A humble yet remarkable tiny water fern has emerged as a surprising yet powerful potential solution in the global fight against food insecurity.



This unassuming plant, known as Azolla, floats on the surface of freshwater bodies. It is gaining attention in the scientific community for its rapid growth and nutrient-rich profile.



Researchers have identified Carolina azolla, a specific freshwater variant, as a particularly promising candidate to help address food insecurity, offering hope for regions struggling with hunger and malnutrition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tiny-fern-with-huge-potential">A tiny fern with huge potential </h2>



Known for its unique properties, including its ability to double in biomass within days, this floating fern has recently been the subject of intensive scientific research to confirm its safety and viability as a food source. 



A comprehensive study from Penn State has thoroughly examined its potential, paving the way for new possibilities in sustainable agriculture and food production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-about-toxin-content">Concerns about toxin content </h2>



Initial concerns about the toxin content of Azolla prompted experts at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>, in collaboration with an international team of researchers, to embark on an extensive mission.



The team set out to test the plant for the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-blooms-can-release-neurotoxins-into-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyanotoxins</a>. These potent byproducts of cyanobacteria or blue-green algae are often associated with harmful effects and were suspected to be related to the fern.



The researchers discovered that Azolla is completely free of cyanotoxins, thus confirming its safety for consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-azolla-could-feed-millions-of-people">Azolla could feed millions of people</h2>



Daniel Winstead, the leading research technologist at Penn State's College of Agricultural Sciences, emphasized the significance of the discovery.



“That finding suggests that azolla is food safe and has the potential to safely feed millions of people due to its rapid growth while free-floating on shallow fresh water without the need for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-produce-their-own-nitrogen-fertilizer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen fertilizers</a>," said Winstead. 



What truly sets Azolla apart, however, is its remarkable ability to double its biomass in just two days. Additionally, it possesses the unique capability to capture nitrogen directly from the air, enriching its surrounding environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-presence-of-cyanotoxins">Investigating the presence of cyanotoxins </h2>



Cyanotoxins are known for their association with severe neurodegenerative disorders such as ALS and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-increases-the-risk-of-parkinsons-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parkinson's disease</a>, alongside liver and kidney failure, muscle paralysis, and a myriad of other serious health complications. 



Upon the revelation that cyanotoxins are absent in Azolla, Winstead expressed his relief and satisfaction.



"I didn't want to be promoting the consumption of a potentially harmful plant. As I was preparing an experimental design, I was contacted by the Azolla Foundation about that organization's interest in our research," said Winstead. 



"I reached out to them and asked if they knew anyone who was looking into azolla's toxicity from cyanotoxins."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eliminating-the-cyanotoxin-concerns">Eliminating the cyanotoxin concerns</h2>



A few weeks later, he received an email from a group of researchers who were investigating the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cyanobacteria-may-shed-new-light-on-the-history-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyanobacteria</a> and cyanotoxins in the azolla species in question, inviting Winstead to join their study.



“Together, we analyzed the results and concluded that Azolla, and more specifically a cyanobacterium that lives in cavities in the leaves of Azolla, do not produce any of the main cyanotoxins," explained Winstead.



He also explained that the cyanobacterium found in Azolla is Nostoc azollae, an endosymbiont that lives within or on the surface of the plant in a mutually beneficial relationship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viable-and-sustainable-food-source">Viable and sustainable food source</h2>



Nostoc azollae coexists with Azolla in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationship-plant-roots-underground-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic relationship</a>, thriving alongside the plant without producing any harmful toxins.



“More importantly, the known genes required to make these toxins are not even present within the genome of Nostoc azollae,” said Winstead.



With each successive study, the evidence supporting Azolla as a viable and sustainable food source grows. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-potential-of-azolla">Broader potential of Azolla</h2>



Beyond its potential to nourish populations worldwide, Azolla also holds promise as a new source of biofertilizer and biodiesel. It may pave the way for revolutionary advances in sustainable agriculture and energy.



As humanity continues to explore innovative solutions to global challenges, the diminutive Azolla might just hold the key to a greener and more nourished future for all. 



Its potential contribution to a sustainable world makes it an exciting subject for further exploration and investment.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/13/19/2707" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants</a>.



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Azolla: The tiny fern that could feed the world

A humble yet remarkable tiny water fern has emerged as...

Photosynthesis forms the foundation of life on Earth, yet climate change increasingly threatens this essential process. With advanced tools, scientists can now study how shifts in temperature, humidity, and light impact photosynthesis and, by extension, the future of ecosystems.&nbsp;



For Rakesh Tiwari, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a>'s Department of Ecology and Genetics, uncovering how plants adapt - or fail to adapt - to climate shifts is critical.



“I want to understand how species and ecosystems can function in the future,” said Tiwari, whose research spans tropical forests in Puerto Rico, the Amazon, and even the controlled climate of Uppsala’s Tropical Greenhouse.&nbsp;



Using cutting-edge tools to simulate environmental extremes, Tiwari seeks to understand plants' adaptability to climate challenges and their potential limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-photosynthesis-under-pressure">Observing photosynthesis under pressure</h2>



In the humid atmosphere of Uppsala’s greenhouse, surrounded by towering palms and dense foliage, Tiwari demonstrates his process using a portable greenhouse gas analyzer, designed to simulate various environmental conditions on leaves.&nbsp;



He places a hibiscus leaf into the instrument’s chamber, exposing it to intensified light and heat. The leaf’s reaction offers clues about how plants process sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to create glucose and oxygen under different stresses.



“Since it's a portable instrument, I can take it to different places and analyze photosynthetic responses to different environmental conditions for plants,” Tiwari explained.&nbsp;



“For example, I can change the temperature and light levels, and measure how this affects the photosynthesis rate.” 



This on-site work parallels studies he’s conducted in natural tropical environments, where he’s observed distinct patterns in how photosynthesis responds to extreme heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-s-foundation-in-the-rainforest">Life's foundation in the rainforest</h2>



In 2017, Tiwari participated in a research project in the Amazon, where he and his colleagues used similar tools to monitor the health of the rainforest’s photosynthesis system.&nbsp;



“We used a similar fluorometer to monitor when the photosystems started to break down. What we saw was a clear pattern. Trees in one of the Amazon's hottest sites are already experiencing air temperature conditions that can affect their photosynthesis machinery.”&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that plants in particularly hot and dry areas of the Amazon were already nearing their heat tolerance, with photosynthesis rates dropping during especially high temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-limits-of-photosynthetic-efficiency">The limits of photosynthetic efficiency</h2>



Global photosynthetic efficiency is strikingly low, typically at most 5%, due in part to a process called photorespiration.&nbsp;



During photorespiration, an enzyme called rubisco mistakenly binds oxygen instead of carbon dioxide, a problem exacerbated by high temperatures. This reduces the plant’s ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">produce energy</a> efficiently.



“Another factor is the small openings, or stomata, in the plant's leaves that regulate carbon dioxide absorption and water exchange,” Tiwari said.&nbsp;



“In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-countries-most-at-risk-from-extreme-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme heat</a>, they can close to save water. This is a survival strategy, but it also reduces their photosynthesis rate. While in some trees, stomata open at higher temperatures to make use of evaporative cooling as a leaf cooling mechanism.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-carbon-storage-nbsp">Implications for carbon storage&nbsp;</h2>



Tiwari’s research at Uppsala, conducted with Bob Muscarella’s team, focuses on understanding temperature-related adaptations in tropical and temperate forests.&nbsp;



His recent findings suggest that temperature sensitivity to photorespiration varies significantly among species, which could inform reforestation strategies aimed at selecting species most resilient to climate change.



“The consequences of such understanding can better inform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reforestation-cannot-offset-carbon-emissions-from-harvesting-wood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforestation</a> projects. For example, we can understand how vegetation could function in warmer futures and how we can adapt our future conservation and afforestation strategies,” Tiwari noted.



However, Tiwari emphasizes that planting trees alone isn’t sufficient to protect the climate. Preserving mature forests offers unparalleled ecological benefits.&nbsp;



“We cannot recreate the complexity of a mature forest. It does more than just capture carbon; it supports biodiversity, regulates water flows, and provides habitats for countless species,” he said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-the-foundation-of-life">Preserving the foundation of life</h2>



From October 21 to November 1, the UN biodiversity conference COP16 will be held in Cali, Colombia, where leaders will address global conservation challenges.&nbsp;



Tiwari hopes that conference discussions will focus on preserving natural ecosystems, especially forests, as they are irreplaceable in regulating carbon and supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>.



“If we lose biodiversity and forest ecosystems, we lose the planet's best natural carbon capture system,” he said.&nbsp;



“One day there may be technologies that can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but the more we rely on artificial solutions, the more damage we risk causing the planet. These are risks we cannot afford to take.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-innovation-with-natural-solutions">Balancing innovation with natural solutions</h2>



In the face of climate challenges, Tiwari’s research highlights the need for both conservation and innovation. While advanced tools are improving our understanding of photosynthesis, preserving existing ecosystems remains essential for achieving true sustainability. 



“The best way to protect the environment is to preserve the natural systems that already exist,” Tiwari said. His work highlights a balanced approach: technological advances in plant science coupled with committed efforts to maintain natural habitats.



By investigating the intricate ways plants respond to climate shifts, Tiwari’s research emphasizes the importance of biodiversity conservation in climate action. 



Through both preservation and innovation, the scientific community can work towards sustaining the ecosystems that serve as the foundation of life on Earth.



