanut allergy were able to consume three tablespoons of peanut butter without an allergic reaction.



This presents a potential solution for many children with mild to moderate peanut allergies who have a higher tolerance threshold, which equates to tolerating at least half a peanut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-breakthrough-for-peanut-allergies">A breakthrough for peanut allergies</h2>



"Children with high-threshold peanut allergy couldn't participate in previous food allergy treatment trials, leaving them without opportunities to explore treatment options," noted <a href="https://www.niaid.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIAID</a> Director Dr. Jeanne Marrazzo.



"Today’s report focuses on this population and shows that a very safe and accessible form of therapy could be liberating for many of these children and their families."



While existing FDA-approved food allergy treatments are primarily designed for children with low-threshold peanut allergy, the recent study offers a glimpse of hope for an estimated 800,000 U.S. children who have high-threshold peanut allergy.



Before now, their only management strategy has been peanut avoidance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The researchers aimed to identify whether a simple, low-cost treatment could help children with high-threshold peanut allergies tolerate an even greater amount of peanut protein.



The mid-stage trial was conducted with a diverse group of 73 children, aged between 4 and 14 years. 



The children were randomly assigned to either implement the new treatment strategy or persist with their peanut avoidance regimen.



Those following the new protocol started with a daily dose of 1/8 teaspoon of peanut butter, which was gradually increased every eight weeks to a maximum of one tablespoon. 



This increase was carefully monitored by medical professionals with minimal reported cases of severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-500000-americans-are-now-allergic-to-red-meat-because-they-were-bitten-by-a-tick/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">allergic</a> reactions during the treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exceptional-success-rate">Exceptional success rate</h2>



After successful completion of the treatment plan, the children participated in an oral food challenge to evaluate how much peanut butter they could consume without an allergic reaction. 



All of the children who completed this challenge successfully tolerated up to 9 grams of peanut protein, which is equivalent to 3 tablespoons of peanut butter.



This was in stark contrast to the avoidance group, where only a fraction of the children could tolerate this amount.



The trial notably took place during the COVID-19 pandemic, with certain essential logistical restrictions.



Nevertheless, using statistical techniques to account for missing results, the study showed an exceptional success rate among the children in the trial who were exposed to increasing amounts of peanut butter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peanut-tolerance-a-lasting-effect">Peanut tolerance: A lasting effect?</h2>



After the initial treatment, the children continued to ingest 2 tablespoons of peanut butter weekly for 16 weeks, then avoided <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peanuts-have-a-beneficial-impact-on-vascular-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peanuts</a> entirely for eight weeks.



The children returned to the study site for a final oral food challenge after this period. The sustained success rates were impressive, with over 86% of the treated children continuing to tolerate peanut protein.



Follow-up trials are needed to determine whether the therapy has a long-lasting effect on peanut tolerance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-food-allergy-treatments">Expanding food allergy treatments</h2>



The researchers are now exploring whether similar strategies could be applied to other common allergens, such as tree nuts, eggs, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beef-and-dairy-contain-a-powerful-cancer-fighting-nutrient/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dairy</a>.



If effective, this approach could revolutionize allergy management, reducing the burden of strict food avoidance and offering a more inclusive diet for millions of individuals.



Additionally, experts highlight the importance of accessibility. Unlike existing FDA-approved treatments that rely on pharmaceutical interventions, this method of desensitization uses an affordable, widely available food product. This makes it a practical and scalable solution for families worldwide.



Looking ahead, the experts aim to conduct larger, long-term studies to confirm the durability of peanut tolerance and assess whether sustained exposure is necessary for lifelong immunity.



Ultimately, the research could reshape food allergy treatment and offer renewed hope to families navigating the challenges of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indoor-pets-reduce-the-risk-of-food-allergies-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food allergies</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://evidence.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/EVIDoa2400306" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NEJM Evidence</a>.



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New therapy may help reduce peanut allergies in children

Imagine your child being able to enjoy the simple pleasure...

Plant lovers have experimented with everything from eggshell powder to coffee grounds to help their greenery thrive. While some of these methods are effective, a homemade, chlorophyll-rich fertilizer known as "green gold" is gaining attention among gardening enthusiasts.



Dr. Cristhian Josue Cedeno from the <a href="https://www.utm.edu.ec/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Manabí</a> has shared new insights on how nutrient-rich preparations can influence plant growth and vitality.



This knowledge aligns with the idea that plants are more than decorations: they are complex organisms that respond well to science-backed care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chlorophyll-rich-fertilizer">Chlorophyll-rich fertilizer </h2>



Bold, bright leaves are full of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10384064/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chlorophyll</a>, the natural pigment responsible for a plant’s green shade. When leaves appear pale or lifeless, it can signal a nutrient deficiency that basic watering cannot fix. Chlorophyll-rich fertilizers may fill that gap by boosting a plant’s photosynthetic process. One promising organic option is LVEB (bovine manure vermicompost leachate), a liquid derived from composted cattle manure that has been processed by earthworms.&nbsp;



This nutrient-rich solution enhances soil quality, promotes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beneficial-plant-bacteria-likely-to-decline-due-to-climate-change/">beneficial microbes</a>, and provides essential minerals like magnesium, which directly support chlorophyll production. 



Unlike synthetic fertilizers, LVEB improves plant health naturally, making it a sustainable choice for home gardeners and farmers alike.



“The 1:30 dilution of the LVEB stood out above the remaining ones, showing significantly greater increases than chemical fertilization for plant height, stem diameter, leaf quantity, total chlorophyll content, and increasing yield by 1,28 t/ha compared to plants that received chemical fertilizer,” said study co-author Cedeno Solorzano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-power-of-magnesium">Hidden power of magnesium</h2>



“Magnesium plays a critical role in plant metabolism as it is the central atom in chlorophyll molecules,” explained Shaul O, from <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a>.



Anyone frustrated with sickly plants might consider the importance of <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnesium</a>, which is a crucial mineral in every chlorophyll molecule.&nbsp;



If leaves appear yellow or growth seems sluggish, magnesium deficiency could be an underlying factor. Dark, leafy material used in homemade fertilizer solutions may add a direct supply of this nutrient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-healthy-soil-with-chlorophyll-fertilizer">Supporting healthy soil with chlorophyll fertilizer </h2>



Adequate <a href="https://bioenergy.asu.edu/why-study-photosynthesis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> is important, but roots and soil also deserve attention. Healthy soil provides the foundation for strong plant growth, influencing nutrient absorption, moisture retention, and resistance to disease.



“Organic amendments supply readily available carbon and nutrients that stimulate soil microbial biomass and activity," stated H. J. McGovern from the <a href="https://scri.webarchive.hutton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scottish Crop Research Institute</a>.



"This microbial stimulation not only accelerates the decomposition of organic matter but also enhances the availability of essential nutrients to plants, ultimately leading to improved plant growth and soil health."



Homemade chlorophyll fertilizer functions like other organic solutions by feeding beneficial microbes. Healthier soil creates a better environment for roots to access water and nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-chlorophyll-fertilizer">Preparing chlorophyll fertilizer</h2>



Gardeners often harvest the greenest leaves from shrubs that hold onto their color year-round. These leaves are placed in a blender with around one quart of water to form a rich, dark mixture.



Straining the blend removes chunky bits, and a brief bain-marie heating for about 5 to 10 minutes helps release the essential pigments. This simple recipe is then used in place of typical watering routines every couple of weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-steady-progress">Maintaining steady progress</h2>



Tracking improvement can be as simple as checking leaves for a vibrant hue. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-with-wilting-flowers-arent-dying-they-are-saving-energy/">Wilted or droopy plants</a> often show renewed structure after consistent application of the chlorophyll-rich brew.



It pays to stay mindful of the soil’s moisture content and drainage status so that excess water does not cause roots to suffocate. The combination of appropriate watering, sunlight, and nutrient balance keeps plants in good shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-greener-approach">A greener approach</h2>



“The application of organic amendments improves soil physical properties such as structure, porosity, and water retention," noted the Food and Agriculture Organization (<a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAO</a>).



"In turn, these improvements support a more active microbial community that enhances nutrient cycling and overall soil fertility.” 



Sustainability is a crucial point for many who prefer organic methods.&nbsp;



Homemade chlorophyll solutions fit this mindset by reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers. The steps rely on easily available plant material, which makes the process affordable and eco-friendly.



Using the green gold approach can be an encouraging way to nurse neglected houseplants back to health. The steps are quick, and the benefits become visible in the form of stronger leaves and sturdier stems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/8232839.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">La Técnica</a>.



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Gardening hack called 'green gold' works like magic for houseplants

Plant lovers have experimented with everything from eggshell powder to...

The natural world is in constant flux, but few changes have been as rapid or as far-reaching as those brought by climate change. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events are transforming ecosystems worldwide. 



Plants, unlike animals, cannot move to escape these changes. Instead, they must adapt where they stand, developing new ways to cope with heat, drought, and unpredictable seasons.



This challenge is particularly urgent for crops, which provide food for billions of people. Agricultural systems depend on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> that can withstand extreme conditions while maintaining high yields. 



Some species, like Arabidopsis thaliana, already show remarkable adaptability, thriving in vastly different environments such as Sweden and Italy.



By understanding how plants naturally adjust to different climates, scientists can develop stronger, more resilient crops that will sustain future generations in an increasingly unpredictable world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-and-climate-adaptation">Plants and climate adaptation</h2>



Every plant species has a unique way of responding to environmental stress. Some grow deeper roots to access water, while others alter their reproductive cycles to match changing seasons. 



These adaptations do not happen randomly; they are rooted in genetic changes that help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> survive in specific conditions. However, scientists are still working to uncover the exact genetic mechanisms that drive these changes.



A recent study provides new insight into this process. By combining population genetics with global climate data, researchers have identified key genetic variants that help plants adapt to different climates. 



The study focuses on Marchantia polymorpha, a liverwort that grows in diverse environments across Europe, America, and Japan.



The research was conducted by scientists from the Gregor Mendel Institute (<a href="https://www.oeaw.ac.at/gmi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GMI</a>) of Molecular Plant Biology, the Umeå Plant Science Centre (<a href="https://www.upsc.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UPSC</a>), and <a href="https://www.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hiroshima University</a>. The findings reveal important details about how plants evolve in response to climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-genes-for-climate-survival">Plant genes for climate survival</h2>



Scientists have long known that certain genetic traits provide advantages in specific environments. Plants in arid regions tend to develop water-retaining structures, while those in colder climates often produce antifreeze proteins to prevent cell damage. However, pinpointing which genetic variants control these traits remains a major challenge.



To address this, the researchers collected genetic samples from different populations of Marchantia polymorpha across Europe, America, and Japan. 



By integrating this genetic data with a worldwide climate dataset, they analyzed how each subpopulation’s genetic profile corresponded to its local climate.



“Comparing populations in Europe and Japan, we found genetic variants associated with warmer and colder summer temperatures, as well as with the amount of summer precipitation,” noted study co-author Liam Dolan. “These adaptations could be crucial for optimizing reproduction in different conditions.”



The analysis not only highlighted specific genetic changes linked to temperature and precipitation but also revealed broader patterns in how plants <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defy-climate-change-through-acclimation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adjust to their surroundings</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-differences-in-genetic-adaptation">Regional differences in genetic adaptation</h2>



One of the most striking findings of the study was the difference in genetic diversity among Marchantia polymorpha populations from different regions.



In Europe, populations exhibited high genetic variability among individuals but remained genetically similar across different locations. This suggests that plants in these regions have maintained a wide range of genetic tools to handle diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a>.



In contrast, Japanese populations showed a much more uniform genetic structure. Since these populations are geographically isolated, they may have evolved under more consistent environmental pressures, leading to less genetic diversity. These differences suggest that climate adaptation may shape reproductive strategies in unique ways.



Marchantia polymorpha, like many bryophytes, can reproduce both sexually and asexually. This flexibility gives it an advantage in changing environments. While sexually reproducing individuals can generate genetic diversity, asexual reproduction allows plants to rapidly colonize suitable habitats.



Understanding how these strategies vary between populations helps scientists piece together the bigger picture of plant adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-gene-database-helps-climate-research">Plant gene database helps climate research</h2>



One of the most important outcomes of the study is the creation of a population genomics database for Marchantia polymorpha.



This resource allows scientists to examine genetic variability in greater detail, providing a foundation for future research. It is the first database of its kind for this species and could serve as a model for studying other plants.



“We’re eager to expand this database with samples from around the globe, enhancing the robustness of future research,” said Dolan. "Our platform opens up exciting possibilities for addressing a wide range of biological questions related to plant growth and development.”



By incorporating more samples from different climates, researchers can refine their understanding of how genetic diversity contributes to plant survival. This information may help scientists identify genes that improve drought tolerance, disease resistance, or temperature adaptability in crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-food-security">Implications for food security</h2>



Climate change presents one of the greatest challenges to modern agriculture. Rising temperatures and unpredictable weather patterns threaten global food production, making it more important than ever to develop resilient crops. 



Studies like this one offer a glimpse into how plants naturally cope with environmental stress. By identifying the genetic factors that support adaptation, scientists can apply these insights to crop breeding programs.



Developing climate-resilient crops is not just about improving yield; it is about ensuring that food production remains stable in a changing world. Breeding programs can use the knowledge gained from this research to select for traits that enhance survival under extreme conditions. 



If certain genetic variants help Marchantia polymorpha withstand heat or drought, similar traits could be introduced into staple crops like wheat, rice, and maize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plant-adaptation-research">Future of plant adaptation research</h2>



This study is an important step in understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smarter-climate-models-how-plants-influence-the-water-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> adaptation at the genetic level, but it is only the beginning. Expanding the genetic database and conducting further research on different plant species will provide a clearer picture of how plants evolve in response to climate change.



As scientists continue to explore plant genetics, they may uncover even more ways in which plants naturally adjust to their environments. The knowledge gained from these studies could revolutionize agriculture, conservation, and climate resilience strategies.



For now, Marchantia polymorpha serves as a valuable model for studying genetic adaptation. Its ability to thrive in diverse climates offers a powerful example of nature’s capacity for change.



By decoding its genetic secrets, scientists move one step closer to ensuring a stable and sustainable future for plant life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00008-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How plants adapt to survive a changing climate

The natural world is in constant flux, but few changes...

Agroforestry has long been overlooked in the farming community, with many believing that trees and agriculture are incompatible. However, this integrated approach - combining trees, shrubs, and traditional farming methods - offers significant benefits for both farmers and the environment.



Despite its potential to improve soil health, enhance biodiversity, and increase profitability, agroforestry adoption in the U.S. Midwest remains surprisingly low. Now, researchers at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> are working to change that narrative.



The experts argue that widespread agroforestry adoption requires strategic planning that considers environmental, social, and economic factors to make it a viable and attractive option for farmers across the Midwest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-benefits-of-agroforestry">Surprising benefits of agroforestry</h2>



While most studies have focused on the agronomy and ecology elements of agroforestry, study lead author Sarah Castle noted that not enough attention has been given to the social and economic impacts of these practices.



"It turns out those factors dramatically shift our priorities for targeting agroforestry in certain areas," she emphasized. 



Castle conducted much of this research during her doctoral studies at the university and is currently a postdoc at Yale School of the Environment, while also being a scholar at Illinois.



The research team set out to create a tool that would pinpoint areas where agroforestry could yield the highest environmental benefits. The sites needed to be economically viable, socially acceptable, and inhabited by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> that could thrive under agroforestry practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-agroforestry-with-combined-data">Mapping agroforestry with combined data</h2>



Combining social attitudes, economic feasibility, and environmental data was a monumental task.



“We took all of these different data layers, normalized them so they were comparable, and combined them very intentionally to conduct a holistic assessment. One of the most helpful parts of that process was conducting key informant interviews," noted Castle.



The researchers interacted with individuals from Illinois Extension, the USDA National Agroforestry Center, the U.S. Forest Service, and the Savanna Institute to gain feedback on their approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-intentional-mapping">Power of intentional mapping</h2>



The team succeeded in developing a valuable asset - a map that identifies regions where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-technologies-can-reverse-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agroforestry could be a sustainable solution</a> for soil erosion, water quality, and climate concerns. The map could also enhance profitability for lands unsuitable for routine crops.



The researchers mentioned a staggering estimate of the potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a> if agroforestry was implemented in the most appropriate areas in the Midwest.



"Expanding these practices across just 5% of suitable Midwestern agricultural land could store 43 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per year," said study co-author Professor Chloe Wardropper.



When compared to cover <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a>, which are approximated to store about 8.4 million tons of CO2e per year on similar lands, the potential benefits of agroforestry are undeniable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-personalized-support-tool">A personalized support tool </h2>



To further support their cause, the research team decided to make their mapping tool available for everyone - landowners, conservation scientists, and policymakers - completely free of charge.



This decision-support tool allows users to adjust parameters based on their specific agroforestry goals. 



“Say you want to run an assessment only on one tree species, or only considering economics, or setting economics as five times more important than environmental factors," said Castle. 



"Users of the decision support tool can set their parameters based on their specific agroforestry goals and rerun the analysis to create their own maps for Midwest states, counties, and watersheds."



Every region may have a suitable agroforestry practice since each one has unique spatial opportunities. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-agroforestry-can-be-adapted-to-any-farm">Agroforestry can be adapted to any farm</h2>



Professor Wardropper, taking the example of windbreaks, reminds us that introducing agroforestry does not necessarily imply revolutionizing the entire farm.



"There are a lot of ways a landowner/operator can really tailor agroforestry to the types of benefits that they're looking for," said Professor Wardropper, emphasizing that the transition to agroforestry can be gradual, less costly, and manageable.



Ultimately, the scientists are changing the way we think about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-nutrient-loss-due-to-heavy-rainfall-threatens-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a>. By integrating trees into their farming practices, farmers in the Midwest can help to create a sustainable future for themselves and for the planet.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1072858" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Agroforestry could transform farming in the Midwest

Agroforestry has long been overlooked in the farming community, with...

Plant-based meat alternatives have grown in popularity, yet many consumers remain hesitant to fully embrace them. 



While ethical, environmental, and health concerns drive interest, practical factors still play a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior. A new study sheds light on what really matters to people when choosing between meat and its substitutes.



A team of researchers from Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (<a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MLU</a>), <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University Berlin</a>, and Georg August University Göttingen conducted a survey of 2,100 U.S. consumers. Their findings reveal that price has a greater influence on purchasing decisions than similarity to meat.



The study challenges common assumptions about consumer behavior in the growing market of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-perfecting-plant-based-meats-with-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat alternatives</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-people-do-not-oppose-plant-based-meat">Most people do not oppose plant-based meat</h2>



Despite an increasing variety of plant-based options, meat remains the dominant choice for most consumers. Many people still prefer traditional meat over substitutes, even though plant-based alternatives have been widely available for years.



"Even though the supply of plant-based alternatives has been growing for years, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-thrived-on-plant-based-diets-not-meat-alone-780000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">demand for meat</a> persists. Unfortunately, there is very little reliable data on the general acceptance of meat alternatives, what conditions are required to make them more attractive, and whether or not they are just a fad," noted study lead author Steffen Jahn.



This knowledge gap has made it difficult for food producers and policymakers to understand how to promote plant-based options effectively. The researchers focused on the U.S. market because of its exceptionally high levels of meat consumption. 



"The United States is a country with one of the highest rates of meat consumption in the world. For example, around 25 kilograms of beef was consumed per capita alone in 2023," said Jahn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consumers-burger-preferences">Consumers’ burger preferences</h2>



To understand consumer preferences, researchers presented participants with four burger choices. 



The options included a real beef burger, a plant-based burger designed to mimic meat (analog), a vegetarian burger that resembled meat in appearance but not taste or texture (semi-analog), and a falafel burger (non-analog). Participants viewed pictures and written descriptions of each burger before making a choice.



As expected, the majority of respondents - around three-quarters - chose the traditional beef burger. What surprised researchers was how the different plant-based options performed. The falafel burger turned out to be the most preferred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-meat-less-protein-lacks-certain-nutrients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat alternative</a>, while the plant-based analog burger ranked the lowest.



"However, we did not expect to find that the falafel burger was the most popular meat alternative, while the analog burger came in last place. This contradicts the widespread assumption that meat substitutes are only competitive if they are as close as possible to the original," explained Jahn.



The findings suggest that consumers may not necessarily want plant-based products that replicate meat. Instead, they might be more interested in options that stand on their own, rather than attempting to mimic animal-based foods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-price-parity-does-not-change-consumer-choices">Price parity does not change consumer choices</h2>



The second phase of the study examined whether lowering the price of meat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-plant-based-meat-alternatives-the-key-to-a-healthier-heart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alternatives</a> would make them more attractive. 



Many advocates argue that plant-based foods should be priced the same as or lower than meat to encourage people to switch. However, the study found that simply matching prices does not significantly affect consumer decisions.



"Meat alternatives are currently more expensive than meat, which is why there are discussions about adjusting the prices into alignment. However, we found that price parity has no real effect on people's choices," noted Jahn.



This means that if plant-based alternatives and meat cost the same, most consumers will still choose traditional meat. Price alone does not drive them toward substitutes unless there is a noticeable financial advantage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consumers-choosing-plant-based-meat">Consumers choosing plant-based meat</h2>



Although price parity does not influence consumers, meaningful discounts do. The study found that when plant-based burgers were at least 10% cheaper than their meat counterparts, sales of meat alternatives increased by 14%. 



When the price of a plant-based burger dropped to half the price of a beef burger, the number of consumers choosing the alternative doubled.



These results indicate that a strong financial incentive can shift consumer behavior. Price-sensitive shoppers, especially those who do not have a strong preference for meat, may opt for plant-based alternatives if the price difference is large enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-men-switch-to-meat-alternatives-faster">Men switch to meat alternatives faster</h2>



An interesting trend emerged when researchers examined the impact of price on different demographic groups. 



The study found that men, who are generally more attached to meat-based diets, are more likely to switch when the price of plant-based options drops. Even those who had never tried a meat alternative before were more willing to give it a chance if they saw a significant price advantage.



This challenges the common assumption that women are more likely to adopt plant-based diets. While women may show more interest in vegetarian or vegan foods for health and ethical reasons, men appear to be more motivated by financial savings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-perception-in-consumer-choices">Role of perception in consumer choices</h2>



Beyond price, perception plays a key role in how people view meat alternatives. Consumers often associate plant-based burgers with ultra-processed foods, which have a negative reputation. 



Some may avoid them due to concerns about artificial ingredients or the belief that they are not as healthy as whole-food plant-based meals.



"Restaurants and food manufacturers might actually be able to increase their sales of vegetarian or vegan alternatives if they offered meat substitutes at lower prices than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-you-eat-can-literally-change-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat</a> options. A truly faithful imitation is not the goal here, our study suggests. Maybe it's because many people associate them with ultra-processed foods, which have a bad reputation," said Jahn.



This insight suggests that businesses should focus not just on lowering prices but also on improving the perception of plant-based products. Marketing efforts that emphasize natural ingredients and health benefits might help attract more consumers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-options-in-plant-based-meat">More options in plant-based meat</h2>



One of the key takeaways from the study is the importance of variety. Consumers have different preferences, and no single alternative will satisfy everyone. While some people prefer products that closely resemble meat, others are more open to entirely different plant-based options.



Based on these findings, the researchers recommend offering a broad range of plant-based choices rather than focusing solely on meat-like substitutes. Consumers may be more willing to try products that stand on their own rather than those that attempt to replicate meat exactly.



The study challenges traditional assumptions about meat alternatives and highlights the importance of price in shaping consumer choices. While plant-based products continue to grow in popularity, businesses and policymakers must consider what truly influences purchasing behavior. 



Lower prices and a diverse selection of options may be the key to encouraging more people to adopt plant-based diets.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2319016121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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People will switch to plant-based meat if it is cheaper than real meat

Plant-based meat alternatives have grown in popularity, yet many consumers...

Climate change is substantially affecting cocoa production in West and Central Africa, a region that accounts for more than 70% of global cocoa output.&nbsp;



Rising temperatures and altering rainfall patterns are projected to make some areas less suitable for cultivating cocoa, while allowing other areas to potentially increase their yields.



This is the conclusion of a recent study conducted by Wageningen University &amp; Research (WUR).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-shifts-in-key-producing-nations">Major shifts in key producing nations</h2>



Researcher Paulina Asante and her team employed a computer model to project how cocoa farming might fare by 2060 in Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that up to 50% of the land currently dedicated to cocoa in the Ivory Coast might become unviable, leading to a marked drop in production.&nbsp;



In Ghana, the study predicts a moderate loss of optimal cocoa-growing zones. By contrast, Nigeria and Cameroon may see an expansion in suitable areas.&nbsp;



According to the study, Cameroon’s output could climb by as much as 60%, while Nigeria could experience a roughly 40% increase.



The research highlight how divergent effects across neighboring countries could influence global cocoa markets. Some places may find opportunity in the shifting climate, but others risk having to phase out cocoa farming altogether.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-of-increased-deforestation">Risk of increased deforestation</h2>



With cocoa potentially migrating into new regions, concerns arise over environmental pressures and habitat loss, notes <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WUR</a> researcher Niels Anten.&nbsp;



“Cameroon has a relatively large amount of rainforest, and cocoa is often grown in areas that were originally tropical forests. This puts significant pressure on these ecosystems,” he said.



“Addressing the impact of climate change on cocoa requires an all-hands-on-deck approach. It affects every stage of the supply chain: farmers face reduced yields, businesses encounter rising costs, and consumers see higher prices,” added Asante.



“While collaboration can be challenging, it is crucial to help current production regions adapt and maintain production on existing plantations. This will prevent cocoa-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a> elsewhere and ensure that deforestation-free policies, like the EU law EUDR, deliver meaningful outcomes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-projections-and-cocoa-production">Climate projections and cocoa production </h2>



The simulations rely on existing knowledge about cocoa’s biological responses alongside climate scenarios for West and Central Africa.&nbsp;



Nonetheless, researchers say there are still gaps in understanding. One unknown is the effect of extra atmospheric CO₂, which tends to boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> and might partially offset damage from high temperatures and drought. The scale of that offset remains unclear.



Additionally, aspects like changes to flowering and fruiting times, as well as the evolution of pests and diseases under warmer conditions, still need further research.&nbsp;



The authors emphasize that this kind of inquiry should not be limited to cocoa alone: more efforts are needed to anticipate how other crops will cope with rising global temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-adaptation-for-cocoa-farmers">Climate adaptation for cocoa farmers</h2>



For smallholder farmers in West Africa, who already earn modest incomes and often lack resources, even modest climate shifts could be drastic. 



The authors call for productivity gains on existing farmland to mitigate these threats, pointing out that actual cocoa yields are far below their theoretical maximums.



Improved soil fertility management and carefully calibrated fertilizer use offer practical ways to narrow these yield gaps.&nbsp;



Agroforestry, where cocoa grows alongside other tree species, also shows promise. Shade trees can moderate temperature extremes, regulate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humidity</a>, and add new revenue streams to farmers’ operations.



“Choosing the right shade trees is essential. Some trees use too much water, exacerbating drought issues. It is crucial to select species suited to the local climate and soil conditions,” said Danaë Rozendaal, another researcher on the project.&nbsp;



Additional strategies include breeding cocoa plants resistant to drought and heat, as well as supporting farmers with practical training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-outlook-on-chocolate-and-prices">Outlook on chocolate and prices</h2>



This research was produced through collaboration among several WUR groups - the Center for Crop Systems Analysis, Plant Production Systems Group, and Forest Ecology &amp; Forest Management Group - together with cocoa industry partners, research institutions, NGOs, and local governments under the CocoaSoils program.



Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall are already placing cocoa trees under stress, particularly in the Ivory Coast, resulting in reduced harvests.&nbsp;



Consumer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sweet-discovery-eating-chocolate-can-add-years-to-your-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chocolate</a> prices have risen in response, with some confectioners adding ingredients like cookie pieces to stretch their cocoa supply.



“I don’t think cocoa will become so scarce that chocolate letters will only be visible under a microscope in the future,” Anten said, “but the sector must adapt to the changing climate.”



The research into climate-related impacts on cocoa production across West and Central Africa is ongoing. Current studies are evaluating whether this core cocoa-producing region can keep up with climbing global demand while upholding EUDR requirements.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2025.110393" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agricultural and Forest Meteorology</a>.



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Cocoa production in Africa is under extreme climate pressure 

Climate change is substantially affecting cocoa production in West and...

Guava, a standout among tropical fruits, is more than just a sweet delight. Packed with antioxidants, vitamins, and fiber, guava can be enjoyed fresh, as juice, or in leaf-based brews.



Also known as Psidium guajava, guava is recognized for its potential to support digestion and strengthen the immune system, among other health benefits. 



In a recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667031322000409" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>, Dr. Toluwani Tella from the <a href="https://ukzn.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of KwaZulu-Natal</a> evaluated the effects of guava on diabetic rats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-taste-of-nature-s-fiber">A taste of nature's fiber</h2>



This fruit offers a generous amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-enough-fiber-prevents-cancer-in-a-surprising-way/">dietary fiber</a> that helps keep the gut in check. Many people enjoy it with the peel, which may encourage healthy bowel movements by providing extra roughage.



Experts suggest its fiber can reduce uncomfortable twinges linked to occasional heartburn. Guava adds a soothing element to meals without forcing strict dietary overhauls.



Those dealing with mild constipation may find it to be a gentle ally, since extra fiber adds bulk to waste. This naturally supports smoother digestion and helps avoid harsher interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-the-body-s-defenses">Raising the body's defenses</h2>



Vitamin C sets guava apart from many fruits, offering immune support that helps keep the body on alert. This <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/148286a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">micronutrient</a> bolsters normal defense mechanisms against everyday pressures.



When included in daily meals, guava is like a handy shield. It meets people’s need for a quick, nutritious choice whenever the weather shifts or stress levels rise.



Some individuals brew guava leaf tea for relief from sudden diarrhea. The astringent effects may tighten intestinal tissues and calm unruly digestion.



The fruit's potential to limit certain microbes aligns with research that examined the spasmolytic effect on rat uterine tissues. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staying-on-track-with-weight-goals">Staying on track with weight goals</h2>



One guava often checks in at fewer than 60 calories, fitting easily into balanced diets. The natural <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/pectin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pectin</a> content may help curb extra snacking by promoting fullness and satisfaction.



Some people rely on it as a light dessert, while others slice it for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-snack-sizes-lead-to-quicker-eating-and-bigger-bites/">quick snacks</a>. This approach can reduce cravings for heavier sweets without stripping away enjoyment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guava-and-skin-care">Guava and skin care</h2>



Pink or red varieties contain lycopene, often recognized for its capacity to help protect skin cells from internal stress. By moderating reactions caused by excess sun exposure, lycopene can support a calm complexion.