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The foundation of life is at risk from climate change

Photosynthesis forms the foundation of life on Earth, yet climate...

We might want to start considering a diversity makeover for the simulation game 'Farmville,' making it more environmentally conscious and modeling it to promote biodiverse farming practices.



Why, you ask? Because research has found that adding a dash of plant diversity to agricultural systems can effectively accelerate the carbon consignment potential of the soils.



This is a significant discovery, and is particularly relevant as the agriculture industry strives to decrease its carbon footprint.



Plant diversity could be our very own secret ingredient to sustainable, eco-friendly agriculture and food production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-diversity-and-sustainable-agriculture">Plant diversity and sustainable agriculture</h2>



It is no secret that the progress and intensification of farming have taken a toll on our soils - depleting their health and releasing carbon into the atmosphere.



Since a vast portion of our planet is dedicated to farming, it is pertinent that agricultural systems take a leading role in climate change mitigation strategies.



However, there has been a roadblock in these efforts due to our limited knowledge about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-distinguish-between-good-and-bad-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-microbe</a> interactions. A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/de.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> set out to investigate.



The study, led by Luiz Domeignoz-Horta, shows that the key to augmenting soil carbon storage lies within our reach by simply increasing plant diversity in agricultural fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-benefits-of-plant-diversity">Potential benefits of plant diversity </h2>



The researchers took their study to Finland, where they launched the TwinWin experiment.



The goal of the research was to explore how varying levels of plant diversity could influence soil's microbial processes, especially when integrated with a staple crop like barley.



Over the course of the study, the experiment tested barley grown alone and alongside eight different plant species - each carefully selected for their prospective benefits to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-soils-produce-a-symphony-of-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil health</a> and resilience.



These species included nitrogen-fixing and deep-rooting varieties. The plants were chosen to enhance nutrient cycling, improve soil structure, and promote sustainable agricultural practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-diversity-for-better-carbon-storage">Plant diversity for better carbon storage</h2>



The focus of the experiment was on microbial carbon use efficiency - a measure of how effectively microbes transform carbon inputs into fresh biomass without releasing it as carbon dioxide.



The scientists gauged microbial growth, soil respiration, and community dynamics through molecular sequencing and stable isotope tracking. The team kept a keen eye on the movement of carbon within the soil microbial communities.



"We found that higher plant diversity fostered stronger positive interactions between microbes in the rhizosphere - the area around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autophagy-what-makes-plant-roots-grow-faster-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant roots</a> - which ultimately improved the community carbon use efficiency," said Domeignoz-Horta.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-green-avalanche">The green avalanche</h2>



Moreover, a higher variety of plants positively impacted overall plant biomass production without causing a drop in barley yields, demonstrating that this practice can maintain crop output while enhancing soil carbon retention. 



It is clear that plant diversity plays a crucial role in influencing microbial physiology, promoting healthier ecosystems and offering an eco-friendly solution to agricultural carbon sequestration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-light-for-carbon-farming">Green light for "carbon farming"</h2>



While implementing plant diversity in farming systems could be labor-intensive for small-scale farmers, they remain key stakeholders in sustainable farming.



"Nevertheless, our results suggest that with the right policy support, encouraging diverse crop mixtures could become a key component of ‘carbon farming,’ helping to sequester more carbon in soils while maintaining agricultural productivity," said Domeignoz-Horta.



"This could pave the way for new climate-resilient farming practices that benefit both the environment and farmers."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-for-sustainable-agriculture">A path forward for sustainable agriculture</h2>



The findings from the TwinWin experiment highlight the untapped potential of plant diversity in agriculture. 



By enhancing microbial interactions and improving soil carbon storage, diverse crop mixtures can play a crucial role in mitigating climate change. 



However, realizing this potential requires a shift in farming practices and broader policy support to encourage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-footprint-a-new-frontier-in-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable</a>, biodiversity-focused approaches. 



With increased awareness and commitment from stakeholders, plant diversity could redefine the future of agriculture, offering a resilient, eco-friendly solution that benefits both farmers and the planet. 



The research suggests that the path to a more sustainable future starts with embracing the natural synergy between plants and soil and harnessing the power of biodiversity to build healthier ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52449-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How plant diversity can help combat climate change

We might want to start considering a diversity makeover for...

Ever wonder why some farmers keep planting different crops or allowing wildflowers to flourish on the periphery of their field? It's not just to create a pretty scene. 



Planting diverse crops involves something as intricate and invisible as bacteria and as immense and palpable as carbon storage and climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-agriculture-has-a-carbon-issue">Agriculture has a carbon issue</h2>



A large portion of the carbon dioxide in our atmosphere originates from the soil. Plowing, tilling, and harvesting release carbon from the ground and send it skywards. 



Despite the well-intentioned green thumb, agriculture finds itself in the red. About 40% of the world's land is used for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-darkspots-need-urgent-attention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming</a>, making these practices a not-so-small matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-biodiversity-and-carbon-storage">Plant biodiversity and carbon storage</h2>



A new study suggests that letting many different plants grow in one field can help keep carbon in the ground.



Isn't that something? The answer could be as simple as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-in-dry-landscapes-have-surprising-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planting a variety of crops</a> or even letting those lovely wildflowers stay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-of-the-matter">Roots of the matter</h2>



Leading the charge on this novel idea is Luiz Domeignoz-Horta and a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>. They conducted a brilliant experiment in Finland called the TwinWin experiment.



Here's the setup: barren fields were sowed with barley. Alongside the barley, different fields had up to a total of eight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/islands-are-home-to-one-third-of-all-known-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different plant species</a>.



Why these additional plants? The answer lies in the roots. Some of these plants are nitrogen-fixing, and some have deep roots. Both of these qualities help improve soil health, leading to more carbon storage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-footprint-of-diverse-plants">Carbon footprint of diverse plants</h2>



The researchers had a specific measure in mind to gauge the effectiveness of microbial action – carbon use efficiency. They kept tabs on this by monitoring microbial growth, soil respiration, and community dynamics.



So what did it all mean? It turns out that a greater variety of plants lead to healthier microbe interaction in the soil around the roots. This not only means more efficient carbon use but also better soil health overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-plants-reduced-carbon">Bigger plants, reduced carbon</h2>



Plant diversity also increased the overall plant biomass production. This means that even as carbon was reduced, crop yields were not. So, farmers can potentially keep this practice going without losing income.



The findings put in perspective the importance of identity, or rather diversity. By increasing diversity, we can have healthier ecosystems that are more resilient to changes.



But it's not just about the environments. This practice is a sustainable way for the agricultural sector to do its part in tackling climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-diversity-in-modern-farming">Plant diversity in modern farming</h2>



Adopting diverse planting strategies on a practical level entails planning, understanding soil conditions, and selecting compatible plant species. 



Farmers face challenges like learning which crops complement each other, how to fit this into crop rotation systems, and the initial costs of changing traditional methodologies. 



However, extension services and agricultural advisories are increasingly offering support to ease this transition, providing guidance on species selection suited to local conditions and tips for managing these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteraceae-is-the-worlds-most-diverse-flowering-plant-family/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse systems</a>. 



As more practitioners adopt these biodiverse systems, collective knowledge grows, and best practices circulate more widely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-agricultural-future">Sustainable agricultural future</h2>



With the growing body of research backing plant biodiversity's role in carbon sequestration, the potential policy implications are profound. 



Governments and international organizations might consider incentivizing these practices through subsidies or grants, encouraging farmers to incorporate diverse planting more widely. 



Such measures not only help reduce greenhouse gas emissions but also promote biodiversity, leading to more resilient ecosystems. 



Policymakers face the task of balancing immediate economic concerns with long-term environmental goals, yet the evidence suggests that these approaches could yield both financial and ecological dividends, supporting a sustainable agricultural future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implementation-of-plant-diversity">Implementation of plant diversity</h2>



Plant diversity might sound good on paper and look great in the lab, but applying it on the field (especially for small-scale farmers) can be quite an endeavor. The additional work and cost could present significant challenges.



“The implementation of plant diversity in farming systems is labor-intensive, particularly for small-scale farmers who are the key to sustainability,” noted Domeignoz-Horta.



“Nevertheless, our results suggest that with the right policy support, encouraging diverse crop mixtures could become a key component of ‘carbon farming,’ helping to sequester more carbon in soils while maintaining agricultural productivity."



According to Domeignoz-Horta, this could pave the way for new climate-resilient farming practices that benefit both the environment and farmers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



As we face the challenges of excess carbon and climate change, solutions like diverse plants offer hope. They offer a path to sustainable, resilient agricultural practices that benefit our environment and farmers alike. 



These are solutions that do not demand radical technological interventions or substantial policy upheavals. Instead, they ask us to return to our roots and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-plants-genus-spread-farther-grow-faster-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">embrace diversity</a>. Not just for the sake of a colorful landscape but for a healthier, more sustainable world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52449-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Planting diverse crops traps carbon and boosts soil health

Ever wonder why some farmers keep planting different crops or...

Salt marshes are nature’s coastal defenders, and are gaining recognition as an essential line of protection against rising seas and increasingly intense storms.



As images of coastal homes being swept away become a more familiar sight, the impacts of climate change are undeniable. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salt-marshes-as-a-sustainable-solution">Salt marshes as a sustainable solution </h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) investigated the role that salt marshes play in protecting coastlines. 



The study, led by graduate student Ernie I. H. Lee and Professor Heidi Nepf, reveals that salt marshes are a cost-effective and sustainable solution for coastal defense.