This benefit becomes stronger when combined with vitamin C, which boosts collagen production. Considering that collagen contributes to smoother texture, these nutrients might keep skin looking fresh over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthy-blood-pressure-and-cholesterol">Healthy blood pressure and cholesterol </h2>



Some <a href="http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my/17%20(01)%202010/(10)%20IFRJ-2010-89-96%20Norazmir.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> link guava's polyphenols with more relaxed blood vessels and better sodium balance. One investigation on pink guava puree pointed to anti-hypertensive results in rats.



Potassium in this fruit encourages the body to flush out extra sodium. This balance may help the cardiovascular system maintain a calmer outlook under everyday pressures.



Guava’s soluble fiber helps manage cholesterol levels. LDL ("bad") cholesterol levels should be below 100 mg/dL, while HDL ("good") cholesterol levels should be at least 40 mg/dL for men and 50 mg/dL for women. One analysis in rats showed improved lipid profiles when red guava was part of their diet.&nbsp;



High-fiber intake may block some cholesterol from being fully absorbed. This allows the body to flush it out more easily through normal waste processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-benefits-for-blood-sugar">Natural benefits for blood sugar</h2>



Individuals aiming for balanced glucose sometimes add guava leaves or fruit to their routine. 



In controlled studies led by Dr. Tella, diabetic rats responded positively to guava leaf extract - hinting at potential support for muscle glycogen storage.



The researchers also found that triterpenes and certain phenolics could influence enzyme activities linked to glucose use. This points to another avenue for those seeking plant-based approaches to daily wellness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-ways-to-enjoy-guava">Simple ways to enjoy guava</h2>



Many people like the fruit raw, but others prefer smoothies, homemade infusions, or satisfying desserts. The leaves can be simmered in about 17 fl oz of water to create a tea that some drink for calming support.&nbsp;



A quick juice involves blending two fresh fruits with a spoonful of mint and water. Adding a few ice cubes can bring out an even sweeter side.



Another easy option is to slice it into a salad or spoon it over yogurt. That pop of color and flavor can liven up the table without extra hassle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-servings-of-guava">Daily servings of guava</h2>



Nutritionists commonly recommend two or three portions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-avocado-every-day-diet-quality-can-add-years-to-life-but-this-fruit-has-enemies/">fruit a day</a>. Guava easily fits that range, with each portion hovering around six to eight ounces.



People who crave variety like mixing different guava types. Red, yellow, and white styles each carry their own subtle differences in taste and nutrients.



This mix-and-match routine makes healthy eating feel less rigid. It lets individuals experiment with pleasant flavors and colorful meals.



A balanced diet lays the groundwork, and guava alone cannot do all the heavy lifting. Regular physical activity works in tandem with sensible eating plans for longer-term well-being.



It may also be wise to get professional advice when exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-dietary-changes-are-best-for-cancer-prevention/">dietary changes</a>. Ultimately, for those who want a user-friendly fruit, guava brings flavor, fiber, and a unique nutrient lineup.



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Guava is an underappreciated fruit with numerous health benefits

Guava, a standout among tropical fruits, is more than just...

Urban areas face rising temperatures and shrinking green spaces. Cities replace natural landscapes with concrete, making heat waves more intense. Wildlife struggles to find habitats, leading to biodiversity loss. 



In response, architects and ecologists explore solutions to make cities more livable. Green walls have emerged as a promising option.



These plant-covered facades do more than make buildings look better. They help cool urban areas and provide essential habitats for birds, insects, and other organisms.



A recent study led by Utrecht University ecologist Katharina Hecht provides scientific evidence of these benefits. The research compares green walls with bare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinas-great-green-wall-has-reached-a-new-milestone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">walls</a> and natural cliffs, shedding light on their ecological value.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-green-walls">Insights into green walls</h2>



The study, published in the journal Building and Environment, highlights the impact of green walls on urban cooling and biodiversity.



Hecht and her team worked with researchers from Singapore’s Nanyang Technological University and the Singapore-based company bioSEA. Together, they examined 20 green walls in Singapore’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fighting-coastal-erosion-electricity-turns-sand-into-a-sea-wall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban environment</a>.



"Green walls can be much more than just a decorative trend," said Hecht. Many construction companies and policymakers promote them, but solid scientific evidence has been lacking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-effects-in-cities">Cooling effects in cities</h2>



One of the study’s key findings is the ability of these walls to reduce temperatures. The researchers measured a cooling effect of up to 0.6–0.7 degrees Celsius between the front and back sides of these walls.



"This might sound like a small difference. But in the context of urban heat, even small reductions can lower energy costs and make buildings more comfortable to live and work in," said Hecht.



With increasing numbers of green walls, this cooling effect could help combat the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban</a> heat island phenomenon.



Urban heat islands occur when cities absorb and retain heat, making them significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas. Green walls provide shade, reduce heat absorption, and improve thermal comfort in dense urban settings.



They also contribute to climate resilience by lowering reliance on air conditioning, reducing energy consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-urban-biodiversity-with-green-walls">Supporting urban biodiversity with green walls</h2>



Beyond cooling, green walls also enhance urban biodiversity. The researchers found that plant-covered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-purposefully-move-alter-growth-direction-to-help-their-neighbors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">facades</a> hosted over 100 animal species, including insects, spiders, and birds. This is a stark contrast to non-vegetated walls, which support only a handful of species.



The study also compared green walls to natural cliffs to assess their effectiveness in replicating natural habitats. Natural cliffs, unsurprisingly, supported slightly more biodiversity. However, green walls still provided valuable shelter for many species.



"This shows that we can learn from nature’s design strategies to enhance man-made green walls," said Hecht. "They provide valuable habitats in places that would otherwise be inhospitable for many species."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-surrounding-greenery">Role of surrounding greenery</h2>



Hecht noted that plant-covered walls alone cannot maximize their ecological potential. The surrounding environment plays a crucial role in their effectiveness.



"What I found really interesting to confirm in our study is how important trees and other vegetation are," she said.



"The crowns of nearby trees and patches of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defy-climate-change-through-acclimation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenery</a> serve as stepping stones. They allow bees, bugs, and even small birds to hop from tree to tree, and eventually reach the green walls."



Without a network of trees and vegetation, green walls may struggle to attract diverse species. Isolated green walls offer limited benefits compared to those integrated into larger green corridors. Urban planners and architects must consider the broader ecological landscape when designing green spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-beyond-the-tropics">Applications beyond the tropics</h2>



Although the study focused on Singapore’s tropical climate, Hecht believes the findings apply to temperate regions as well. She noted that the principles of green wall design remain consistent across different climates.



"The principles would be similar," said Hecht. "Although we would need to tailor the plant species and specific designs to the local biodiversity and weather conditions."



In temperate regions, green walls may naturally be colonized by mosses, perennials, and local climbers. These plants could influence the types of species that thrive. Architects and ecologists must adapt their designs to match local climate conditions while preserving the ecological benefits of green walls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-research-on-green-walls">Expanding research on green walls</h2>



The study highlights the need for more research on green walls, particularly in temperate regions. 



Earlier studies in the Netherlands, conducted by students from Utrecht University, have shown promising results. However, Hecht emphasizes that more empirical data is necessary to confirm the long-term benefits of green walls in different climates.



She is already leading a follow-up project under Utrecht University’s "Pathways to Sustainability" program. Her team is developing a digital system to collect and compare data on green walls from different locations. 



By analyzing data from multiple climates, the researchers aim to refine plant-covered wall designs and maximize their ecological potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-greener-future">Building a greener future</h2>



The foundation of this research was laid by Leanne Haan, a master's student at Utrecht University. She conducted the initial fieldwork in Singapore, spending eight months collecting data.



Her work included trekking through urban parks to gather information that helped launch the research project.



Haan’s efforts not only provided critical data but also established strong collaboration between Utrecht University and Singapore-based researchers. The success of this study highlights the importance of interdisciplinary research in creating sustainable urban solutions.



As cities continue to grow, integrating green walls into urban planning could help mitigate climate change, reduce heat, and support biodiversity. With more research and innovation, these living facades could become a standard feature in the cities of the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360132324011508?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Building and Environment</a>.



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Green walls cool cities and create urban habitats

Urban areas face rising temperatures and shrinking green spaces. Cities...

Over the years, people have turned to licorice not just for a sugary pick-me-up but also for various health-related reasons. Ancient societies in Egypt, Rome, and Greece relied on this root to cure colds and other ailments. Today, there’s growing curiosity about how this medicinal plant might help the body.



Licorice contains a unique compound called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/glycyrrhizin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glycyrrhizin</a>, which has been studied for its influence on the immune system, digestion, and even mood. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-licorice-is-getting-attention">Why licorice is getting attention</h2>



Licorice root has been used in therapeutic settings for thousands of years. It is cultivated in regions across Asia, Europe, and the Middle East, where people have appreciated its sweet flavor for both confectionery and health uses.



Modern researchers have examined whether consuming licorice regularly might support respiratory function or offer some relief for sore throats. Some of these effects may stem from its anti-inflammatory properties, which appear to calm irritated tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-licorice-on-digestion"> Impact of licorice on digestion</h2>



People often mention licorice as a remedy for upset stomachs. Early research suggested it may help by boosting mucus production in the stomach, which could protect the lining from acid irritation. Supporters of the root also claim it can ease indigestion and reduce gas.



The challenge begins if portions get too large. In that case, licorice might put certain individuals at risk for adverse effects like elevated blood pressure or lower potassium levels, which can trigger problems with heart rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-licorice-on-mood">Effects of licorice on mood</h2>



Some people have used licorice for a mood boost. It contains a range of compounds that might offer support to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-has-its-own-mini-brain-that-controls-its-beat/">nervous system</a>, including nutrients that can influence one’s energy and outlook.



Still, experts recommend staying aware of personal tolerance levels. For some people, consuming licorice can cause jittery feelings and unusual heart activity, so they should not eat too much licorice candy or tea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caution-around-certain-health-conditions">Caution around certain health conditions</h2>



There is evidence that licorice can play a helpful role for individuals working through respiratory issues or trying to quit smoking.



Many turn to the root as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/e-cigarettes-linked-to-increased-risk-of-heart-failure/">substitute for cigarettes</a>, but that approach should be weighed against any predisposition to high blood pressure.



“Licorice root is generally considered safe as a food ingredient, but it can cause serious side effects when consumed in large amounts or for long periods of time,” noted the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (<a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/licorice-root">NCCIH</a>). 



Individuals with kidney issues or heart ailments may want to avoid heavy licorice consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-excessive-licorice-intake">Excessive licorice intake</h2>



Dr. Decio Armanini from the Endocrinology Unit at the <a href="https://www.unipd.it/en/university-hospital" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University Hospital of Padua</a> has conducted extensive research on the effects of licorice consumption, particularly its impact on hormones. He also warns about the potential impacts of eating too much licorice. 



For example, glycyrrhizin can lead to an increase in cortisol levels by inhibiting the enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2. 



This enzyme normally helps convert active cortisol into its inactive form, cortisone. As a result, excessive licorice intake can mimic symptoms of conditions like Cushing's syndrome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-the-benefits-and-risks">Balancing the benefits and risks</h2>



Licorice has traveled across centuries and cultures as a multiuse herb. The root can be an ally when used wisely, but it can also become an unwelcome influence if overused.



Moderation is the key. Some people have reported great results by taking small amounts of licorice in lozenges to soothe sore throats, especially after medical procedures. Others find it helpful in managing mild digestive troubles.



If you're interested in exploring licorice for its potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-tea-delays-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health benefits</a>, consider starting with small servings of high-quality licorice teas or dietary supplements from reputable sources. 



Licorice contains compounds that can influence various bodily functions, including blood pressure and electrolyte balance. Because of this, it's important to monitor for any changes in heart function, blood pressure, or fluid retention, especially if you have a history of hypertension, heart disease, or kidney issues. 



Consulting with a healthcare provider before incorporating licorice into your routine is advisable, as it can interact with certain medications and may not be suitable for everyone.



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'Candy' plant has revitalizing effects on the body, but only in moderation

Over the years, people have turned to licorice not just...

It’s widely believed that eating animal products gave early human relatives a boost in developing larger brains and stronger bodies.&nbsp;Many have argued that meat-based diets launched a chain reaction in our evolution, and that protein intake was linked to bigger brains and higher intelligence.



But new research is presenting a different picture of some ancient relatives: they might not have been munching on meat as often as we assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tooth-enamel-reveals-a-plant-diet">Tooth enamel reveals a plant diet</h2>



Researchers analyzed tooth enamel in seven <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/australopithecus-and-kin-145077614/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australopithecus</a> specimens uncovered in <a href="https://popular-archaeology.com/article/sterkfontein-a-history-of-evolution-in-the-cradle-of-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sterkfontein, South Africa</a>, and found that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early hominins</a> consumed mostly plant-based foods.&nbsp;



The work used a method for measuring stable <a href="https://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/period/n_iig.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen isotopes</a> in fossilized enamel. Specialists in human origins have looked to nitrogen isotopes for diet clues in more recent remains, but the technology has now been applied to samples that are millions of years old.



“Tooth enamel is the hardest tissue of the mammalian body and can preserve the isotopic fingerprint of an animal’s diet for millions of years,” explained <a href="https://www.mpic.de/person/123706/2285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Tina Lüdecke</a>, a geochemist at the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Witwatersrand</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-free-diet-challenges-big-brain-hypothesis">Meat-free diet challenges big brain hypothesis</h2>



Many hypotheses <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/204350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">link</a> meat consumption to expanded brain size in our lineage. Some researchers <a href="https://nature.berkeley.edu/miltonlab/pdfs/meateating.pdf">note</a> that dense protein sources could have contributed to physiological changes, allowing for more complex cognition.&nbsp;



The findings from Sterkfontein, however, indicate that these particular Australopithecus individuals didn’t eat a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-diets-early-humans-richer-berries-nuts-plants-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat</a>.



Their nitrogen isotope ratios aligned with those of herbivores from the same timeframe, hinting at a diet that was plant-based rather than meat-centric.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrogen-isotope-method">Nitrogen isotope method</h2>



Scientists previously faced a big hurdle: organic matter degrades in bones older than about 200,000 years. 



This new <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10082005/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approach</a> recovers nitrogen signals locked within tooth enamel, and can give us answers about diet dating much further back in time.



Researchers examined the enamel from these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-diet-deer-and-trout-were-on-the-menu-10000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominins</a> and other animals. Herbivores showed distinct nitrogen isotope signatures compared to carnivores. 



The isotope ratios in Australopithecus enamel specimens looked much more like the ratios found in the herbivore group, suggesting that the hominins had a limited meat intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-did-not-have-a-meat-based-diet">Early humans did not have a meat-based diet</h2>



Legumes, seeds, and insects could still have been on the menu. Some <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/17/science/tools-suggest-early-human-termite-diet.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experts</a> think termites might have been an occasional source of protein. But the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2022/january/human-ancestor-homo-erectus-probably-wasnt-carnivore-we-thought.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists</a> noted that nothing in the results indicates frequent or heavy hunting of mammals.&nbsp;



The findings fit with other archaeological evidence that hasn’t yet confirmed systematic meat consumption among early hominins at this period in time.