"Each year, coastal storms threaten hundreds of millions of people, disrupt transportation networks, and produce billions of dollars in damage. In 2022, in the United States alone, coastal storms have resulted in economic losses over $165 billion," noted the study authors.



"These costs are projected to increase with sea level rise and with more frequent and more severe storms promoted by climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-effective-coastal-protection">Cost-effective coastal protection </h2>



The research indicates that implementing measures to protect and enhance salt marshes in front of protective seawalls can protect some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/self-repairing-oyster-reefs-will-help-protect-coastlines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastlines</a>, and the cost is surprisingly reasonable.



According to Professor Nepf, protecting coastal marshes is not just something that would be nice to do, but is actually economically justifiable.



The researchers discovered that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fighting-coastal-erosion-electricity-turns-sand-into-a-sea-wall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seawall</a> behind the salt marsh can be significantly lower due to the marshes' wave dampening effects. This saves on construction costs while offering the same protection from storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-marshes-big-impact">Small marshes, big impact</h2>



The study highlights that even a small marsh can make a difference. This is encouraging news for places where it was thought preserving smaller marshes wasn't worth the cost.



“One of the other exciting things that the study really brings to light is that you don’t need a huge marsh to get a good effect. It could be a relatively short marsh, just tens of meters wide, that can give you benefit," said Professor Nepf. “We show that it can make enough of a difference to be financially viable."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-marshes-to-the-rescue">Urban marshes to the rescue</h2>



While the benefits of natural marshes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marshes-protect-shorelines-against-inclement-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitigating storm damage</a> are well-known, this study differs in its focus. 



According to Lee, the study emphasizes the solution's viability in urban settings, where space for marshland is constrained and seawalls are prevalent.



The MIT researchers developed a model that factored in the morphology of various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-coastal-salt-marshes-are-keeping-pace-with-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salt marsh</a> plants rather than relying on an empirical drag coefficient. 



They assessed the plant species' influence and changes in morphology across seasons without requiring field measurements for each condition.



The team based the cost-benefit analysis on a simple premise: how much of the seawall height could be reduced if a given amount of marsh accompanied it? This practical metric provided a concrete value to quantify the benefits of salt marshes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-real-world-example">A real-world example</h2>



Nepf and Lee validated their simulations using real-world examples. They studied local salt marshes in Salem, Massachusetts, where restoration projects are underway.



Their model showed a healthy salt marsh could replace an additional 1.7 meters of seawall height, maintaining the safety of pedestrians from wave overtopping.



Collating data for modeling a marsh is a labor-intensive process. To mitigate this, Lee developed a method using drone imaging and machine learning to enhance mapping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantifying-the-value-of-ecosystem-services">Quantifying the value of ecosystem services</h2>



The White House Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs released guidelines for assessing the value of ecosystem services in federal project planning. Professor Nepf said they lack specific methods for quantifying value.



The study addressed this gap by providing practical tools to translate the wave attenuation capabilities of marshes into economic value.



The study also complements the Federal Emergency Management Agency's toolkit for benefit-cost analysis of environmental services.



As Lee notes, this is one of the applications policymakers can consider to quantify the environmental service values of marshes.



To facilitate this process, the software that environmental engineers apply to specific sites is available online for free on GitHub. "It’s a one-dimensional model accessible by a standard consulting firm,” said Professor Nepf.



Salt marshes represent a win-win situation for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-based-solutions-improve-coastal-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal defense</a>. They provide an environmental benefit and a cost-effective solution.



"This paper presents a practical tool for translating the wave attenuation capabilities of marshes into economic values, which could assist decision-makers in the adaptation of marshes for nature-based coastal defense, " said Xiaxia Zhang, a professor at Shenzen University in China.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01753-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Salt marshes are enormously valuable for coastal protection

Salt marshes are nature’s coastal defenders, and are gaining recognition...

When you walk past a garden, it is easy to appreciate the burst of colors and fragrant aroma of blooming flowers.



Beyond their visual appeal, gardens offer a peaceful retreat for people seeking a connection with nature. 



Gardens do more than please our senses. According to a recent study, they serve as lifelines for vital pollinators, especially when farmland nectar is scarce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-gardens-in-nature">The role of gardens in nature</h2>



Researchers at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> uncovered an interesting phenomenon. They discovered that gardens aren’t just decorative spaces. They are essential sources of nourishment for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-not-just-attracted-to-plants-by-scent-but-also-by-humidity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



These natural patches provide an abundance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-carrying-nectar-avoid-overheating-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nectar</a> - a vital pollinator lifeline during early spring and late summer when there is less farmland nectar.



During these crucial times, gardens meet 50% to 95% of a pollinator’s nectar needs. This highlights the importance of gardens in rural and urban areas. They help maintain healthy populations of bees, flies, butterflies, and other pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-are-gardens-good-for-pollinators">Why are gardens good for pollinators?</h2>



Study lead author Dr. Thomas Timberlake is a senior research associate in Bristol’s&nbsp;School of Biological Sciences.



"It’s well known that gardens and urban areas can be great places for pollinators like bees, flies, and butterflies. In fact, past research shows that cities often have more types and numbers of pollinators than farming areas," said Dr. Timberlake. 



"There's also evidence that pollinator populations are healthier in rural areas when they're close to small towns or villages, so we know gardens are good for pollinators, but we don't fully understand why."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gardens-a-steady-source-of-nectar">Gardens: A steady source of nectar</h2>



The team set out to explore what makes gardens vital havens for pollinators. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-majority-of-global-farmland-is-at-risk-of-pesticide-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Farmland</a> offers high quantities of nectar but lacks stability and continuity. 



Gardens contribute less than 15 percent of the total nectar in rural areas, but their constant supply makes them invaluable pollinator food sources.



In the UK, more than 90 percent of farmland lies within one kilometer of a garden, which greatly extends the reach of the benefits that gardens have to offer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individuals-can-make-a-difference">Individuals can make a difference </h2>



The study drives home a message of responsibility and hope. 



"Many people feel powerless when it comes to fighting biodiversity loss, thinking it's too big of a problem to tackle on their own. But our study shows that individual citizens can make a big difference," said Dr. Timberlake.



By maintaining a pollinator-friendly garden with flowers blooming throughout the year, especially in early spring and late summer, anyone can support pollinators.



This individual effort resonates beyond the gardens' fences and benefits ecosystems at large.



“People can support pollinators in their gardens and surrounding farmland by simply making sure their garden has pollinator-friendly flowers blooming throughout the year - especially in early spring and late summer, when pollinators are hungriest,” noted Dr. Timberlake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-pollinator-conservation">The future of pollinator conservation</h2>



The team aims to explore specific plants that fill the nectar void during seasonal hunger gaps, and if gardens should be incorporated into future environmental stewardship programs.



If scientists find that gardens benefit pollinators more than just in farmland habitats, it paves the way for more pollinator-friendly gardens in rural areas. With millions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardeners-can-make-small-changes-to-benefit-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gardeners</a> in the UK, the potential for individual action is massive.



"For the 27 million gardeners in the UK, this study highlights just how important their gardens can be in helping to reverse the decline of pollinators," said Dr. Timberlake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-gardens-and-pollinator-conservation">Urban gardens and pollinator conservation</h2>



With urban areas expanding, gardens are essential for pollinator conservation. In cities with scarce natural habitats, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-gardens-provide-a-reliable-food-supply-for-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban gardens</a> provide green spaces that support biodiversity.



Research indicates that pollinators thrive in urban environments with gardens filled with flowering plants that offer nectar throughout the year.



These green pockets are stepping stones for pollinators, helping species like bees and butterflies traverse the concrete landscape.



By promoting the creation of pollinator-friendly gardens, urban residents contribute to building a network of habitats that enhance the beauty of their surroundings while ensuring the survival of pollinators.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1523" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Gardens help pollinators survive seasonal food shortages

When you walk past a garden, it is easy to...

Delicious,Pistachios,In,Bowl,On,Wooden,Table

The pistachio is often a snack mindlessly munched on while watching TV. The nut has a new trick up its shell causing scientists to see it in a new light. A recent study revealed an impressive new feature of this petite powerhouse. Pistachios may support and enhance vision and overall eye health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pistachios-and-eyes">Pistachios and eyes</h2>



Researchers from the Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy at <a href="https://nutrition.tufts.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tufts University</a> discovered these tasty nuts contain lutein, a plant pigment that benefits the eyes.



The study pinpointed that a daily helping of pistachios significantly impacts macular pigment optical density (MPOD), a key factor in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-could-protect-millions-of-people-from-vision-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eye health</a>.



Do eyes need lutein? The short answer is, yes. Eyes are exposed to harsh visible light and need lutein to guard against potential damage, particularly during aging. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crunchy-findings">Crunchy findings</h2>



The Tufts' study took healthy middle-aged to older adults and added 2 ounces (about 56.7 grams) of pistachios to their daily diet. 



After 12 weeks, the pistachios significantly bumped up MPOD. This is a positive sign of healthy eyes and could reduce the risk of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). 



AMD is a common ailment for many older adults and leads to significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blinking-plays-crucial-role-vision-human-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vision</a> loss.



Many people grapple with numerous health concerns as they age. A national poll by the <a href="https://www.afb.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Foundation for the Blind</a> showed Americans dread vision loss. These results might provide a new ray of hope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pistachios-improve-eye-health">Pistachios improve eye health</h2>



Once a person cracks open a pistachio, they unlock numerous benefits. Study participants saw a noticeable rise in MPOD levels in just 6 weeks of pistachio consumption. 



These benefits stayed throughout the 12-week study.



“Our findings indicate that pistachios are not only a nutritious snack, but they may also provide significant benefits for eye health,” said Dr. Tammy Scott, a research and clinical neuropsychologist and lead author of the study. 



“This is especially important as people age and face higher risks of vision impairment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lutein-eye-s-best-friend">Lutein: Eye’s best friend</h2>



Lutein in pistachios defends eyes. It wards off harmful blue light and doubles as an antioxidant. 



Researchers found that eating pistachios nearly doubled the daily intake of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grapes-provide-a-dietary-shield-to-protect-eye-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lutein</a>, which is generally low in most American diets.



Scott explained the participants who had low lutein saw a quick enhancement in their blood lutein levels in six weeks by adding 2 ounces of pistachios to their diet daily.



“By simply incorporating a handful of pistachios into your diet, you can improve your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-carrots-and-colorful-veggies-really-can-improve-your-eyesight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intake of lutein</a>, which is crucial for protecting your eyes,” Scott said.



This dietary adjustment provided a crucial boost to eye health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brilliance-of-pistachios">Brilliance of pistachios</h2>



Pistachios are good for the eyes and packed with nutrients that support overall health.



They are rich in protein, healthy fats, and vitamins like Vitamin E, magnesium, and potassium, making them a great snack for vegetarians and vegans. 



The healthy fats improve cholesterol levels and support heart health. Pistachios have a low glycemic index and are a smart choice for those watching their sugar intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainability-and-pistachios">Sustainability and pistachios</h2>



Pistachios are not only nutritious but also environmentally friendly. They need less water than other nuts and thrive in dry climates, reducing the need for irrigation. 



Pistachio orchards also support biodiversity by promoting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse ecosystems</a>. Pistachios are a great superfood choice for consumers who want to make sustainable dietary decisions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pistachios-beyond-the-eyes">Pistachios beyond the eyes</h2>



While researchers celebrate the vision-enhancing capacities of lutein in the study from Tufts University, it also has broader health benefits.



“Lutein crosses the blood-brain barrier, where it may help reduce oxidative stress and inflammation,” said Dr. Elizabeth Johnson, a co-investigator in the study.



Studies suggest higher lutein levels could be linked to better cognitive abilities including memory and processing speed.



Next time someone reaches out for a snack, they should give that bag of pistachios a second glance. These nuts could do more for overall health than people realize. 



This includes bolstering vision and supporting brain health and makes pistachios a valuable addition to a healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-blue-light-from-smartphones-may-accelerate-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyle</a>.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002231662401099X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Nutrition</a>. 



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Eating pistachios daily proven to boost eyesight and overall health

The pistachio is often a snack mindlessly munched on while...

A,Cutting-edge,Robotic,Arm,Operates,In,A,Vertical,Hydroponic,Indoor

Photosynthesis is the foundation of all life on Earth, and the reason that we exist. However, because its efficiency rate of converting light energy into chemical energy is only 1%, there's room for improvement. That's where a brilliant new invention called "electro-agriculture" comes in.



Some talented bioengineers suggest an alternative to photosynthesis which promises much improved energy conversion through electro-agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electro-agriculture-for-food-production">Electro-agriculture for food production</h2>



What if plants could be genetically modified to "consume" an organic molecule produced by a solar-powered chemical reaction that converts CO2 more efficiently than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-microalgae-show-photosynthesis-is-possible-in-near-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>?



The idea is that with electro-agriculture, our reliance on land will decrease drastically. Imagine this: a 94% reduction in land needed for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-agriculture-are-locked-in-a-destructive-feedback-loop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a> if all food in the US were produced using this method.



This could even solve the tricky problem of food production in space. With less dependence on sunlight and traditional agricultural fields, we’re looking at a future of multi-story buildings growing our food using electro-agriculture principles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harvesting-sunshine-via-electro-agriculture">Harvesting sunshine via electro-agriculture</h2>



The soul and stature of this head-turning proposal are scientists Robert Jinkerson from <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California</a>, Riverside and Feng Jiao from <a href="https://washu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a> in St. Louis.



Jinkerson, a biological engineer, talks about moving agriculture to the next phase of technology, one that steps away from nature and takes advantage of controlled indoor environments through electro-agriculture.



Solar panels would be placed on or close to these multi-story buildings. These panels would absorb the sun's radiation, powering a chemical reaction between CO2 and water, and producing acetate which is central in electro-agriculture.



Acetate, a molecule similar to the main component in vinegar, would then be used as food for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-carbon-footprint-urban-farms-and-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydroponically grown plants</a>. 



And, why just plants? Acetate is also consumed naturally by food-producing organisms like mushrooms, yeast, and algae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vinegar-for-plants">Vinegar for plants</h2>



Jiao, an electrochemist, tells us that this new process already has an efficiency of about 4%. That's a four-fold increase compared to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. 



And the smaller CO2 footprint associated with electro-agriculture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-food-day-fighting-global-hunger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food production</a>? How would the plants eat the acetate? 



The scientists are exploiting a metabolic pathway that sprouting plants use to break down food, turning it back on for full-grown plants to consume acetate as a source of energy, which is the gist of electro-agriculture.



“We're trying to turn this pathway back on in adult plants and reawaken their native ability to utilize acetate,” says Jinkerson. 



“It's analogous to lactose intolerance in humans -- as babies we can digest lactose in milk, but for many people that pathway is turned off when they grow up. It's kind of the same idea, only for plants.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-implications">Environmental implications</h2>



The transformation from traditional agricultural practices to electro-agriculture is not just about feeding more people efficiently; it carries profound potential benefits for the environment. 



Conventional farming methods often lead to significant deforestation, which is a major contributor to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity loss and climate change</a>.



By drastically reducing the amount of land required for crop production, electro-agriculture presents an opportunity to reverse some of the ecological damage caused by clearing land for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-footprint-a-new-frontier-in-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a>. 



Moreover, with its reduced reliance on fertilizers and pesticides, which can contaminate waterways and impact aquatic ecosystems, this innovative approach offers a promising alternative towards more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable food</a> production methods.



Embracing electro-agriculture could facilitate the gradual restoration of natural habitats, enhancing biodiversity and contributing to a more resilient planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-electro-agriculture">Future of electro-agriculture</h2>



Despite the huge potential of electro-agriculture, significant challenges remain. One key issue is the initial setup cost and maintenance of solar-powered chemical reactors, as well as the infrastructure needed to support large-scale indoor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-adopt-regenerative-agriculture-better-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming facilities</a>.



Additionally, there is a need for further research to understand the long-term impacts on plant physiology when relying on acetate as a primary energy source. 



The genetic modification of plants to reinstate certain metabolic pathways could also face regulatory and public acceptance hurdles.



Furthermore, while current efficiency outpaces traditional photosynthesis, there is always room for improvement as technology advances. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-the-future">Glimpse into the future</h2>



While the research is still in initial stages focusing on tomatoes and lettuce, there are plans of expanding it to staple high-calorie crops like sweet potatoes, cassava, and grains. 



The scientists have already succeeded in engineering plants that can use acetate in addition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/details-photosynthesis-water-viewed-atomic-level-cryo-microscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>.



“For plants, we're still in the research-and-development phase of trying to get them to utilize acetate as their carbon source, because plants have not evolved to grow this way, but we’re making progress,” says Jinkerson. 



“Mushrooms and yeast and algae, however, can be grown like this today, so I think that those applications could be commercialized first, and plants will come later down the line.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



The scientists, undoubtedly, are keen on refining the acetate production method to make the carbon-fixation system even more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-practices-boost-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efficient</a>. 



“This is just the first step for this research, and I think there's a hope that its efficiency and cost will be significantly improved in the near future,” says Jiao.



To sum it all up, electro-agriculture is an exciting frontier in food production technology. If successful, it promises to be an environmentally friendly and space-efficient method that could revolutionize the concept of food production itself.



Jinkerson and Jiao remain optimistic, positioned at the forefront of electro-agriculture, and stress the importance of continued interdisciplinary collaboration.



As their research progresses, they envision not only overcoming these challenges but also refining electro-agriculture into a universally sustainable, accessible, and adaptable method of food production.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/joule/fulltext/S2542-4351(24)00429-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joule</a>.



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'Electro-agriculture' grows food in the dark with 94% less land required

Photosynthesis is the foundation of all life on Earth, and...

Are global forest fires becoming more frequent and more intense? According to a new study, the answer is a resounding yes. 



The research reveals that carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from forest fires have risen by 60% worldwide since 2001.



In some northern boreal forests, which are acutely sensitive to climate variances, CO2 emissions have almost tripled during this time frame.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surge-in-forest-fire-emissions">Surge in forest fire emissions</h2>



The research explores the concept of "pyromes," a term used to denote regions witnessing similar forest fire patterns due to comparable environmental, human, and climatic influences.



The aim was to identify the key elements fueling the surge in forest fire activities of late.



One startling discovery was that emissions from fires in one of the largest pyromes, stretching across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-is-the-leading-cause-of-wildfires-in-boreal-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">boreal forests</a> in Eurasia and North America, saw a 50% hike from 2001 to 2023.



This increase was not exclusive to this region, and was also present across extratropical forests globally - contributing to the CO2 output by half a billion tons per year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-change-influences-forest-fires">How climate change influences forest fires</h2>



The study links escalating emissions to a surge in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-the-devastating-2020-fire-season-in-california/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fire-prone</a> weather, such as heatwaves and droughts, and an uptick in forest growth leading to an abundance of combustible vegetation. 