“Our method opens up exciting possibilities for understanding human evolution,” said <a href="https://www.mpic.de/4493238/alfredo-martinez-garcia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Martínez-García</a>, a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, who <a href="https://www.mpg.de/17039594/annual-report-2020.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emphasized</a> the significance of this approach.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greater-context-in-hominin-evolution">Greater context in hominin evolution</h2>



Australopithecus is a well-known genus of early hominins that walked upright and lived in parts of Africa between roughly 4 and 2 million years ago.



<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/australopithecus-afarensis-lucy-species.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lucy</a>, discovered in 1974, is the most famous example of these ancient relatives. They had smaller brains than modern humans but were already showing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">certain traits</a> that set them apart from other primates, such as upright posture.&nbsp;



Speculations about their eating habits have varied, with some thinking they might have combined plant foods with regular meat. This new evidence challenges that notion for at least one population of Australopithecus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters">Why it matters</h2>



Trying to unravel hominin diets helps anthropologists figure out what shaped our bodies and minds. Did meat-eating diets truly set the stage for rapid growth in brain volume and sophisticated tools?



Or were these changes linked to other factors like social cooperation, broader food choices, or climatic shifts? 



Understanding that australopithecines didn’t rely heavily on meat raises fresh questions about what triggered key developments in our lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-plant-based-diet-not-meat">Fossils reveal plant-based diet, not meat</h2>



Sterkfontein has been a hotbed of discoveries for nearly a century. 



Excavations at this <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/915" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> have produced many fossil finds, including some of the earliest evidence of bipedal hominins. Even after so many decades, the site continues to surprise.



“The research provides clear evidence that its diet did not contain significant amounts of meat,” said <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/anthropology/faculty-and-staff/stratford-d.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Dominic Stratford</a>, Director of Research at the Sterkfontein Caves. 



Studies of early hominin diets will keep evolving as technology improves. Analyzing tooth enamel for nitrogen might open a doorway to insights about other ancient species, and shed light on their place in the food chain.



That, in turn, informs the story of our family tree.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq7315" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Meat wasn't on the menu for our ancient hominin ancestors

It’s widely believed that eating animal products gave early human...

The persistence of certain toxic chemicals in the environment has emerged as a modern threat. Among them, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pose a severe menace to wildlife and humans, infiltrating and accumulating in our systems over time. 



New research suggests a particularly high concentration of these chemicals in migratory birds, contributing to alarmingly high levels of these substances in our environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-a-lasting-threat-to-birds">PFAS: A lasting threat to birds</h2>



PFAS, known as "forever chemicals" due to their resilience, are synthetic substances found in countless industrial and consumer products - from non-stick cookware to waterproof clothing, food packaging, and firefighting foams. 



Due to their non-degradable nature, these compounds persist in the environment and infiltrate living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a>.



These chemical contaminants not only exist in the air we breathe and the food we consume, but are also present in human blood. 



The accumulation of PFAS can lead to serious health implications such as liver damage, immune system suppression, endocrine disruption, reduced fertility, and various forms of cancer.



Despite increasing awareness, their pervasive use makes complete avoidance nearly impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-pollution-spreading-in-birds">PFAS pollution spreading in birds</h2>



Recent studies have shown more alarming levels of PFAS in different ecosystems, particularly in birds migrating long distances. 



“The biggest increase is in the livers of wading birds. We found up to 180 times more PFAS than previously,” noted Junjie Zhang, a postdoctoral fellow formerly affiliated with the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.ntnu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NTNU</a>).



This discovery indicates that our previous understanding of contamination levels significantly underestimated the actual situation.



Animals, particularly migratory birds, ingest PFAS through their diet and drinking water. As these birds rely on various habitats during their journeys, they are likely to consume polluted food sources, thereby ingesting these toxic substances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-bird-and-seafood-contamination">Analyzing bird and seafood contamination</h2>



Recently, Zhang's team analyzed samples from migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and the shellfish they consume. The goal was to learn more about how PFAS infiltrate the ecosystem.



The samples were collected from the East Asian-Australian Flyway, which is a critical migratory route for millions of shorebirds.



The results of the analysis indicated that shellfish living in polluted waters absorb these chemicals. Birds then ingest the shellfish, leading to an accumulation of toxins within their bodies, which they carry across continents, spreading contamination further.



A significant development in the recent study is the successful use of the Total Oxidizable Precursor (TOP) assay. This advanced detection method, developed by co-author Lara Cioni, allows scientists to identify PFAS compounds previously difficult to identify.



“The TOP results show a significant increase in several types of harmful substances in all of the samples,” noted Zhang.



With studies like these, we are gaining insights into the hidden sources of contamination and how they are impacting our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-further-research">Urgent need for further research</h2>



Given the unknown sources of contamination and the alarming rate at which these substances are infiltrating our ecosystems, further research is crucial. 



As these chemicals also find their way into seafood, humans, particularly those relying on seafood, could be at severe risk.



“We need to find out more about the sources, but also about the effects PFAS have on wading birds, other animals and humans,” said Professor Veerle Jaspers of NTNU’s Department of Biology.



The PFAS issue is not isolated to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>; it is a global human health crisis. The rising levels discovered in migratory birds emphasize the urgency for immediate action. The fact that birds carry these chemicals across the globe means that no region is immune to this threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-populations-of-shorebirds">Declining populations of shorebirds </h2>



The researchers noted that shorebirds are under threat worldwide and are particularly threatened in the East Asian Australian Flyway, where many species are declining by up to 8% per year.



"The causes for these population declines can be diverse including habitat loss, habitat alterations, climate change but also pollution along the East Asian Australian Flyway, especially in coastal China, has been suggested to play a role," wrote the experts.



"The coast of China is the most important replenishing area for shorebirds in the EAAF where they are feeding on the tidal mudflats on a diet of shellfish and other benthic invertebrates." 



"At the same time, this coastline is heavily impacted by mollusc aquaculture&nbsp;and industry, resulting in environmental contamination including PFAS."



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389425001013?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Hazardous Materials</a>. 



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Migratory birds reveal alarming new clues about the spread of PFAS

The persistence of certain toxic chemicals in the environment has...

In many parts of the world, traditional landscapes once dominated by wild herbivores are undergoing dramatic changes.&nbsp;Livestock grazing has replaced native grazers, leading to shifts in soil composition, plant diversity, and the delicate balance of predator-prey interactions. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-have-an-unexpected-role-in-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformations</a> are often subtle, unfolding over years, but their consequences can be far-reaching.



A long-term study in the Spiti valley of the Himalayas sheds light on how this shift is affecting ground-dwelling arthropods, including spiders, ticks, and mites. 



The findings reveal a concerning trend - spider populations are dwindling while disease-carrying organisms such as ticks and mites are thriving. 



These changes have direct implications for biodiversity, ecological stability, and even human health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-livestock-grazing-the-basics">Global livestock grazing - the basics</h2>



The expansion of livestock grazing areas has been reshaping landscapes around the world for decades. As global demand for meat and dairy products grows, ranchers and agribusinesses clear more land for cattle, sheep, and other grazing animals. 



In places like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a>, vast stretches of trees are cut down to create pastures, contributing to deforestation and habitat loss. 



Grasslands, savannas, and even arid regions are also being converted into grazing land, often at the cost of native ecosystems. 



Some regions are turning to regenerative grazing techniques, which involve rotating animals across different pastures to mimic natural grazing patterns and allow the land to recover. 



Others are exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> alternatives and lab-grown meat to reduce pressure on the planet. 



The challenge is balancing food production with environmental sustainability, and as global appetites grow, finding solutions becomes even more urgent.



While livestock farming plays a major role in feeding the world, its rapid expansion raises a multitude of concerns, many of which we will discuss in this article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders-in-livestock-grazed-areas">Spiders in livestock-grazed areas</h2>



The researchers found that livestock-grazed areas had fewer spiders but more grasshoppers, ticks, and mites. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiders</a> play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance by controlling insect populations.



Study co-author Sumanta Bagchi is an associate professor at the Centre for Ecological Sciences (<a href="https://ces.iisc.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CES</a>), Indian Institute of Science (IISc).



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiders</a> are predators; their ecological roles are similar to wolves, lions, and tigers. A low abundance of spiders can release grasshoppers from predator control, and lead to many downstream changes in an ecosystem. Together, these effects alter material and energy flow,” explained Bagchi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-replacing-wild-herbivores-with-livestock">Replacing wild herbivores with livestock</h2>



Bagchi and his team have studied livestock’s impact on Spiti valley <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-supplements-reduce-methane-in-grazing-cattle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> for over 15 years. They note that wild herbivores like yak and ibex once thrived globally but are now confined to protected areas. Elsewhere, domesticated animals dominate.



For the study, the researchers tracked over 25,000 arthropods from 88 taxa, including spiders, ticks, mites, bees, wasps, and grasshoppers. 



They monitored fenced plots with either wild or domestic grazers and analyzed soil moisture, pH, and vegetation biomass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-arthropod-habitats">Disrupting arthropod habitats</h2>



Shamik Roy, former PhD student at CES and co-first author, pointed out that arthropods have long-established ties with native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-grasslands-bring-more-peace-to-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grazers</a>.



“Vegetation and soil biotic and abiotic variables are intertwined in complex ways that we are still unravelling. Arthropods heavily depend on them for food and home, an association developed over centuries with native grazers in the ecosystem,” noted Roy.



Replacing these grazers disrupts arthropod populations. The study found that spiders declined in livestock-grazed areas, while ticks and mites flourished. 



The reasons behind spider declines are unclear, but reduced prey availability and vegetation changes may contribute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-disease-carrying-arthropods">Increasing disease-carrying arthropods</h2>



Pronoy Baidya, former PhD student at CES and co-first author, highlights a concerning trend. 



“One of the most surprising observations was the massive difference in tick and mite abundance between native grazers and livestock,” Baidya said.



Eighty percent of cattle worldwide carry ticks, which poses risks to both animals and humans. “This is a major concern for zoonotic diseases and One Health,” said Baidya.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-livestock-grazing-and-vegetation">Livestock grazing and vegetation</h2>



Livestock grazing affects vegetation structure and soil health in complex ways. The study revealed that areas with domestic grazers had different plant compositions compared to those with native herbivores. 



Changes in plant types influence arthropod diversity and alter food availability for different species.



Soil conditions, including moisture and pH levels, also shift under livestock grazing. These changes impact microbial communities, further influencing the ecosystem. 



Healthy soil supports diverse vegetation, which in turn sustains a balanced arthropod population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-land-management">Conservation and land management</h2>



To mitigate these effects, the researchers suggest reintroducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-succession-animal-herbivore-mass-migration-serengeti/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native</a> herbivores and monitoring vector-borne diseases. Conservation policies should focus on balancing livestock grazing and preserving ecosystems.



“Currently, most of the commons are rather mismanaged, allowing people from villages to unsustainably utilise these commons for their livelihoods, and in the process denying the local herbivores their grazing areas,” said Baidya.



“Our study will hopefully be an example which may nudge governments to take serious steps for freeing up the commons first and then starting proper ecological restoration of these lands.”



Restoring wild herbivores and managing grazing lands could help rebuild ecosystems and reduce disease risks. 



These changes require action to protect biodiversity and maintain ecological balance. Sustainable land-use practices and better management of grazing areas can prevent further ecological disruption.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.3091" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Applications</a>.



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Livestock grazing is changing soil, plants, and insect populations

In many parts of the world, traditional landscapes once dominated...

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some species have evolved the ability to reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis. In these species, females can produce offspring without mating.&nbsp;



However, even in predominantly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asexual species</a>, rare males occasionally appear. What remains unclear is whether these males retain reproductive functions or if they are merely evolutionary remnants. 



Understanding this question could provide crucial insights into the evolution and persistence of reproductive strategies in nature.



A new study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4522" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>, addresses this mystery by examining the rare males of Ramulus mikado, a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stick-and-leaf-insects-have-all-evolved-the-same-basic-body-parts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stick insect</a> in Japan where parthenogenetic reproduction is the norm. 



The research was led by assistant professor Tomonari Nozaki from the <a href="https://www.nibb.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute for Basic Biology</a>, professor Kenji Suetsugu from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>, and associate professor Shingo Kaneko from <a href="https://english.adb.fukushima-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fukushima University</a>.



The results provide compelling evidence that these males, despite their mating attempts, have completely lost their reproductive function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-males-with-no-reproductive-function">Males with no reproductive function </h2>



The researchers closely studied the behavior and physiology of these rare males and found that, although they actively engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-trick-their-way-into-mating-by-removing-testosterone-from-their-bodies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> with females, they did not contribute genetically to the next generation. 



Genetic analysis confirmed that no male-derived genes were passed on to the offspring, indicating that these males are effectively sterile.



The findings revealed that, although the males display typical stick insect morphology and mating behaviors, they do not produce functional sperm. This means that sexual reproduction cannot be restored in the species, even in the presence of males.&nbsp;



Interestingly, female reproductive organs associated with sexual reproduction showed signs of degeneration, further suggesting that the species has been evolving without sexual reproduction for a long time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-rare-males-to-study">Finding rare males to study</h2>



One of the major hurdles in conducting this study was obtaining specimens of these rare males.



“In fact, we have never personally encountered a male R. mikado in the wild, despite extensive field collections of stick insects across Japan,” Suetsugu said. “To overcome this, our research team collaborated with museums and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-gain-a-stronger-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen science</a> groups, successfully collecting seven males over four years.”



The collected males were then observed in controlled conditions, where their mating behavior was recorded. Additionally, researchers conducted detailed morphological and histological analyses to examine their reproductive anatomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-reproductive-traits-in-males">Loss of reproductive traits in males</h2>



The study raises important questions about the long-term evolutionary trajectory of asexual species.



“Surprisingly, the rare males of this stick insect have completely lost their reproductive function,” Kaneko remarked.



“Unlike female sexual traits, the loss of male sexual traits is generally thought to take an extremely long time. In many other species, even rare males often retain their reproductive capabilities.”&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that R. mikado has relied solely on parthenogenesis for such an extended period that even neutral mutations have accumulated, leading to the complete loss of male reproductive traits.”



This suggests that once a species becomes fully dependent on parthenogenesis, the re-emergence of sexual reproduction may become impossible. Over time, genetic changes accumulate that further reinforce the asexual mode of reproduction, making the reversal to sexual reproduction unlikely.



“This study demonstrates that parthenogenesis in R. mikado has become irreversible. Although asexual reproduction is often considered evolutionarily short-lived due to the lack of genetic recombination, our previous research estimated that this species has persisted for hundreds of thousands of years," said Nozaki.



"How has R. mikado managed to survive for such a long time? This remains an intriguing mystery for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-viability-of-asexual-reproduction">Long-term viability of asexual reproduction</h2>



Biologists have long debated the evolutionary fate of asexual organisms. Many studies suggest that asexual reproduction, while advantageous in the short term, can be an evolutionary dead end due to the absence of genetic recombination.&nbsp;



Without recombination, harmful mutations can accumulate, and the population may struggle to adapt to environmental changes or resist emerging pathogens.



Yet, the persistence of R. mikado challenges this assumption. If this stick insect species has survived for hundreds of thousands of years without sexual reproduction, it raises the question of what mechanisms allow it to maintain<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> genetic diversity</a> and adaptability. 