Both of these circumstances are amplified by the swift warming in the high northern latitudes - a trend that’s occurring twice as fast as the global average.



This research, led by Dr Matthew Jones at the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA), highlights not just the growing scale of forest wildfires over the past two decades but also their intensifying severity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgency-for-net-zero-emissions">Urgency for net zero emissions</h2>



The international team included scientists from the UK, the Netherlands, the US, Brazil, and Spain. The experts caution that unless the primary culprits of climate change like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-carbon-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuel emissions</a> are addressed, forest fires will continue to proliferate.



"Surging forest fires globally, both in extent and severity, have led to a dramatic rise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canadian-fires-have-released-a-billion-tons-of-carbon-dioxide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon emissions</a>. We’re seeing startling shifts in global fire geography, largely explained by escalating climate change impacts in the world’s boreal forests," said Dr. Jones. 



"To protect these critical ecosystems from escalating wildfire threats, we must keep global warming at bay, emphasizing the urgency to move towards net-zero emissions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-carbon-storage-and-wildfires">Global carbon storage and wildfires</h2>



Forests play a significant role in global carbon storage, reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> rates by absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere.



This makes forests instrumental in achieving international climate targets. Schemes like reforestation and afforestation are aimed at negating human-induced CO2 emissions in sectors that are difficult to decarbonize.



But the effectiveness of these initiatives hinges on permanent carbon storage in forests - a prospect that is increasingly threatened by wildfires.



Extratropical fires are now emitting half a billion tons more CO2 than they were two decades ago. The potential long-term effects are dependent on the capacity of our forests to recover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-impact-of-rising-wildfire-severity">Hidden impact of rising wildfire severity</h2>



Increased emissions from forest fires stand in stark contrast with the reduced burning witnessed in the world’s tropical savannahs during the same period.



Forest fires burn with more severity and release larger amounts of harmful smoke into the atmosphere compared to savannah grassland fires, posing significant threats to people living nearby and even distant communities affected by declining air quality caused by smoke.



“Our work shows that fires are increasingly happening where we don’t want them to - in forests, where they present the greatest threat to people and to vital carbon stores," noted Dr. Jones, debunking the prevailing narrative that overall falling annual area burned globally means a declining wildfire impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-and-mitigating-wildfires">Managing and mitigating wildfires</h2>



Machine learning was key to understanding shifting global fire geography. This technology grouped the world’s forest ecoregions into 12 distinct pyromes, making it easier to isolate the effects of climate change from other influencers like land use.



The research provides a fresh perspective on effective strategies for mitigating wildfires and protecting forests. 



“We need substantial financing to support strategic programs for forest management, stakeholder involvement and public education," said Dr. Jones. "The focus should be on a proactive approach, like managing fuel loads at places of highest potential fire risk during favorable fire weather.”



The study received support from the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), European Commission Horizon 2020 programme, and the European Space Agency.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.ado6828" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Global CO2 emissions from forest fires have surged by 60 percent

Are global forest fires becoming more frequent and more intense?...

A recent study has revealed that plants worldwide are absorbing significantly more carbon dioxide (CO2) than scientists had estimated before.&nbsp;



The research shows that terrestrial plants absorb about 31% more CO2 than earlier calculations suggested.&nbsp;



These findings are expected to enhance Earth system models used to predict climate changes and emphasize the crucial role of natural carbon sequestration in reducing greenhouse gas levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-estimates-of-plant-co2-uptake">Estimates of plant CO2 uptake</h2>



The amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> that plants remove from the atmosphere through photosynthesis is referred to as Terrestrial Gross Primary Production, or GPP. 



This process represents the largest transfer of carbon between land and the atmosphere and is typically measured in petagrams of carbon per year (one petagram equals one billion metric tons).&nbsp;



Previously, scientists estimated that GPP was around 120 petagrams per year, a figure established 40 years ago.&nbsp;



However, the new study, led by researchers at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> with support from the Department of Energy (DOE)’s <a href="https://www.ornl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> (ORNL), has revised this estimate to 157 petagrams per year. This represents a major shift in our understanding of global carbon uptake by plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-photosynthesis-on-a-large-scale">Measuring photosynthesis on a large scale</h2>



The research team developed an innovative model that uses carbonyl sulfide (OCS) as a proxy to estimate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> on a large scale. OCS follows a similar path as CO2 through plant leaves, moving into chloroplasts - the sites where photosynthesis takes place. 



Unlike CO2, OCS is easier to track and measure, making it a suitable indicator of photosynthesis. The team showed that OCS is particularly effective for estimating photosynthesis over extensive areas and long periods, making it a reliable proxy for determining global GPP.



Researchers utilized plant data from multiple sources, including the <a href="https://leafweb.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LeafWeb</a> database established by ORNL, which gathers data on photosynthetic traits from researchers worldwide. 



Instead of relying solely on satellite data - which can be less accurate due to interference from clouds, especially in tropical regions - the team validated their findings using high-resolution data from environmental monitoring towers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-models-with-new-insights">Improving models with new insights</h2>



A critical factor in updating the GPP estimate was a better understanding of mesophyll diffusion, the process by which OCS and CO2 move from the air through plant leaves into chloroplasts.&nbsp;



This process determines how efficiently plants conduct photosynthesis and how they might respond to changing environmental conditions.&nbsp;



Lianhong Gu, a co-author of the study and a photosynthesis expert at ORNL, played a key role in developing the mesophyll conductance model, which tracks the diffusion of OCS in leaves and its relationship to photosynthesis.



“Figuring out how much CO2 plants fix each year is a conundrum that scientists have been working on for a while,” Gu said.&nbsp;



“The original estimate of 120 petagrams per year was established in the 1980s, and it stuck as we tried to figure out a new approach. It’s important that we get a good handle on global GPP since that initial land carbon uptake affects the rest of our representations of Earth’s carbon cycle.”



The study’s improved understanding of mesophyll diffusion enables more accurate modeling of photosynthesis at a global scale, providing a clearer picture of how plants contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-rainforests-in-carbon-sequestration">Role of rainforests in carbon sequestration</h2>



The study revealed that pan-tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforests</a> played a significant role in the updated estimates, showing that these forests absorb far more carbon than previous estimates had indicated. 



This finding was corroborated by ground-based measurements, suggesting that rainforests serve as a more crucial natural carbon sink than previously thought when relying on satellite data alone. This discovery underscores the importance of rainforests in global carbon management and climate regulation.



“Nailing down our estimates of GPP with reliable global-scale observations is a critical step in improving our predictions of future CO2 in the atmosphere, and the consequences for global climate,” said Peter Thornton, lead for the Earth Systems Science Section at ORNL.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-accurate-climate-predictions">Making accurate climate predictions</h2>



Understanding how much carbon can be stored in land ecosystems, especially in forests with their dense biomass, is vital for making accurate predictions about future climate change.&nbsp;



By refining estimates of global GPP, this research will help reduce uncertainties in climate models, particularly those that forecast the response of tropical forests to changing climate conditions.&nbsp;



These insights are especially valuable for initiatives like the DOE’s <a href="https://ess.science.energy.gov/ngee-tropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Next Generation Ecosystem Experiments in the Tropics</a>, which aim to improve predictions about how tropical forests will respond to climate change.



“We have to make sure the fundamental processes in the carbon cycle are properly represented in our larger-scale models,” Gu explained.&nbsp;



“For those Earth-scale simulations to work well, they need to represent the best understanding of the processes at work. This work represents a major step forward in terms of providing a definitive number.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact-of-rising-co2-levels-nbsp">Climate impact of rising CO2 levels&nbsp;</h2>



The study's results emphasize the importance of including detailed processes like mesophyll conductance in models of photosynthesis, offering a more accurate understanding of how terrestrial ecosystems sequester carbon.&nbsp;



With this refined knowledge, scientists can better predict the impact of rising CO2 levels on global climates and improve strategies for mitigating the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> through natural carbon sinks like forests.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08050-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Plants absorb 31% more CO2 than previously estimated

A recent study has revealed that plants worldwide are absorbing...

A team of Australian researchers has identified a new species of extinct sawfly from an exceptionally well-preserved fossil found in central New South Wales (NSW). 



This fossil, estimated to be between 11 and 16 million years old from the Miocene Period, is the first of its kind discovered in Australia and only the second globally.&nbsp;



The find was made in 2018 by a group of paleontologists exploring McGraths Flat, a fossil-rich site that has since yielded numerous other detailed fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-sawflies">What are sawflies?</h2>



Despite their name, sawflies belong to the wasp family rather than the fly family. In Australia, spitfires are the most familiar group of sawflies.&nbsp;



The name “sawfly” comes from their saw-like ovipositor, which they use to lay eggs. While they might be mistaken for flies, they differ due to their lack of a characteristic “wasp waist.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-new-sawfly-species">Naming new sawfly species</h2>



With approval from the Mudgee Local Aboriginal Land Council, the research team named the new species Baladi warru using Wiradjuri words. “Baladi” translates to “saw” and “warru” means “wasp,” a name that honors the Traditional Owners of the land where the fossil was discovered.



The research team, which included scientists from <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, the <a href="https://www.canberra.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Canberra</a>, the Australian Museum, and the Queensland Museum, studied the fossil’s wing venation and other preserved features. 