One possibility is rare genetic mutations that provide variation even in the absence of recombination. Another explanation could be environmental stability, where selective pressures have remained relatively constant, reducing the need for genetic diversity.&nbsp;



There is also the potential for cryptic mechanisms of genetic exchange, such as occasional hybridization events with related species - though no evidence of this has been found in R. mikado.



These possibilities open new avenues for research into the sustainability of asexual reproduction in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study on R. mikado is part of a broader effort to understand how parthenogenetic species evolve and persist. Future research may focus on identifying the genetic changes responsible for male sterility and exploring whether other parthenogenetic stick insect species have undergone similar irreversible transitions.



Additionally, scientists are interested in investigating how R. mikado avoids the pitfalls associated with asexual reproduction, such as genetic stagnation and vulnerability to environmental shifts. Comparative studies with other stick insect species, both sexual and asexual, could provide valuable insights into these evolutionary dynamics.



By continuing to study rare cases like R. mikado, researchers hope to unravel the complexities of reproductive evolution and better understand the forces shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in nature.



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Some male insects have lost the ability to reproduce but still have sex

While sexual reproduction is the predominant strategy among animals, some...

Evolution has shaped life on Earth for billions of years. Organisms adapt to their surroundings, developing traits that help them survive. From bacteria resisting antibiotics to viruses mutating to evade vaccines, evolution is always at work. 



But what if evolution itself could change over time?



A new study from the University of Michigan (U-M) explores this very idea. The research suggests that evolution does not just happen - it improves itself. 



The ability to evolve, known as "evolvability," might be something that organisms can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance over generations</a>.



Luis Zaman, an evolutionary biologist at <a href="https://umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-M</a> and the study’s lead author, finds this concept fascinating. 



"Life is really, really good at solving problems. If you look around, there's so much diversity in life, and that all these things come from a common ancestor seems really surprising to me," said Zaman. 



"Why is evolution so seemingly creative? It seems like maybe that ability is something that evolved itself."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-and-the-potential-to-adapt">Evolution and the potential to adapt</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary theories</a> focus on how mutations increase an organism’s fitness in its environment. A beneficial mutation gives an organism a survival advantage, helping it pass those traits to future generations. 



However, evolvability is different. It does not focus on immediate fitness. Instead, it increases an organism’s potential to adapt to new challenges in the future.



"This forward-looking feature of evolvability makes it contentious. We think it's important. We know it happens. Why it happens and when it happens is something we're less clear about," Zaman explained.



"We were trying to figure out: Can we see the evolution of evolvability in a more realistic computational model?"



To answer this question, the researchers designed an experiment to simulate evolution. They wanted to explore whether populations could develop an improved ability to evolve when faced with changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-model-to-test-evolution">Building a model to test evolution</h2>



To test their hypothesis, the researchers built a computational model using logic functions. They compared the model to a population that could only consume certain types of berries. 



In one environment, red berries were beneficial, while blue berries were toxic. In another, the roles reversed. A population could only thrive in one of these two conditions at a time.



They ran two different scenarios. In one, the environment remained stable, meaning a population only had to adapt once. 



In another, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment changed regularly</a>, forcing the population to shift between eating red and blue berries.



The goal was to observe how populations adapted under these different conditions and whether their ability to evolve improved over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-change-boosts-evolvability">Environmental change boosts evolvability</h2>



The results revealed something remarkable. Populations exposed to shifting environments showed a significant increase in evolvability. 



Instead of becoming specialists in one condition, they developed traits that allowed them to survive in both.



Mutations increased a thousandfold in populations that had to switch between eating red and blue berries. 



This meant that organisms were not just adapting to their current surroundings - they were also developing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ability to adapt</a> to future changes more efficiently.



The key takeaway was that exposure to varying conditions could push populations to evolve in a way that made them better at evolving itself. 



This supports the idea that evolvability is not just a byproduct of evolution but a trait that natural selection can shape over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-mutational-neighborhoods">Role of mutational neighborhoods</h2>



The researchers used a computational system called Avida to simulate evolutionary processes. This system allowed them to track how populations changed in response to fluctuating environments.



"You can think of the evolved computer programs as pathways of multiple genes made up of computer codes," said Zaman. "Each time the environment fluctuates, this pathway needs to be reconfigured to eat the new berries."



Mutational neighborhoods played a crucial role in this process. These neighborhoods represent genetic variations that allow populations to shift their survival strategies. 



Instead of relying on entirely new mutations, organisms could modify existing genetic pathways to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-both-predictable-and-random/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> more quickly.



By studying these genetic shifts, the researchers gained deeper insights into how organisms adjust to unpredictable environments. Rather than starting from scratch each time, populations could "learn" how to evolve more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-time-on-evolvability">Impact of time on evolvability</h2>



The researchers also investigated how the timing of environmental changes influenced evolvability. 



They tested three different scenarios: one where environments changed every generation, one where they changed every ten generations, and another where they changed every hundred generations.



The results showed that when environments changed too quickly, populations struggled to develop evolvability. 



However, even long cycle periods - hundreds of generations - could lead to significant improvements in an organism’s ability to adapt.



"Once a population has achieved this evolvability, it seems like it didn't get erased by future evolution," Zaman said.



This suggests that once evolution improves its ability to evolve, that trait does not disappear. Instead, it becomes a permanent feature, shaping how future generations adapt to their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-way-of-thinking-about-evolution">New way of thinking about evolution</h2>



This study challenges the traditional view of evolution as a purely reactive process. Instead, it suggests that evolution can refine itself over time, becoming more efficient in adapting to changing environments.



If evolvability can evolve, it raises new questions about how life has <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-walking-ecosystems-and-microbes-rule-their-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">persisted and diversified</a> over billions of years. 



Organisms that develop a greater capacity for adaptation may have a long-term advantage over those that rely solely on immediate survival traits.



By demonstrating that evolution itself can evolve, this research opens new possibilities for understanding the complexity of life. 



It suggests that the ability to change and improve is not just a random occurrence but a fundamental aspect of how life progresses.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413930121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Evolution itself is found to be evolving as life constantly learns to adapt

Evolution has shaped life on Earth for billions of years....

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by the Wallace Line, had such different wildlife. They saw tigers and elephants on one side, while marsupials lived just a short boat ride away.



Dr. Penny Van Oosterzee, an ecological researcher at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a>, has studied these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for years. She sees them as a reminder of how physical barriers can split habitats even when they sit close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-separates-species">The Wallace Line separates species</h2>



The Wallace Line runs through Southeast Asia, marking where Asian species give way to Australian species. 



It crosses narrow waters between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok, which lie only about 15 miles apart.



Even though it is not an official border, it acts like one for many animals. Flocks of Asian birds thrive on one side, but groups of Australian cockatoos stay on the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-invisible-fence">An invisible fence </h2>



A deep ocean trench, known as the Makassar Strait, is key to this puzzle. During past ice ages, many islands were connected by land bridges when sea levels dropped.



Yet that submerged gap never vanished here, so animals could not simply wander across. Highly specialized species remained where they could find food, avoid predators, and keep up their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a>.



Even birds, which can fly, tend to stay within their familiar habitats because of differences in climate and food availability. The Wallace Line, in many ways, acts like an invisible fence shaped by nature’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolving-evolution-how-life-learns-to-adapt-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-makassar-strait-the-basics">Understanding the Makassar Strait - the basics</h2>



The Makassar Strait is a narrow stretch of water that runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. 



It connects the Celebes Sea in the north to the Java Sea in the south, making it a key passage for ships traveling between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 



The strait isn’t just a busy maritime route - it’s also home to some incredible marine life. 



Strong ocean currents flow through, bringing nutrient-rich waters that support vibrant coral reefs, fish, and even deep-sea creatures. 



It’s a hotspot for divers and researchers alike, offering a glimpse into Indonesia’s rich underwater biodiversity.



The region is also a key focus for climate change research, as rising sea levels and shifting currents affect both marine ecosystems and coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-shaped-evolution">The Wallace Line shaped evolution</h2>



This unique divide helped shape some early ideas about how species change over time. It sparked thoughts on biogeography, the study of how plants and animals are distributed across the planet.



When Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/1800s/natural-selection-charles-darwin-alfred-russel-wallace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wrote</a> about natural selection in the mid-1800s, they each pointed to real-world examples of animals adapting to local conditions. 



The stark difference between these islands stood out to Wallace.



His observations supported the idea that species do not appear randomly but evolve based on their environment. 



The Wallace Line became one of the strongest cases for how geographic barriers can drive the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective">A different perspective</h2>



There are debates over the geographic accuracy of the line. Researchers have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/130/1/225/5802023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">called</a> for the boundary line to be redrawn.&nbsp;



“We suggest that Wallace’s Line be redrawn such that the landmass is placed on the Australasian side of this fundamental biogeographical boundary,” wrote Jason Ali and colleagues from the University of Hong Kong.



Shifting a line on a map may seem simple, but it shows how active science can be. As more research appears, definitions can move, and old ideas can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-and-human-history">The Wallace Line and human history</h2>



The idea of a boundary extends to humans and not only wildlife. The racial and political effects of the line have been studied at length.&nbsp;



“The difference between these two people had already been noticed by early European travelers, together with the difference in flora and fauna,” noted Fenneke Sysling from the University of Utrecht in The Netherlands.



Many decades ago, claims emerged that certain groups east of the line shared traits with Papuans, while those west of the line fit the Malay category. 



Debates around these claims have carried into modern times, highlighting how complex human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-borders-and-human-evolution">Geographic borders and human evolution</h2>



Various projects track bird populations, insects, and even marsupials (kangaroo) to see how borders and evolution link together. 



Shallow seas no longer block human travel, yet animals remain bound by their own quirks.



Scientists ask whether climate changes or habitat loss might shift wildlife distributions in the future. Updates on these studies add another layer of intrigue to a line first drawn in the 19th century.



The Wallace Line demonstrates how subtle geographic forces can create stark contrasts in living things. It also reminds us that physical distance is not always the main factor - evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> and chance play major roles.



With all of the debates and shifting perspectives, one thing is clear: the planet holds more surprises than any single line can capture.



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The Wallace Line: A natural border line that no species will cross

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by the...

Large birds, the closest relatives of dinosaurs, have demonstrated their intelligence by solving physical challenges to access food. Scientists have now shown that emus and rheas, part of the palaeognath group, can tackle complex tasks.



Despite their reputation for lacking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>, emus successfully developed a new technique to obtain food. They aligned a hole with a food chamber and adjusted its position efficiently in 90% of trials.



A male rhea not only used this method but also invented another - rotating a central bolt until the task collapsed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-crows-and-parrots">Beyond crows and parrots</h2>



Dr. Fay Clark, from Bristol’s <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/psychology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Psychological Science</a>, emphasized the importance of expanding avian research beyond commonly studied species.



“A large body of research shows that crows and parrots are effective problem-solvers, and while scientists have recently taken interest in other birds like gulls and birds of prey, all of these birds belong to the same phylogenetic group, Neognathae," noted Dr. Clark.



“The problem? The more we study the same species repeatedly, the more we create an ‘echo chamber’ of knowledge and create a false impression that other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> are less ‘intelligent’ but in reality they haven’t been studied to the same level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-limits-of-palaeognaths">Cognitive limits of palaeognaths</h2>



Dr. Clark's research involved three palaeognath species - emus, rheas, and ostriches - at a local zoo.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-brain-evolution-birds-and-mammals-took-different-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> participated in ten test sessions using a rotating wheel that had to be aligned with a hole to receive a food reward. While emus and rheas demonstrated problem-solving abilities, the ostriches in this study did not innovate.



“We classify palaeognath innovation as low level or simplistic – and it is certainly not as complex as the innovation we see in crows and parrots," Dr. Clark explained.



“However, it is still a very important finding. There were no reports of technical innovation in palaeognaths before our study, and there was a prevailing view that they are ‘dumb’ birds."



“Our research suggests that is not true and that technical innovation may have evolved far earlier in birds than previously thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The study's authors plan to extend their research to more bird species, particularly those that have not been traditionally studied in cognitive science. 



A broader sample of birds interacting with the same rotating wheel task could help identify patterns in problem-solving abilities across different evolutionary groups.



Additionally, future research could explore how environmental factors influence intelligence. 



Do birds that face frequent challenges in the wild develop better problem-solving skills? How does social structure impact cognitive development? Answering these questions could deepen our understanding of avian intelligence.



“The more we study palaeognath birds, the more we can understand the broader picture of bird cognition. And because palaeognaths birds are the closest living relatives to dinosaurs, research might shed light on how dinosaurs behaved,” said Dr. Clark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-environment-in-bird-intelligence">Role of environment in bird intelligence</h2>



Bird intelligence does not exist in isolation - it develops in response to environmental challenges. Species that regularly face obstacles in the wild may develop problem-solving skills as a survival strategy.



For instance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-navigate-using-clues-from-earths-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> that forage in unpredictable conditions or compete for scarce resources might be more likely to innovate. 



Emus and rheas, which live in diverse habitats, may benefit from adaptability. Ostriches, however, tend to rely on speed and size rather than problem-solving to escape predators, which could explain their different approach to the task.



By studying birds in different settings, scientists can better understand how environment influences cognitive development. Future research could compare problem-solving abilities between wild and captive birds to see how natural challenges shape intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bird-intelligence">Rethinking bird intelligence</h2>



The study challenges long-standing assumptions about intelligence in birds. By shifting the focus beyond traditionally studied species, scientists are uncovering new insights into the cognitive abilities of different bird groups. 



Palaeognaths, once thought to be among the least intelligent birds, have now demonstrated problem-solving skills that suggest a more complex picture of avian intelligence.



As research continues, it is likely that more bird species will prove to be capable of innovation and learning. The findings not only reshape how we view bird intelligence but also prompt new discussions about the evolutionary roots of problem-solving behavior. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-88217-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Large flightless birds are more intelligent than we realized

Large birds, the closest relatives of dinosaurs, have demonstrated their...

For centuries, sea turtles have followed the rhythms of the ocean, returning to the same shores where they were born for nesting and to lay their eggs. These ancient creatures, some of which have existed since the time of the dinosaurs, have always relied on nature’s consistency. 



But now, the climate is changing faster than ever, and the turtles must adapt - or risk losing entire generations.



New research offers a glimpse into how these resilient animals are responding. Scientists monitoring green and loggerhead turtles in <a href="https://cyprusturtles.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cyprus</a> have observed a remarkable shift. These turtles are nesting earlier each year, a subtle yet crucial adjustment that could determine the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">future of their species.</a>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shift-in-turtles-nesting-patterns">Shift in turtles nesting patterns</h2>



Temperature plays a crucial role in determining the survival and sex ratio of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-use-earths-magnetic-field-like-an-invisible-map/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea turtle</a> hatchlings. Unlike mammals, sea turtles do not have genetically predetermined sexes at birth. 



Instead, the temperature of the sand where the eggs are incubated decides whether more males or females will hatch. Warmer sand results in a higher number of female hatchlings, while cooler sand leads to more males. 



However, when temperatures rise too much, it can become too hot for the eggs to develop properly, leading to fewer hatchlings surviving.



Another important factor in turtle reproduction is "natal philopatry," a behavior where turtles return to the same beach where they hatched to lay their own eggs. This strong instinct means they may struggle to find new nesting sites even if their birthplace becomes too warm for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-show-signs-of-recovery-but-conservation-issues-remain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">successful hatching</a>.



A research team from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> and the Society for the Protection of Turtles studied nesting patterns over three decades. Their data suggests that if temperatures keep rising at the current rate, loggerhead turtles could face severe reproductive challenges by 2100. 