The analysis allowed them to determine its place in the scientific classification of sawflies, describing it as a new species.&nbsp;



“We looked at the fossil and its morphology and then put this information together with molecular and morphological data from a wide sample of current sawfly species. This helped us decipher the fossil's placement in the sawfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammalian-tree-of-life-traces-evolution-of-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree of life</a>,” explained lead author Juanita Rodriguez, a research scientist at CSIRO.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-sawfly-origins">Tracing sawfly origins</h2>



The study of this fossil provided critical insights into the evolutionary history of sawflies. Using the fossil’s age and position within the broader sawfly lineage, the researchers concluded that sawflies originated during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a> Period, about 100 million years ago. 



This timeline indicates that their ancient ancestors lived on the supercontinent Gondwana, which eventually split into present-day continents. As Gondwana broke apart, sawflies spread across regions that would become Australia and South America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollen-reveals-ancient-plant-interactions">Pollen reveals ancient plant interactions</h2>



The fossilized sawfly also revealed details about ancient ecosystems. The researchers identified pollen grains on the head of the sawfly, indicating it had visited a flowering Quintinia plant before fossilization.&nbsp;



This evidence allowed the team to reconstruct interactions between species in the Miocene environment of McGraths Flat.



“When we examined the fossil, we identified pollen grains on the sawfly's head which revealed it had visited a flowering Quintinia plant. This helped our team trace complex species interactions in the palaeoenvironment of McGraths Flat,” Rodriguez said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sawfly-diet-and-adaptations">Sawfly diet and adaptations</h2>



This fossil discovery also sheds light on the feeding habits and adaptability of ancient sawflies.&nbsp;



“This find has helped us in understanding the incredible ability of sawflies to feed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-milkweed-beetle-safely-feed-on-a-toxic-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxic plants</a>,” said co-author Michael Frese, a paleontologist at the University of Canberra. 



“They eat the leaves of Myrtaceae - a family of woody plants that includes eucalypts - because they have mouthparts with which they can separate toxic oils or a chemical detoxification system inside their gut when feeding on myrtaceous leaves. This enables the larvae, sometimes called spitfires, to use the oils as a defensive weapon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-past-and-present-ecosystems">Linking past and present ecosystems</h2>



Though Baladi warru has been extinct for millions of years, its discovery provides valuable insights into the evolutionary history of sawflies and their role as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>. 



This ancient species helps explain how sawflies adapted to various environments and dietary sources over time, informing current understandings of their distribution across Australia and the Americas.



“In terms of the bigger picture, our work is helping researchers make sense of their current distribution across Australia and the Americas,” said Frese.&nbsp;



“Although this particular species, Baladi warru, has been extinct for millions of years, it provides information on native pollinators so we can understand their evolution and impact in the present.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/syen.12653" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Systematic Entomology.</a>



.



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Extinct sawfly reveals how insects have co-evolved with plants

A team of Australian researchers has identified a new species...

Everyone loves trees. If you don't, you should! Trees are nature's stalwart allies -- providing shade, natural beauty, and most importantly, working tirelessly to purify our air. 



However, recent findings prompt us to ponder if some trees might, in their unique way, contribute to air pollution. Could that oak tree you so admire in your yard be a part of the problem?



Tom Sharkey, an esteemed scientists at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a>, has been studying this interesting possibility. Recently, Sharkey posed a thought-provoking question: "Should we cut down all the oak trees?" 



Don't worry, he's not serious about chopping them down. Instead, he's highlighting a complex issue uncovered by his latest research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isoprene-oak-trees-and-climate-change">Isoprene, oak trees, and climate change</h2>



At the center of this discussion is a compound called isoprene. Many people haven't heard of it, but it's important in both plant biology and environmental science. 



Isoprene is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-diversity-takes-a-hard-hit-near-offshore-platforms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrocarbon</a> that trees like oaks and poplars release, especially during photosynthesis. It helps plants deal with stress like high temperatures and insect attacks, acting like a natural defense.



"Working with Tom, you realize plants really do emit a lot of isoprene," says Mohammad Mostofa, an assistant professor in Sharkey's lab. But this emission has a downside. 



While isoprene makes plants more resilient, it can also react with pollutants like nitrogen oxides -- from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">car exhausts</a> and industrial activities -- to form <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-in-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-an-encouraging-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ground-level ozone</a> and fine particulate matter. These pollutants can lead to health problems like respiratory issues. 



The Environmental Protection Agency (<a href="https://www.epa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPA</a>) notes that exposure to ground-level ozone can cause chest pain, coughing, and throat irritation, and can worsen conditions like bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-temperatures-and-isoprene-production">Rising temperatures and isoprene production</h2>



Sharkey and his team published their findings in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. They wanted to understand how rising temperatures and increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide levels</a> affect how much isoprene plants produce. 



"We were looking for a regulation point in isoprene's biosynthesis pathway under high carbon dioxide," explains Abira Sahu, the lead author and a postdoctoral research associate in Sharkey's group. "Scientists have been trying to find this for a long time, and finally, we have the answer."



Their experiments with poplar plants showed that while higher carbon dioxide levels can reduce isoprene production, increased temperatures have a stronger effect in boosting it. 



"By the time you're at 95 degrees Fahrenheit -- 35 degrees Celsius -- there's basically no CO₂ suppression. Isoprene is pouring out like crazy," Sharkey explained.



In fact, when a leaf experienced a temperature rise of 10 degrees Celsius, its isoprene emission increased more than tenfold. 



This suggests that as the planet warms, plants could emit significantly more isoprene, potentially making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-and-bushes-near-highways-improve-air-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> problems worse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isoprene-as-an-environmental-dilemma">Isoprene as an environmental dilemma</h2>



This discovery presents a tricky situation. On one hand, isoprene helps plants survive environmental stresses, which is important as climate change brings more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-global-warmings-impact-on-extreme-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a>. 



On the other hand, increased isoprene emissions can worsen air pollution, posing health risks to people and animals.



"Do we want plants to make more isoprene so they're more resilient, or do we want them making less so it's not making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-profoundly-impairs-childrens-cognitive-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a> worse? What's the right balance?" Sharkey asks. 



These are tough questions without easy answers. The relationship between plant emissions and air quality is more complicated than we thought, and it requires careful consideration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-solutions">Searching for solutions</h2>



One possible solution is to be more selective about the types of trees we plant, especially in cities. 



Michigan State University, with over 20,000 trees, could set an example by planting fewer isoprene-emitting species like oaks and poplars, and choosing trees that emit less isoprene, such as certain maples or pines.



"We could be doing a better job," says Mostofa. By carefully choosing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a>, communities can help reduce isoprene emissions without losing the benefits that trees provide. 



This approach would involve cooperation between scientists, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban planners</a>, and policymakers to make informed decisions.



But Sharkey has another idea. "My suggestion is that we should do a better job controlling nitrogen oxide pollution," he posits. 



By reducing emissions from vehicles, power plants, and industrial processes, we can lower the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrous-oxide-emissions-have-increased-at-an-unprecedented-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen oxides</a> that react with isoprene. 



Tackling the problem from both sides -- reducing pollution sources and managing tree types -- could be more effective.



Public awareness and policy changes are key to addressing this issue. Educating communities about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different tree species</a> impact air quality can lead to better choices in urban planning. 



Policymakers can also support efforts to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions and encourage research into plants that are both resilient and low in isoprene emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Isoprene emissions have global implications -- it's the second most emitted hydrocarbon on Earth, after methane emissions from human activities. 



While methane has been widely studied because of its impact on climate change, isoprene hasn't received as much attention. 



However, isoprene contributes to the formation of secondary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosol-formation-earths-lower-atmosphere-soas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic aerosols</a>, which affect cloud formation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate patterns</a>. These aerosols can influence the Earth's climate system in significant ways.



Understanding the role of isoprene in our atmosphere is essential as we develop strategies to fight climate change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Sharkey’s findings show the need for ongoing research. As climate change continues to alter natural processes, we must keep learning and adapting. 



"The more we understand, the more effectively we can answer these fundamental questions," Sharkey says. 



Future studies might explore ways to reduce isoprene emissions without harming plant resilience or find plant varieties that emit less isoprene but still thrive.



Combining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-sleap-creating-new-plants-that-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant biology</a>, atmospheric science, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-plastics-treaty-tackles-the-pollution-problem-directly-at-the-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental policy</a> will be crucial in developing strategies to manage isoprene emissions and their impact on air quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-isoprene-and-our-warming-world">Trees, isoprene, and our warming world</h2>



To sum it all up, the relationship between trees, pollution, and climate change is complex. It's not about cutting down all the oaks or poplars, but about finding solutions that balance the benefits and drawbacks of isoprene emissions. 



With continued research, smart urban planning, and effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-composition-of-us-air-pollution-has-changed-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution control</a>, we can aim for a future where our forests stay healthy and our air is clean.



Tom Sharkey and his team at Michigan State University are leading the way in understanding these complex interactions. 



Sarathi Weraduwage, a former postdoctoral researcher in Sharkey's lab and now an assistant professor at Bishop's University in Quebec, also contributed to the research. 



Their work emphasizes the importance of looking deeper into how our environment works. By balancing the roles of trees as both helpers and potential polluters, we can develop strategies that support both nature and human health.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2309536120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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“Should we cut down all the oak trees?” Strange question, serious concept

Everyone loves trees. If you don't, you should! Trees are...

Severe space weather can leave a lasting mark in tree rings, offering clues that might help scientists prepare for future disruptive events that threaten communication satellites and astronauts.&nbsp;



Amy Hessl, a geography professor at <a href="https://www.wvu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West Virginia University</a>’s Eberly College of Arts and Sciences, is leading research that examines how ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a> record evidence of extreme space weather, such as geomagnetic storms and solar radiation bursts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-space-weather-through-tree-rings">Tracing space weather through tree rings</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-weather-poses-significant-risks-to-railway-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space weather</a> includes a range of phenomena, such as the geomagnetic storms that produce auroras near the poles. These events can sometimes be intense enough to disrupt modern technology. According to Hessl, ancient tree rings have provided evidence of such extreme occurrences in the distant past.&nbsp;



“If one of these events were to happen today and you were on a high latitude flight flying to Norway, you’d probably receive your lifetime dose of radiation on the plane,” Hessl explained. “And if you were in space, it potentially could kill you.”



Hessl recently received over $202,000 in funding from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> to further investigate the connection between tree rings and space weather. Her research focuses on how solar energetic particles interact with the Earth’s atmosphere, producing radiocarbon that is absorbed by trees.&nbsp;



As trees grow, they use carbon from the atmosphere to form their rings, effectively preserving a record of past solar activity. By analyzing these tree rings, researchers can trace back significant events, such as the rare and severe “Miyake events.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-solar-storms-recorded-in-trees">Extreme solar storms recorded in trees</h2>



Miyake events are characterized by rapid increases in atmospheric radiocarbon and have been detected in tree rings dating back centuries. The first of these events, occurring in 774 AD and 993 AD, was identified 12 years ago. Since then, scientists have discovered seven more events over the past 14,000 years.&nbsp;



“Some of these events were really extreme and would be incredibly disruptive to our telecommunications system now,” Hessl said. “It’s a very rare event, but it’s not out of the question. We’re dependent on satellites, and if it did happen again, it would probably wipe out most of our telecommunications, taking 15 years to recover. It’s that powerful.”



While most solar energetic particle events originate from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/second-strongest-solar-flare-since-2019-prompts-geomagnetic-storm-alert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar flares</a>, some particles also come from galactic cosmic rays outside the solar system, often triggered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosions</a>.&nbsp;



Although the sun is considered the primary source of Miyake events, Hessl hopes that tree ring data from around the world can help the scientific community pinpoint the exact causes and assess the severity of these occurrences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interpreting-tree-ring-data">Interpreting tree ring data</h2>



Interpreting radiocarbon levels in tree rings is not always straightforward. “Until recently, scientists have assumed that trees take up radiocarbon evenly,” Hessl noted. “We’ve been treating trees as if they’re scientific instruments. But they’re not. They’re potentially very biased in the way they take up the radiocarbon.”&nbsp;



To improve the accuracy of the data, Hessl and her team are investigating why different species of trees, or trees in different locations, might absorb radiocarbon differently. Understanding these variations can help scientists better assess how reliable these natural recorders are.



Research into Miyake events also suggests that some trees store carbon and allocate it at a later time, making them less consistent as recorders of past atmospheric conditions.&nbsp;



To address these inconsistencies, Hessl is collaborating with Maria Carbone from <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a> and Rachael Filwett from <a href="http://v/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Montana State University</a>.&nbsp;



Together, they are studying how different tree species record atmospheric radiocarbon on an annual basis, focusing on three locations in the U.S. with wood that dates back to the last three major Miyake events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-tree-species-for-consistency">Comparing tree species for consistency</h2>



Hessl’s team is comparing three species with different strategies for wood production: the long-lived bristlecone pine from Utah, the deciduous bald cypress in North Carolina, and oak trees preserved in the riverbeds of Missouri.&nbsp;



The bristlecone pine, the longest-living tree species in the world, has been particularly important in constructing a timeline of past radiocarbon levels. “They live for several thousand years and they’re the backbone of what we know about past radiocarbon in the atmosphere,” Hessl explained.



The research involves taking core samples the size of a pencil - or cross sections if the tree is dead - and using a technique called cross-dating to confirm the year each ring formed.&nbsp;



By matching tree rings with known Miyake events, the team can examine how different species record these extreme events. However, Hessl expects variations in how well different trees capture the details of these episodes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-space-weather-events">Preparing for future space weather events</h2>



The goal of this research is to better understand the magnitude and timing of past space weather events and to assess the reliability of trees as recorders of atmospheric radiocarbon.&nbsp;



“We’re trying to define how extreme those events were,” Hessl said. “When did they occur, exactly? How long did the radiocarbon last in the atmosphere? We need to be sure we’re using reliable recorders, so that’s what we’re trying to figure out.”



By studying how different trees record past events and how they respond to radiocarbon changes today, Hessl hopes to prepare for potential future space weather events that could threaten critical infrastructure, including communication networks.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-extreme-solar-storms">Rare, extreme solar storms</h2>



While a Miyake event is considered rare and unlikely, Hessl emphasizes the importance of preparation.&nbsp;



“Some stuff gets a little overblown, but we saw what happened during the pandemic in terms of initial panic,” she noted.&nbsp;



“So it’s very reasonable to try and figure out what the upper end bookmark of these things are, and then communicate that to the IT community so our technologies can be protected.”



In conclusion, Hessl’s research into tree rings and their ability to record severe space weather provides a window into understanding rare but potentially catastrophic solar events.&nbsp;



By looking to the past, scientists hope to better prepare for the future, ensuring that modern technology is more resilient to the powerful forces of space weather.



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Ancient tree rings help predict extreme solar storms

Severe space weather can leave a lasting mark in tree...

Have you ever considered the possibility that plants might be "talking" to fungi underground? 



A recent breakthrough by researchers at the University of Toronto reveals there is a silent conversation happening in the microscopic world beneath us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-to-fungi-communication">Plant-to-fungi communication </h2>



The researchers set out to unravel the intricacies of plant-to-fungi communication at a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-transfer-massive-amounts-of-carbon-to-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular level</a>. Here's the exciting part - they've finally cracked the code.



The experts found that strigolactone, a plant hormone, has the power to activate fungal genes and proteins linked to phosphate metabolism - a vital player in growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexities-of-the-soil-ecosystem">Complexities of the soil ecosystem</h2>



Understanding this molecular "chat" might just pave the way for innovations in crop cultivation and, perhaps, provide us with new weapons to combat disease-causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>.



Study lead author Shelley Lumba is an assistant professor in the Department of Cell and Systems Biology at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>.



“As we begin to understand how plants and fungi communicate, we will better understand the complexities of the soil ecosystem, leading to healthier crops and improving our approach to biodiversity,” said&nbsp;Professor Lumba.



Soil isn't just dull old earth. It's a world buzzing with activity. Plant roots and fungi have a unique symbiotic relationship here. They engage in a silent molecular "language" to coordinate their structures.



In essence, plants release strigolactones, signaling fungi to attach to their roots and deliver much-needed phosphates in exchange for carbon. It's like two good friends helping each other out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-plant-and-fungi-communication">Decoding plant and fungi communication</h2>



For the study, Lumba and her team investigated why and how fungi react to strigolactones. They discovered that a whopping 80% of plants depend on this relationship.



Enhancing this interaction could potentially lead to more robust crops, decrease the need for fertilizer, and reduce harmful phosphate runoff into our waterways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-side-of-the-story">Dark side of the story</h2>



There's always a flip side, isn't there? In some instances, harmful fungi can use chemical signals to infect plants, leading to devastating losses. 



But as we get to know this chemical dialogue more intimately, we might be able limit the activity of such pathogens.



Until now, the sheer complexity of the soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kew-gardens-top-10-new-plants-and-fungi-discovered-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> made it impossible for scientists to pinpoint the exact chemicals that promote beneficial fungi. 



All that has changed thanks to Lumba and her team. Using baker's yeast, they have cracked the code and opened up a new chapter in our understanding of the world beneath our feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-they-do-it">How did they do it?</h2>



The researchers treated yeast with strigolactones and closely observed how the genes reacted. They discovered that strigolactones increased the expression of genes labeled "PHO" related to phosphate metabolism. 



The hormone functioned through Pho84, a protein on the yeast's surface that keeps an eye on phosphate levels. This activated other proteins along the phosphate pathway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthy-soil-healthy-planet">Healthy soil, healthy planet</h2>



Lumba and her team concluded that plants release strigolactones when they're phosphate-hungry, which signals the yeast to alter its phosphate uptake. The researchers found this to be a universal truth, not only for domesticated fungi like baker's yeast but also for wild fungi.



At the heart of this novel approach is gene expression, which, according to Lumba, "identifies the effect of the SL response on fungal growth." 



The potential impact of this research could bring about significant changes in agriculture, mitigating pollution and food insecurity. Lumba notes, "It's about healthy soil for a healthy planet."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-plant-and-fungi-dialogue">Potential of plant and fungi dialogue </h2>



This remarkable discovery of plant and fungi communication offers transformative possibilities for agriculture. By promoting a deeper understanding of these microscopic dialogues, researchers could develop techniques to enhance the growth and resilience of crops. 



Enhanced symbiotic relationships could reduce reliance on synthetic fertilizers, which have been known to cause environmental harm through runoff. 



These innovations could lead not only to healthier crops but also contribute to sustainable agricultural practices that align with environmental conservation efforts. 



Researchers envision a future where farming becomes intrinsically linked with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-rely-on-bacteria-to-release-nutrients-for-their-host-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural microbial systems</a> of the soil, cultivating crops that not only thrive but do so while nurturing the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-science-and-sustainability">Bridging science and sustainability</h2>



The potential applications of this research extend beyond agriculture, presenting exciting intersections between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-fusion-turning-food-waste-into-culinary-delights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">science and sustainability</a>. By harnessing the natural capabilities of fungi, we can promote ecosystems that are both productive and environmentally friendly. 