Without adapting their nesting schedule and laying eggs earlier in the season, they may struggle to produce enough viable offspring to sustain their population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-s-impact-on-turtle-nesting">Temperature’s impact on turtle nesting</h2>



Researchers placed temperature loggers in nests while females were laying eggs. They later retrieved them after the hatchlings emerged. The data indicated that turtles need to adjust their nesting by 0.5 days per year to maintain the current sex ratio and by 0.7 days per year to prevent egg failures.



Fortunately, loggerhead turtles seem to be adapting. The study shows they have already been nesting 0.78 days earlier per year since 1993. This shift has helped maintain hatching success, at least for now.



“This is a bit of good news, as we’ve shown that these turtles are responding to the elevated temperatures brought about by climate change by shifting to cooler months to nest," Professor Annette Broderick explained.



"There is no guarantee that they carry on doing this though – it’s very much dependent on how much the temperature rises, and also what they are eating. If the timing of production in terms of where their food's coming from shifts, then they could start to be disconnected ecologically between where they forage and where they breed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adjusting-the-nesting-schedule">Adjusting the nesting schedule </h2>



The research team also examined over 600 green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> nesting at a beach in North Cyprus. Their study aimed to understand what determines when these turtles start laying eggs each year.



The findings revealed that individual turtles adjust their nesting schedule based on sea temperature. 



For every 1°C rise in ocean temperature, they nested 6.47 days earlier. Temperature alone accounted for about 30% of this advancement. More experienced females and those laying multiple clutches also nested earlier.



“To know if the advancement we see now will continue into the future, it is crucial to understand the combined effects of changes in, for example, the age structure of the population, and how individual turtles respond to environmental change,” noted lead author Mollie Rickwood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-challenges-for-turtle-populations">Future challenges for turtle populations</h2>



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> are currently adapting to temperature changes, long-term survival remains uncertain. Cyprus may eventually become too warm for nesting, though cooler locations in the Mediterranean might provide alternative sites.



“Although our turtles appear to be coping with current rising temperatures, it is unclear how long they may be able to do this before conditions in Cyprus are no longer suitable, but cooler locations in the Mediterranean may become available for them to nest,” said Dr. Damla Beton from the Society for the Protection of Turtles.



The findings were published in Endangered Species Research and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Beating the heat: How sea turtles cope with warming waters

For centuries, sea turtles have followed the rhythms of the...

A rare, nearly complete skull unearthed in the Egyptian desert has led scientists to the identification of a new species of Hyaenodonta - an extinct group of powerful carnivorous mammals that once ruled as apex predators.&nbsp;



The research describes a leopard-sized creature nicknamed Bastetodon after an ancient Egyptian goddess. 



Boasting a robust bite and sharp, slicing teeth, this newly discovered predator would have preyed on primates, early elephants, and other mammals in a forested region that is now desert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bastetodon-predator-ruled-ancient-egypt">Bastetodon predator ruled ancient Egypt</h2>



The fossil was found by a team informally known as the Sallam Lab during an expedition to the Fayum Depression - a famous site for Paleogene fossils in northern Egypt.&nbsp;



Study lead author Shorouq Al-Ashqar is a paleontologist at <a href="https://www.mans.edu.eg/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mansoura University</a> and the <a href="https://www.aucegypt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American University</a> in Cairoù.



“For days, the team meticulously excavated layers of rock dating back around 30 million years,” said Al-Ashqar. Just as we were about to conclude our work, a team member spotted something remarkable - a set of large teeth sticking out of the ground."



His excited shout brought the team together, marking the beginning of an extraordinary discovery: a nearly complete skull of an ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apex carnivore</a>, a dream for any vertebrate paleontologist.



Using the preserved skull, the researchers determined that this apex predator was a member of Hyaenodonta, a group that thrived in African ecosystems well before the appearance of modern cats, dogs, or hyenas.&nbsp;



Despite the name, hyaenodonts were not closely related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyena-returns-to-egypt-after-5000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyenas</a> but formed their own evolutionary lineage of formidable hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruler-of-a-prehistoric-food-chain">Ruler of a prehistoric food chain</h2>



Bastetodon draws its name from Bastet, the cat-headed goddess of protection in ancient Egyptian mythology, underscoring both the fossil’s feline-like snout and its Egyptian origin.&nbsp;



The “-odon” suffix, meaning “tooth,” emphasizes this animal’s defining trait: powerful jaws with slicing teeth designed for capturing and cutting through flesh.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_timeline_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_timeline_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1s.webp" alt="Locality map, stratigraphic column, and reconstruction of Bastetodon syrtos. A, map of Egypt showing the location of the Fayum Depression (rectangle); B, map of the Jebel Qatrani area displaying the distribution of vertebrate fossil quarries and their ages; C, stratigraphic column of the Jebel Qatrani area; D, reconstruction of the head and neck region of the new genus. Credit: Ahmed Morsi" class="wp-image-1960384"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Locality map, stratigraphic column, and reconstruction of Bastetodon syrtos. A, map of Egypt showing the location of the Fayum Depression (rectangle); B, map of the Jebel Qatrani area displaying the distribution of vertebrate fossil quarries and their ages; C, stratigraphic column of the Jebel Qatrani area; D, reconstruction of the head and neck region of the new genus. Credit: Ahmed Morsi</figcaption></figure>



Like the goddess Bastet, which symbolized protection and good health, Bastetodon would likely have ruled the prehistoric food chain in what was then a lush, forested environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-bastetodon-fossils">Revisiting Bastetodon fossils</h2>



Beyond describing Bastetodon, the study also revisits fossils discovered in the same region more than a century ago. 



These lion-sized hyaenodont remains were reclassified under the genus Sekhmetops, named for the lion-headed Egyptian goddess Sekhmet, a deity associated with war and wrath. 



The findings show Bastetodon and Sekhmetops both belonged to an African lineage of hyaenodonts that later spread into Asia, Europe, India, and North America. 



This new evidence challenges older assumptions that placed such fossils with hyaenodont groups from Europe.



The symbolic link between Bastet and Sekhmet in ancient Egyptian lore is mirrored in these two genera of apex predators. 



The researchers noted that by 18 million years ago, some related hyaenodonts evolved into the largest mammalian carnivores of their time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-predators-in-egypt-nbsp">Ancient predators in Egypt&nbsp;</h2>



The Fayum Depression, now an arid desert, once hosted a flourishing tropical habitat teeming with mammalian life. 



Its rock layers, dating from the Eocene through the Oligocene, capture a 15-million-year window during which global climates shifted from warmer to cooler conditions. 



The hyaenodonts thrived in this dynamic part of Egypt, feeding on the abundant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivores</a> and smaller predators.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_skull-diagram_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Bastetodon-syrtos_ancient-Egyptian-predator_skull-diagram_credit-Ahmad-Morsi_1s.webp" alt="Cranium of Bastetodon syrtos. A, C, E, the paratype (MUVP 634) cranium of Bastetodon syrtos in A, dorsal; C, ventral; and E, left lateral view. B, D, F, cranial bones defined and identified on MUVP 634 in B, dorsal; D, ventral; and F, left lateral view. Credit: Ahmed Morsi" class="wp-image-1960382"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cranium of Bastetodon syrtos. A, C, E, the paratype (MUVP 634) cranium of Bastetodon syrtos in A, dorsal; C, ventral; and E, left lateral view. B, D, F, cranial bones defined and identified on MUVP 634 in B, dorsal; D, ventral; and F, left lateral view. Credit: Ahmed Morsi</figcaption></figure>



Over time, tectonic events in Africa allowed modern types of carnivores - cats, dogs, and hyenas - to move in, while changing environments diminished prey for specialized hunters like Bastetodon.&nbsp;



Eventually, hyaenodonts disappeared, leaving newer predators to dominate the evolving African ecosystems.



“The discovery of Bastetodon is a significant achievement in understanding the diversity and evolution of hyaenodonts and their global distribution,” Al-Ashqar noted. 



“We are eager to continue our research to unravel the intricate relationships between these ancient predators and their environments over time and across continents.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-predators-to-modern-carnivores-nbsp">Prehistoric predators to modern carnivores&nbsp;</h2>



“The Fayum is one of the most important fossil areas in Africa,” said study co-author Matt Borths, curator of fossils at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu/discover/dlcmnh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke Lemur Center Museum of Natural History</a>.&nbsp;



“Without it, we would know very little about the origins of African ecosystems and the evolution of African mammals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-elephant-fossils-reveal-early-evidence-of-animal-butchery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a>, primates, and hyaenodonts."



Paleontologists have been working in the Fayum for over a century, but the Sallam Lab demonstrated there is more to discover in this remarkable region.



Over the decades, research in Fayum has contributed major findings about early elephants, early primates, and now, additional hyaenodont species.&nbsp;



Each new fossil further clarifies the interplay between climatic shifts and the rise - or extinction - of ancient mammals.&nbsp;



Researchers plan to continue unearthing fossils and refining the complex narrative of how prehistoric African predators adapted, diversified, and eventually gave way to modern carnivores.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2024.2442472" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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'Fearsome' predator was once king of the ancient Egyptian forests, then mysteriously vanished

A rare, nearly complete skull unearthed in the Egyptian desert...

Scientists have developed an AI-powered modeling method that mimics how birds produce songs, similar to how large language models like ChatGPT generate human sentences.&nbsp;



By training on birdsong recordings, the model successfully recreates sequences of Bengalese <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finch-beaks-and-bird-songs-a-new-story-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">finch</a> songs, revealing important insights into how birds structure their vocalizations.&nbsp;



The research, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0522-24.2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Neuroscience</a>, could enhance understanding of the neurobiology behind language processing and how humans and animals form complex vocal patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birdsongs-and-human-language">Birdsongs and human language</h2>



Both birds and humans arrange their vocal expressions in structured ways. In human speech, words follow specific grammatical rules, while birds sing in organized syllabic patterns.



“Although much simpler, the sequences of a bird’s song syllables are organized in a similar way to human language, so birds provide a good model to explore the neurobiology of language,” said Dezhe Jin, an associate professor of physics at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>’s Eberly College of Science and lead author of the study.



One key aspect of both birdsong and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human language</a> is context dependence - where previous sounds influence what comes next. In English, for example, the phrase “flies like” can have different meanings depending on what follows.&nbsp;



For instance, while “time flies like an arrow” is a statement about time, “fruit flies like bananas” is one about insects and food. If we mix these up - “time flies like bananas” - the meaning becomes nonsensical.&nbsp;



The same principle applies to birds: the order of their syllables is not random but follows specific patterns that make their songs recognizable.



“We know from our previous work that the songs of Bengalese finches also have context dependence,” Jin said. “In this study, we developed a new statistical method to better quantify context dependence in individual birds and start to understand how it is wired in the brain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-training-a-generative-birdsong-model">Training a generative birdsong model</h2>



The research team analyzed previously recorded songs from six Bengalese finches, each of which sings 7 to 15 syllables per sequence. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-monitor-biodiversity-through-animal-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> model, similar to large language models, learns the probability of different syllables appearing in sequences - akin to how ChatGPT predicts words based on past text.



The model is built using Markov models, a method that maps sequences of events by tracking what comes next based on past occurrences. Imagine a flowchart where each syllable leads to a range of possible next syllables, with probabilities assigned to each transition.



“Basic Markov models are quite simple, but they tend to overgeneralize, meaning they might result in sequences that don’t actually exist,” Jin explained.&nbsp;



“Here, we used a specific type of model called a Partially Observable Markov Model that allowed us to incorporate context dependence, adding more connections to what syllables typically go together. The added complexity allows for more accurate models.”



Using their approach, the team generated a range of possible models for each bird’s song, gradually refining them to ensure they only produced sequences that actually exist in the bird’s natural repertoire.&nbsp;



The final models accurately reflected each bird’s real singing patterns while identifying which syllables were context-dependent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-birdsong-model-revealed">What the birdsong model revealed</h2>



The results showed that all six birds displayed context dependence in their songs, meaning they carefully structured their syllable sequences rather than singing randomly. However, the degree of context dependence varied between individuals.



“This could be due to several factors, including aspects of the birds’ brains,” Jin explained. “Or, because these songs are learned, this could be related to the amount of context dependence in their tutor’s songs.”



To explore this further, the researchers studied birds that could not hear their own songs. The results were striking. These birds showed a dramatic reduction in context-dependent syllables, suggesting that auditory feedback is crucial in shaping how birds refine their songs.



This finding supports the idea that birds listen to themselves and adjust their vocal patterns based on what they hear, much like how humans refine speech and grammar while learning a language.



“The birds are listening to themselves and adjusting their song based on what they hear, and the related machinery in the brain likely plays a role in context dependence,” Jin said.&nbsp;



“In the future, we would also like to map neuron states to specific syllables. Our study suggests that, even when a bird is singing the same syllable, different sets of neurons might be active.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-applications-of-the-research">Broader applications of the research </h2>



The researchers emphasize that this new AI-based modeling technique could be applied not just to birdsong, but to other animal vocalizations and behavioral patterns.



“We actually used this method with the English language and were able to generate text that is mostly grammatical,” Jin said. “Of course, we’re not trying to create a new generative language model, but it is interesting that the same kind of model can handle both birdsong and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-songs-share-very-similar-patterns-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human language</a>.”



This suggests that the neural mechanisms behind birdsong and human language may share deeper similarities than previously thought.&nbsp;



Some philosophers argue that human grammar is a uniquely complex feature of cognition, but this study raises questions about how truly unique human language is if birds follow similar rules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-human-language-and-communication">Understanding human language and communication </h2>



This research opens up new possibilities for understanding how brains - both bird and human - encode language and communication. In the future, scientists hope to map neuronal activity during song production to see which brain circuits control context dependence.



The experts would also like to apply AI models to other vocal species - such as whales, dolphins, and primates - to identify common patterns in communication.



Furthermore, the goal is to develop better speech-related AI systems based on how real biological brains organize vocalization sequences.



Ultimately, this work bridges the gap between neuroscience, AI, and linguistics, offering new clues about how brains generate structured communication across species.&nbsp;



As AI technology continues to evolve, models trained on birdsongs could help us better understand how our own brains process language and adapt speech over time.



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AI-generated birdsongs may shed new light on human language

Scientists have developed an AI-powered modeling method that mimics how...

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes spiders, scorpions, mites, and horseshoe crabs, made a single transition from water to land. This long-standing view shaped evolutionary biology, influencing how researchers classified and studied these creatures. 



However, a new study presents a different picture, suggesting that this transition happened multiple times rather than once.



The research also highlights the role of whole-genome duplication in shaping key traits in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-deadliest-spider-is-actually-three-different-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> and scorpions, particularly silk production and venom synthesis. These genetic changes may have played a crucial role in their evolutionary success. 



By challenging traditional ideas, this study reshapes the way we understand chelicerate evolution and provides new directions for future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-about-arachnid-evolution">New details about arachnid evolution</h2>



Dr. Efrat Gavish-Regev from The National Natural History Collections at <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University</a> of Jerusalem and Professor Prashant P. Sharma from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin</a> have taken a fresh approach to chelicerate evolution. 



Their review explores how molecular phylogenetics, evolutionary developmental biology, and genomic research have transformed our understanding of these arthropods.



Traditionally, arachnids were classified as a monophyletic terrestrial group, meaning they descended from a single land-dwelling ancestor. However, recent phylogenomic studies challenge this notion. 



The studies indicate that horseshoe crabs are not a separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slingshot-spiders-listen-for-the-right-moment-to-launch-their-webs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineage</a> but are actually nested within the arachnid group.



This suggests that arachnids did not evolve from a single land colonization event. Instead, different arachnid groups may have independently <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fungus-gibellula-attenboroughii-infects-and-controls-spiders-turning-them-into-zombies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapted</a> to life on land at different points in their evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arachnid-groups-evolved-independently">Arachnid groups evolved independently </h2>



“The idea that all arachnids share a single terrestrial ancestor has been widely accepted for decades, but the latest molecular evidence and a different interposition of some homologies points to a more complex scenario,” said Dr. Gavish-Regev.



“Instead of a straightforward transition from water to land, our research suggests that different arachnid groups may have independently adapted to terrestrial life at different points in their evolutionary history.”



This revelation raises important questions about how these adaptations occurred. If multiple groups of arachnids transitioned to land separately, then different environmental pressures and genetic changes must have influenced their evolution. 



Some species may have gradually developed adaptations for land, while others may have made more sudden transitions. This multi-event hypothesis challenges existing evolutionary models and forces scientists to rethink how arachnids adapted to terrestrial life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-whole-genome-duplication">Role of whole-genome duplication</h2>



One of the key findings of this study is the role of whole-genome duplication in arachnid evolution. This process, where an organism duplicates its entire genetic code, is a powerful driver of evolutionary change. 



By having extra copies of genes, species can experiment with new traits while retaining essential functions.



In spiders and scorpions, whole-genome duplication may have played a direct role in the evolution of important characteristics like silk production and venom synthesis. 



These traits have been crucial to the survival and diversification of arachnids, allowing them to hunt, defend themselves, and adapt to different environments. 



Without whole-genome duplication, the vast diversity of spiders and scorpions seen today might not have been possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-evolutionary-changes-in-arachnids">Key evolutionary changes in arachnids</h2>



“Arachnoid evolution has been shaped by a number of factors, including gene duplications that likely played a role in the development of key traits,” explained Professor Sharma.



“By combining phylogenetic research with new gene-editing tools, we are now in a position to explore these evolutionary changes in greater detail than ever before.”



With modern genetic research tools, scientists can now examine the effects of whole-genome duplication more closely. By studying these genetic changes, they can trace how certain genes evolved and what role they played in shaping arachnid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>. 



This research not only improves our understanding of evolutionary biology but also provides insights into how genes influence the development of complex traits across different species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancements-in-chelicerate-phylogeny">Advancements in chelicerate phylogeny</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary relationships between different chelicerate species has been a long-standing challenge. 



Some relationships remain unresolved, but advances in genomic techniques are beginning to provide more clarity. As more high-quality genomic data becomes available, researchers expect to answer some of the remaining questions about arachnid evolution.



By mapping out the evolutionary tree of chelicerates, scientists can better understand how different species are related and how their traits evolved. This has broader implications for studying the diversity of life and the mechanisms that drive adaptation in different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research has significance beyond evolutionary biology. Understanding arachnid evolution has practical applications in various fields, including pest management, biomedicine, and bio-inspired materials.



By studying how certain traits evolved, scientists can develop new approaches to pest control, design medical treatments based on venom components, and create materials inspired by spider silk.



A growing body of genetic data continues to shape scientific understanding of evolutionary history. As new studies build on these findings, researchers will gain an even clearer picture of how arachnids adapted to their environments.



These discoveries could lead to new breakthroughs in biology, genetics, and even biotechnology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-research-on-arachnids">Evolutionary research on arachnids</h2>



While this study provides valuable insights, it also opens up many new questions. 



If arachnids transitioned to land multiple times, what environmental factors drove these changes? Were there specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic mechanisms</a> that made the transition easier for some groups? How do these findings compare to other arthropod lineages that also moved from water to land?



Future research will likely explore these questions using even more advanced genomic tools. As genetic sequencing technology improves, scientists will be able to examine ancient evolutionary events with greater precision. 



This will help refine evolutionary models and improve our understanding of how life adapts to new environments.



The journey of arachnids from water to land is more complex than previously thought. By revising traditional evolutionary models, this study lays the foundation for new discoveries in evolutionary biology. As more data emerges, the fascinating story of arachnid evolution will continue to unfold.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-022024-011250" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annual Review of Entomology</a>.



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Rethinking arachnid evolution: The surprising history of spiders

For decades, scientists believed that arachnids, a group that includes...

In 2018, a wildfire engulfed nearly two thousand hectares of shrubland in the ecologically critical area of Pichu Pichu volcano, located in Peru's Andean region. 



Unlike Mediterranean ecosystems, vegetation on the volcanic soils of Arequipa - one of the world's driest regions - has not evolved to recover from fire disturbances.



A team of researchers from the Miguel Hernández University of Elche <a href="https://www.umh.es/?lang=EN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(UMH)</a> embarked on a study to assess the impact of wildfire events on such fragile ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprepared-for-wildfire">Unprepared for wildfire</h2>



The researchers dug deep into the soil, collecting and examining samples from the fire-charred area, 3,700 meters above sea level.



The findings of the study, published in the Spanish Journal of Soil Science, reveal that the fire not only burned the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-vegetation-are-a-key-driver-of-global-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>, but also scarred the soil. This was evident even four years after the event.



Post-fire erosion has resulted in a severe loss of soil organic carbon (SOC), which is an essential factor for soil fertility. The loss of SOC also leads to compaction, making the soil more inhospitable to new plant growth.



"The Peruvian Andes are not prepared for wildfires," noted Jorge Mataix Solera, a scientist who has spent over three decades studying post-fire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-uncover-effects-of-wildfires-on-soil-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil recovery</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-and-difficult-recovery-in-the-andes">Slow and difficult recovery in the Andes</h2>



Solera further explained that the consequences of wildfires vary significantly based on the ecology of the region, but that in the Andes the combined effect of loss of vegetation and loss of soil organic carbon made recovery extremely difficult and slow.



The study highlighted that Pichu Pichu's soil was severely affected by the fire and showed substantial physical and chemical degradation, which further hampered the ecological recovery process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burned-soil-lost-resilience">Burned soil, lost resilience</h2>



The study identified the soil's natural propensity to repel water, which was aggravated by the loss of the vegetation, as a significant impediment to recovery.



Without vegetation to retain moisture, water just slides off the surface of the volcanic soil, leading to accelerated erosion.



"While well-structured and evolved soils, such as Mediterranean soils, have a high water-holding capacity, young volcanic Andean soils, which are naturally sandy, lose this ability after fire-induced organic matter loss," explained UMH researcher&nbsp;Minerva García Carmona.



With the soil's inability to hold water directly influencing its degradation, scientists need to understand the impact of fire on these young, fragile soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-species-and-soil-degradation">Plant species and soil degradation</h2>



Of particular importance is the role of different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-plant-species-remain-unphotographed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>, which serve as the combustible material in wildfires and affect soil degradation.



The research focused on two native plant species that dominate the vegetation: Berberis lutea, known locally as "palo amarillo del Perú," and Parastrephia quadrangularis, or "tola."



The study revealed that soils under Berberis lutea bushes underwent greater degradation after a wildfire. This could have been due to the fact that this shrub is a larger plant with a higher biomass, which would have provided more fuel for combustion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfires-on-the-rise">Wildfires on the rise</h2>



Peru’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-season-of-2023-redefined-what-is-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire season</a> typically peaks between July and October, but recent years have seen a troubling surge in fire activity. 



In September 2024, the Queimadas satellite monitoring project recorded an unprecedented 7,037 wildfire hotspots across the country - the highest on record.



This escalation in fire activity highlights the urgent need to understand how soil in fire-prone regions responds to these new fire regimes.



“In a region like Arequipa, located in a desert environment, understanding soil response under new fire regimes is essential for assessing ecosystem resilience to climate change,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-significance-of-wildfire-research">Global significance of wildfire research </h2>



Solera emphasized the global significance of wildfire research. He believes that the more we study these impacts, the better we can design prevention strategies and post-fire treatments to mitigate the long-term effects of rising temperatures and prolonged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-persistent-droughts-will-impact-wildlife-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>.



“This is as critical in Peru as it is in Spain or California. Although fire is a natural phenomenon, the climate crisis is exacerbating these events, and we must do everything possible to restore and protect these ecosystems,” concluded Solera.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontierspartnerships.org/journals/spanish-journal-of-soil-science/articles/10.3389/sjss.2025.13983/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spanish Journal of Soil Science</a>.



Image Credit: Jorge Mataix Solera



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Burned and barren: How wildfires transform volcanic soils

In 2018, a wildfire engulfed nearly two thousand hectares of...

Orchids are among the most diverse and fascinating plants in the world. Their ability to adapt to different environments has allowed them to thrive in forests, grasslands, and even rocky terrains. 



While most orchids rely on photosynthesis to produce their own food, a few species have taken a different path. Instead of creating their own energy, they survive by feeding on fungi.



This parasitic shift raises an intriguing question: why would a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adelopetalum-argyropus-new-orchid-species-discovered-resembles-small-cupcake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> abandon its ability to produce food and depend entirely on another organism?



Kobe University researchers explored this mystery by studying Oreorchis patens, an orchid that exists in both photosynthetic and parasitic forms. The findings suggest that this transition may not be a matter of necessity but rather an opportunity that arises under specific conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-photosynthesis-and-parasitism">Balancing photosynthesis and parasitism</h2>



Most orchids maintain a symbiotic relationship with fungi. The plants supply sugars produced through photosynthesis, while fungi provide water and essential nutrients. 



This relationship benefits both organisms and is a key survival strategy for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/despite-their-incredible-adaptability-orchids-are-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchids</a> in nutrient-poor environments. However, some orchids no longer contribute to this exchange. Instead of photosynthesizing, they take all their nutrients from fungi, effectively becoming parasites.



“I’ve always been intrigued by how orchids turn parasitic. Why would a plant give up its reliance on photosynthesis and instead ‘steal’ from fungi?” noted <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> botanist Suetsugu Kenji.



This question led researchers to examine Oreorchis patens, a species that offers a rare glimpse into the transition from mutualism to parasitism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-orchid-s-dual-strategy">An orchid’s dual strategy</h2>



Unlike fully parasitic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-orchids-have-fingers-to-pollinate-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchids</a>, Oreorchis patens still retains its ability to photosynthesize. However, it can also absorb up to half of its nutrients from fungi. This makes it an excellent model for studying why some orchids partially abandon photosynthesis.



Suetsugu observed that some Oreorchis patens individuals develop unusual coral-shaped rootstalks. These structures resemble those found in orchids that rely entirely on fungi. 



“I thought that this would allow me to compare plants with these organs to those with normal roots, quantify how much extra nutrients they might be gaining, and determine whether that extra translates into enhanced growth or reproductive success,” said Suetsugu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wood-helps-orchids-absorb-fungi-nutrients">Wood helps orchids absorb fungi nutrients</h2>



To uncover the role of fungi in this process, researchers examined orchids growing in different environments. Their study, published in The Plant Journal, revealed a fascinating pattern. 



When Oreorchis patens grows near decomposing wood, it shifts its fungal partners to species that break down rotting material. This shift allows the orchid to extract significantly more nutrients from its fungal hosts.



Surprisingly, despite its increased reliance on fungi, the orchid does not stop photosynthesizing. Instead, the extra nutrients enhance its growth, making it larger and more robust. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-parents-nurture-seedlings-through-fungal-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchids</a> in these conditions also produce more flowers, indicating a clear reproductive advantage.



“In short, these orchids aren’t merely substituting for diminished photosynthesis, they’re boosting their overall nutrient budget," noted Suetsugu.



"This clear, adaptive link between fungal parasitism and improved plant vigor is, to me, the most thrilling aspect of our discovery, as it provides a concrete ecological explanation for why a photosynthetic plant might choose this path.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-all-orchids-become-parasites">Why don’t all orchids become parasites?</h2>



Despite the apparent benefits, fewer than 10% of Oreorchis patens individuals exhibit parasitic behavior. The researchers noticed that parasitic orchids were only found near fallen and rotting tree trunks. 



This suggests that switching to parasitism requires a specific set of conditions, particularly the presence of fungi that can handle an increased nutritional load.



These specialized fungi thrive in decaying wood but only at certain stages of decomposition. Since such conditions are rare and unpredictable, most Oreorchis patens individuals continue relying primarily on photosynthesis. 



The transition to parasitism happens only when the right fungi are available, not necessarily when the orchid needs extra nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Although this study sheds light on why some orchids turn parasitic, many questions remain. Scientists still do not know what triggers the development of the coral-like rootstalks in Oreorchis patens. 



Environmental factors likely play a role, but the exact mechanisms remain unclear. Another question is how flexible the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-bees-are-endangered-by-deforestation-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchid</a> is in choosing its fungal partners and whether other species exhibit similar behavior.



Suetsugu sees this research as part of a larger effort to understand the full range of plant lifestyles. 



“This work is part of a broader effort to unravel the continuum from photosynthesis to complete parasitism," said Suetsugu.



"Ultimately, I hope such discoveries will deepen our understanding of the diverse strategies orchids employ to balance different lifestyles, thereby aiding in the preservation of the incredible diversity of these plants in our forests."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-for-orchids">Conservation efforts for orchids</h2>



Understanding how orchids interact with fungi is essential for conservation efforts. Many parasitic orchids depend on specific fungal species, which means changes in forest ecosystems could threaten their survival. 



By studying these relationships, researchers can better predict how orchids will respond to environmental changes and how best to protect them.



This research was supported by the <a href="https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Japan Society for the Promotion of Science</a>, the Japan Science and Technology Agency (<a href="https://www.jst.go.jp/EN/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JST</a>), and the <a href="https://www.chikyu.ac.jp/rihn_e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Institute for Humanity and Nature</a>. 



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tpj.70045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Plant Journal</a>.



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Some orchids turn parasitic when conditions allow

Orchids are among the most diverse and fascinating plants in...

The natural world has long adapted to Earth’s changing climate, but there are limits to what living organisms can withstand. Plants, in particular, play a crucial role in maintaining the planet’s balance by absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. 



However, new research suggests that rising temperatures may push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-release-carbon-faster-than-we-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> beyond their limits, altering their ability to regulate the environment.



Scientists have traditionally believed that plants conserve water by closing their pores during extreme heat. 



But Dr. Sean Michaletz, a botany professor at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>, has uncovered a surprising reality.



His research suggests that plants lose more water than expected, potentially weakening their role in climate regulation. If these findings are accurate, they could reshape how we predict future warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-help-control-carbon-and-water-cycles">Plants help control carbon and water cycles</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants</a> are essential to life on Earth. Through photosynthesis, they take in carbon dioxide, convert it into energy, and release oxygen. 



This process allows them to function as a carbon sink, absorbing greenhouse gases that would otherwise contribute to global warming.



In addition to their role in carbon absorption, plants regulate the water cycle. They release water vapor into the atmosphere, which helps cool the planet and maintain humidity levels. 



However, as temperatures rise, this delicate balance may be shifting in unexpected ways.



Dr. Michaletz’s research suggests that rising heat forces plants to lose more water through their cuticle, a waxy layer on their leaves. 



Unlike their pores, which can close to prevent water loss, the cuticle remains open. The thinner the cuticle, the more water a plant loses.



This process could reduce photosynthesis, limit carbon absorption, and even turn plants into carbon sources under extreme conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-risk-of-plant-water-loss">Hidden risk of plant water loss</h2>



For decades, scientists assumed that plants primarily lost water through their pores, which could close during dry or hot conditions. 



This belief shaped climate models and water cycle predictions. However, new findings indicate that cuticle-based water loss may be more significant than previously thought.



“When temperatures rise, plants lose more water through their cuticle than through their pores,” explained Dr. Michaletz. “This limits their ability to absorb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-soils-release-more-carbon-than-plants-can-replace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> and reduces their role as a carbon sink.”



In extreme heat, plants may struggle to maintain photosynthesis, absorbing less carbon while continuing to release water. 



If temperatures climb too high, forests and other ecosystems could shift from storing carbon to emitting it. This shift would accelerate climate change and disrupt global ecosystems.



Dr. Michaletz estimates that a single medium-sized leaf exposed to 50°C could lose about one-third of a teaspoon of water per day through its cuticle. 



Scaled up to an entire forest, this effect could significantly alter global water and carbon cycles.



Current climate models may underestimate this impact, leading scientists to reassess predictions for future warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-can-make-plants-stop-working">Extreme heat can make plants stop working</h2>



Not all plants respond to heat in the same way. Some species can tolerate extreme temperatures, while others begin to suffer as soon as conditions become too warm. 



A study conducted in Vancouver examined 200 plant species to determine their heat tolerance.



“Our research suggests that photosynthesis starts to break down between 40 and 51°C,” said Dr. Michaletz. “During the 2021 heat dome, temperatures soared to 49.6°C, pushing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-carbon-sinks-are-being-pushed-to-their-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> to their limits.”



If temperatures continue rising, plants could reach a critical breaking point. The research team estimates that 60°C may be the maximum temperature plants can survive. 



Beyond this threshold, proteins inside plant cells break down, leading to irreversible damage and eventual death.



While some desert and tropical plants have evolved to withstand extreme heat, most species do not have the same resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-may-turn-into-carbon-sources">Plants may turn into carbon sources</h2>



Understanding how heat affects plant life is essential for predicting climate change. If plants reach their temperature limits, they may stop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">absorbing carbon dioxide</a> and instead release it, contributing to warming rather than slowing it.



“Globally, researchers are working to determine the ‘tipping point’ where Earth’s vegetation releases more carbon dioxide than it absorbs, switching from a carbon sink to a carbon source,” said Dr. Michaletz.



“Our estimates suggest this could happen around 30°C, though key uncertainties remain - especially how microclimates and water availability affect photosynthesis under extreme heat.”



With Earth’s average temperature already at 16°C, this threshold may be closer than expected. If plant ecosystems begin releasing more carbon than they store, global temperatures could rise even faster than current models predict.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-biosphere-2">Lessons from Biosphere 2</h2>



The relationship between plants and the environment has long fascinated scientists, leading to experiments that test how vegetation responds to extreme conditions. 



One of the most ambitious projects in ecological research was <a href="https://biosphere2.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biosphere 2</a>, an enclosed facility designed to simulate an independent ecosystem.



As a postdoctoral researcher, Dr. Michaletz worked at Biosphere 2, which was originally created as a self-sustaining environment. 



Scientists, known as biospherians, were sealed inside to see if humans could survive without external oxygen or supplies.



“Biosphere 2 later transitioned into a research and public education center, where I studied how high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-climate-changes-have-drastic-effects-on-tropical-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures affect plants</a> in its experimental rainforest,” said Dr. Michaletz.



The original experiment revealed unexpected challenges. Carbon dioxide levels rose due to chemical reactions within the facility, and prolonged isolation caused psychological stress among participants. 



These unexpected results highlighted the complexities of maintaining an artificial environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-close-are-we-to-the-limit">How close are we to the limit?</h2>



Plants have survived shifts in climate for millions of years, but they are not invincible. 



They have upper limits, set by the physical laws governing their biological processes. While some plants have adapted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climates-force-plants-to-compete-with-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survive heat stress</a>, many others cannot withstand prolonged extreme temperatures.



Scientists are now working to pinpoint exactly when and where vegetation will begin to struggle under rising global temperatures. 



Some recent measurements suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> may already be approaching dangerous heat thresholds.



If global warming continues unchecked, plants may lose their ability to regulate the carbon in the environment, triggering a chain reaction of climate feedback loops.



The question now is not whether plants will be affected by rising temperatures, but how soon the consequences will be felt. 



Understanding these limits is crucial for predicting the future of Earth’s ecosystems and the role plants will play in a rapidly warming world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.20346" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



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Plants may stop absorbing carbon if temperatures continue to rise

The natural world has long adapted to Earth’s changing climate,...

Cocoa is the backbone of the $100 billion chocolate industry, and the source of livelihood for millions of small-scale cocoa farmers in warm tropical climates. Unfortunately, climate change makes it increasingly difficult for these farmers to maintain productivity, putting the future of this crop under growing threat.



The increased global consumption of cocoa has already provoked plantation expansion and intensified cultivation schemes - frequently at the expense of local biodiversity and long-term ecosystem resilience.



As the sector struggles with these issues, scientists are working on solutions that can safeguard cocoa production and the ecosystems they depend on. New findings suggest that nature itself may hold the key to securing cocoa’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skyrocketing-cocoa-costs">Skyrocketing cocoa costs</h2>



In December 2024, cocoa prices soared to an unprecedented $12,646 per metric ton. Experts link this jump to years of adverse weather, which has been linked to climate change, and the cocoa swollen shoot virus in West Africa. 



As a result, manufacturing costs for chocolate have surged more than 167% over the past two years, forcing retailers to raise prices.



Consumers now face higher chocolate costs at checkout, weighing whether a favorite sweet is worth the extra expense.



Hershey’s buying practices mean current cocoa costs won’t hit shelves right away. Still, the company stated, “We continue to collaborate with our retail partners to ensure we offer a variety of products that meet the right occasions and price points for our consumers.” A 1-pound bar of Hershey’s remains $14.99 for now.



Dirk Van de Put of Mondelez International cited “unprecedented cocoa cost inflation,” while cocoa futures rose 143%. 



“Every time we get rain in West Africa, the futures change. People are watching it that close. It’s just crazy. There’s a lot of money on the table in this exchange,” said Branch. 



The Ivory Coast and Ghana produce 70% of all cocoa, making adverse weather and disease - often tied to climate change - key factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-threats-to-cocoa-farming">Climate threats to cocoa farming</h2>



A collaborative research effort has shed light on the growing risks that climate change poses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa production</a>.



More significantly, the study suggests possible methods for farmers to maintain productivity, without further encroaching on our much-needed forests.



The research, which sought to understand the crucial factors that shape cocoa yields, was conducted in Brazil, Ghana, and Indonesia, whose combined production covers a third of the world's cocoa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-boost-yields-up-to-20">Pollinators boost yields up to 20%</h2>



One key finding of the study was that increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-apocalypse-australasia-is-facing-a-hidden-pollination-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> rates could effectively augment yields by a significant fifth. 



As understood from the study, many cocoa plantations are currently incompletely pollinated, which prevents them from reaching their full yield potential.



"Cocoa is pollinated by tiny insects such as midges and thrips, and it comes as quite a surprise that most of the time there simply isn’t enough pollination happening to produce the cocoa crop that is possible," said Dr. Acheampong Atta-Boateng, who recently completed his doctoral work at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



Changes in temperature also influence yields, a fact that highlights the vulnerability of cocoa-producing regions to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



Sites where temperatures were higher by up to 7 degrees recorded cocoa yields that were reduced by between 20 and 31%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cocoa-farming-vs-future-climate">Cocoa farming vs. future climate</h2>



The concluding recommendations of the study highlight practical, feasible strategies to enhance pollination and manage the growing impact of climate change. 



Priorities include maintaining leaf litter and other understory biomass, preserving soil organic matter, providing suitable shade, and cutting back on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-herbicides-linked-to-diminished-brain-functioning-in-young-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical use in agriculture</a>.



"This research shows that sustainable agricultural methods can significantly improve cocoa yields without farm expansion or intensification," stressed Dr. Tonya Lander from the University of Oxford, the lead author of the study.



By adopting biodiversity-centered, climate-resilient farming techniques, the cocoa sector can both increase production and safeguard farmers' livelihoods.



"The rising demand for cocoa and the short-term economic benefits to farmers has led to plantation expansion and ecological homogenization at the expense of biodiversity and vital ecosystem services, like pollination," said Dr. Tom Wanger of <a href="https://en.westlake.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Westlake University</a> in China.



"This study highlights the long-term risks of this approach, and how pollination can be a solution that works, alongside climate-resilient agricultural systems, to achieve long-term, ecologically and financially sustainable solutions," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implementing-sustainable-practices">Implementing sustainable practices</h2>



Although the research emphasizes increased pollination and climate-resilient agriculture, the adoption of these practices on a large scale needs unified action by farmers, policy makers, and industry leaders.



The small-scale cocoa farmers, who are the backbone of the industry, do not have access to the resources and information for adopting these sustainable farming practices.



One of the most significant challenges is striking a balance between short-term economic pressures and long-term sustainability. 



Most farmers operate on limited finances, making it hard to invest in biodiversity-friendly methods or move away from chemical-based agriculture. 



Offering financial incentives, such as subsidies or premium pricing for sustainably grown cocoa, may help bridge this gap by encouraging farmers to adopt more eco-friendly practices.



Additionally, farmer training and education initiatives can enable producers to learn about the importance of pollinators and adopt practices that promote biodiversity.



Methods such as agroforestry - growing cocoa trees with other indigenous plants - can increase pollination rates while also providing additional sources of income.



Though demand stays strong, rising production expenses and uncertain supply may reshape chocolate prices for years to come.



However, by investing in sustainable solutions now, the cocoa sector can help ensure that generations to come can still enjoy chocolate while protecting the livelihoods of farmers and the ecosystems that support them.



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This study was an international collaboration involving scientists from the University of Oxford, Westlake University in China, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz in Brazil, and the University of Göttingen in Germany



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsenv/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Chocolate and cocoa prices have doubled in the past year, here's why

Cocoa is the backbone of the $100 billion chocolate industry,...

Scientists are constantly searching for ways to improve crop yields, enhance food quality, and speed up plant breeding. Traditional methods take years, sometimes decades, to create new crop varieties with better genetic traits. 



However, researchers at the University of Queensland (<a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UQ</a>) have introduced a remarkable technique that could change the future of agriculture.



For the first time, the experts have successfully delivered genetic material into plants through their roots. This approach, detailed in the journal Nature Plants, offers a faster and more efficient way to modify plants. 



By using nanoparticles to transport synthetic mRNA, the researchers have opened new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-technology-will-accelerate-the-pace-of-plant-species-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural advancements</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nanoparticles-carry-genetic-material-in-plants">Nanoparticles carry genetic material in plants</h2>



Professor Bernard Carroll from UQ’s <a href="https://scmb.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences</a> explained how this technology can help fine-tune plant genes. He highlighted the slow and expensive nature of traditional breeding and genetic modification methods.



"Traditional plant breeding and genetic modification take many generations to produce a new crop variety, which is time-consuming and expensive," said Professor Carroll.



The research team has developed a way to introduce nanoparticles into plant roots. These nanoparticles, initially created for vaccine and cancer treatment delivery in animals, have now been repurposed for plant genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modification</a>. 



Professor Gordon Xu’s group at UQ developed these nanoparticles, which offer a promising method for introducing beneficial traits into plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-past-tough-plant-cell-walls">Getting past tough plant cell walls</h2>



Unlike human or animal cells, plant cells have rigid walls that make genetic modifications challenging. The research team tackled this problem by coating the nanoparticles with a special protein. 



The protein softened the tough plant cell walls, allowing the nanoparticles to penetrate and deliver genetic material directly into the cells.



"The protein coating helped the nanoparticle break through the cell walls to deliver a synthetic mRNA cargo into plants for the first time," said Professor Carroll.



This technique allows scientists to introduce specific genetic instructions into plants. The mRNA molecules serve as messengers, guiding the plant cells to produce desired proteins. 



The researchers tested their method on multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climates-force-plants-to-compete-with-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>, including Arabidopsis, a model plant closely related to canola and cabbage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-of-genetic-material-within-plants">Movement of genetic material within plants</h2>



One of the most surprising findings of the study was how the nanoparticles moved within the plant. Instead of releasing their genetic cargo into a single cell, the nanoparticles traveled with water, spreading the mRNA throughout the plant.



"It was surprising that rather than delivering all of its load in the first cell it entered, the nanoparticle traveled with water through the plant distributing the mRNA as it went," said Professor Carroll.



The unexpected movement of nanoparticles opens exciting possibilities for plant genetic modification. If scientists can control and refine this process, they could develop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-plant-can-cause-severe-burns-and-dna-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a> with improved traits much more quickly than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-alternative-to-traditional-breeding">Faster alternative to traditional breeding</h2>



The ability to modify plant genes quickly could revolutionize agriculture. Traditional breeding methods require years of careful crossbreeding to achieve desirable traits such as better flavor, increased yield, or improved resistance to pests. 



Genetic modification using conventional methods also involves long and complex processes.



"With further research, we could target an issue with a crop such as flavor or quality and have a new variety without the need for a decade of cross breeding or genetic modification," noted Professor Carroll.



This new nanoparticle-based technique provides a faster alternative. The mRNA delivered into the plant does not permanently alter the plant’s DNA. Instead, it temporarily instructs the plant to produce a beneficial protein and then degrades naturally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-parallel-with-mrna-vaccines">A parallel with mRNA vaccines</h2>



The way this technology works is similar to mRNA vaccines in humans. Just as mRNA vaccines instruct human cells to produce a protein that stimulates the immune system before breaking down, the synthetic mRNA delivered into plants expresses a protein and then disappears.



"Similar to how an mRNA vaccine produces a protein to stimulate the immune system and then degrades away, the mRNA we deliver into plants is expressed transiently and then disappears," said Professor Carroll.



This characteristic makes the technique more adaptable and safer for rapid agricultural improvements. Scientists could use it to introduce temporary changes in plants without affecting their genetic makeup permanently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-plant-genetics-research">Developing plant genetics research</h2>



The potential applications of this technology extend beyond academic research. 



The University of Queensland has already patented the technique through its commercialization company, UniQuest. They are now looking for partners to help further develop and apply this technology in real-world agriculture.



The research team included experts such as Professor Zhi Pin (Gordon) Xu and Dr. Jiaxi Yong from UQ’s <a href="https://aibn.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology</a> and the Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation.



The research could pave the way for faster and more precise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-fern-contains-50-times-more-dna-than-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop improvement</a> methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-game-changer-for-agriculture">A game-changer for agriculture</h2>



The ability to modify plants more efficiently without lengthy breeding cycles or complex genetic modifications could transform food production. Farmers may soon have access to crops with better flavors, higher nutritional value, and greater resilience against environmental stresses.



As this technology advances, researchers will continue refining it to ensure its safety and effectiveness. The next step will be to scale up the process and explore its potential in various agricultural settings.



The discovery marks a new era in crop science, offering a promising path toward improving global food security. With further research and collaboration, this nanoparticle-based approach could redefine how we develop and enhance crops for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-024-01882-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



-----



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Nanoparticles unlock a new way to genetically modify plants

Scientists are constantly searching for ways to improve crop yields,...

species in Dipteridaceae

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