For example, understanding the strigolactone signaling pathways can provide insight into combating invasive fungal species that threaten biodiversity. 



By drawing on these natural processes, solutions can be developed that are harmonious with the environment, avoiding the collateral damage that often accompanies chemical interventions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/molecular-cell/abstract/S1097-2765(24)00737-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Cell</a>.



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Plants and fungi communicate using a silent language

Have you ever considered the possibility that plants might be...

A recent discovery about "marine snow" is altering our theories on how Earth's oceans store carbon and help mitigate climate change. 



Scientists have found that microscopic marine organisms produce mucus "parachutes" that slow down their descent to the ocean floor. 



This finding could change our understanding of carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere.



<a href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/prakash-lab/cgi-bin/labsite/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Manu Prakash</a>, an associate professor of bioengineering and of oceans at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, led the study. His team's work suggests we've been missing a crucial piece of the puzzle.



Prakash and his colleagues have been exploring the mysteries of the ocean for years. Their research focuses on tiny particles and organisms that play a big role in our planet's health. 



By observing these minute details, they hope to gain insights that could help combat climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-microscopic-marine-organisms">Understanding microscopic marine organisms</h2>



Tiny ocean organisms, like phytoplankton and zooplankton, play a crucial role in our oceans' health and the planet's climate. 



These tiny creatures drift through the water, performing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-microalgae-show-photosynthesis-is-possible-in-near-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> to produce oxygen and form the base of the marine food web. 



Without them, larger marine animals wouldn't have the sustenance they need to survive. Phytoplankton alone contribute to about half of the world's oxygen supply, making them indispensable for life on Earth.



Beyond their role in producing oxygen, these microorganisms are vital in regulating carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. 



As they consume carbon during photosynthesis, they help reduce greenhouse gases, mitigating the effects of climate change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-marine-snow">Mystery of marine snow</h2>



Marine snow is a mix of these microscopic dead organisms, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>, bacteria, fecal pellets, and other organic particles. It absorbs about a third of human-made carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. 



This material sinks to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-discovery-deep-ocean-no-photosynthesis-baffles-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean floor</a>, where the carbon is locked away for thousands of years. Scientists call this process the biological pump.



Until now, the exact way these particles fall through the ocean's depths -- averaging about 2.5 miles -- wasn't fully understood. Prakash's team set out to change that.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="sW30HMSmdv-3926652-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rotating-microscope">Rotating microscope</h2>



The researchers developed a unique device called a rotating microscope. 



This invention simulates vertical movement, allowing them to observe how organisms travel through the water. It adjusts temperature, light, and pressure to match specific ocean conditions.



Over five years, the team took this microscope on research vessels across all major oceans -- from the Arctic to Antarctica. They collected samples of marine snow and analyzed how it sinks in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-role-of-mucus-parachutes">Surprising role of mucus "parachutes"</h2>



What they found was unexpected. Sometimes, marine snow forms parachute-like mucus structures. 



These mucus parachutes slow down the sinking process, doubling the time the particles spend in the upper 100 meters of the ocean.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/marine-snow_flow-field_ocean-carbon-storage_Stanford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/marine-snow_flow-field_ocean-carbon-storage_Stanford_1s.webp" alt="Marine snow sedimentation with flow field. Artistics rending of real imaging data collected across Gulf of Main using a rotating microscope. Credit: PrakashLab/Stanford" class="wp-image-1947719"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Marine snow sedimentation with flow field. Artistics rending of real imaging data collected across Gulf of Main using a rotating microscope. Credit: PrakashLab/Stanford</figcaption></figure>



"We haven't been looking the right way," Prakash said. This extended suspension means more microbes can break down the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-may-flip-plankton-into-carbon-emitters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic carbon</a> in marine snow. 



Instead of sinking and storing carbon away, the carbon gets recycled back into the ocean, reducing the amount removed from the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-snow-and-ocean-carbon">Marine snow and ocean carbon</h2>



Since marine snow is a living ecosystem, studying it at sea is crucial. The rotating microscope allowed the team to see these processes in detail, right where they happen.



<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/rahul-chajwa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rahul Chajwa</a>, a postdoctoral scholar in Prakash's lab and the study's lead author, was amazed by the findings. 



“Theory tells you how a flow around a small particle looks like, but what we saw on the boat was dramatically different,” Chajwa explained. “We are at the beginning of understanding these complex dynamics.”



These mucus parachutes mean that previous estimates of the ocean's ability to sequester carbon might be too high. 



If more carbon is recycled near the surface, less is stored deep in the ocean. This could have significant impacts on climate models and policies aimed at reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-weaker-ocean-will-release-more-carbon-into-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric carbon dioxide</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-natural-environments">Studying natural environments</h2>



“We cannot even ask the fundamental question of what life does without emulating the environment that it evolved with,” Prakash explained. 



“In biology, stripping it away from its environment has stripped away any of our capacity to ask the right questions.”



For too long, scientists have studied organisms in artificial settings, like slides under microscopes. By taking their tools to the high seas, Prakash's team is changing that approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-ocean-carbon-models">Refining ocean carbon models</h2>



The researchers are now working to improve their models and integrate their findings into larger climate models. 



They plan to release an open dataset from their six global expeditions -- the largest of its kind on marine snow sedimentation.



They're also investigating what factors influence the production of these mucus parachutes. This could include environmental stressors or specific bacteria species.



Despite the challenges, Prakash remains optimistic. On a recent trip off the coast of Northern California, the team found processes that might speed up carbon sequestration.



"Every time I observe the world of plankton via our tools, I learn something new," he said. These discoveries could lead to new strategies for enhancing the ocean's ability to absorb carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-snow-parachutes-and-ocean-carbon">Marine snow, parachutes, and ocean carbon</h2>



Beyond the scientific implications, this study highlights the wonder of natural processes. 



“We take for granted certain phenomena, but the simplest set of ideas can have profound effects. Observing these details -- like the mucus tails of marine snow -- opens new doors to understanding the fundamental principles of our world," Prakesh concluded.



By paying attention to the small details, we can uncover secrets that have a big impact on our world. This research is a reminder of the importance of curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl5767" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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'Marine snow' using tiny 'parachutes' has a big impact on ocean carbon storage

A recent discovery about "marine snow" is altering our theories...

New research by scientists from South Africa and Brazil reveals that rival plants may compete for space on pollinators, with pollen grains vying for the chance to be carried to the next flower.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/732797" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>, suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> have developed sophisticated mechanisms to manipulate pollen placement on pollinators, similar to how some animals manipulate sperm during reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-and-competitive-pollen-removal-nbsp">Plants and competitive pollen removal&nbsp;</h2>



Unlike animals, where mating involves direct contact, plants rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> such as birds and insects to transport pollen from one flower to another. In this context, plants need to find ways to ensure their pollen makes it to the pollinator and, eventually, to the next flower. 



According to the study’s lead author, professor Bruce Anderson of <a href="http://www.sun.ac.za/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stellenbosch University</a>, the strategy plants have developed can be compared to male-male competition in animals.



“Flowers visited by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> deposit their pollen on the hummingbird bills, but there is very little place for the pollen to be deposited,” Anderson explained. 



“Flowers have evolved a catapult mechanism where pollen is shot at the bill of the hummingbird. The force of the ballistic grains dislodges previously deposited grains from rival plants, allowing the flower to place its own grains onto a cleaner bill, thus increasing its chances of reproductive success.”



This finding supports the idea of competitive pollen removal, where flowers actively remove rival pollen from pollinators before securing a spot for their own pollen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-pollen-placement-in-action">Explosive pollen placement in action</h2>



To demonstrate this mechanism, the researchers conducted experiments with Hypenea macrantha, a red flower native to Brazil. Using slow-motion video footage, they captured the flower’s explosive pollen placement mechanism in action.&nbsp;



The flower essentially “catapults” its pollen onto the bill of a hummingbird, dislodging the pollen of competing plants in the process.



This mechanism, known as explosive pollen placement, is not new in the plant kingdom, but this study marks the first time researchers have provided empirical evidence of its effectiveness.&nbsp;



By labeling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a> with quantum dots and counting how much was displaced by the explosion, the team was able to confirm the success of the mechanism.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="ZwJf9SY4md-3926185-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-floral-competition">A new perspective on floral competition</h2>



Traditionally, floral explosion has been viewed as a strategy to help plants efficiently place their pollen on pollinators or to startle pollinators into flying to other plants, thereby dispersing the pollen over greater distances.&nbsp;



However, this new research shows that explosive pollen placement may serve an additional function: removing rival pollen to improve a plant’s reproductive success.



“Our data suggest, however, that this mechanism may actually displace pollen from previous flowers, enhancing male reproductive success by increasing competition for space on the pollinators’ bodies,” said co-author Vinícius Brito, a botanist at the <a href="https://ufu.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Uberlândia</a> in Brazil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-reproduction-and-pollen-rivalry">Plant reproduction and pollen rivalry</h2>



The research highlights a previously unrecognized form of competition between plants. In contrast to animals, where males may use physical structures to remove rival sperm from females, plants must manipulate the placement of their pollen on pollinators before it reaches the next flower. 



As Anderson explained, “until recently, no one has ever thought of looking for these kinds of structures in plants.”



This form of competition occurs on the pollinator’s body. When a pollinator, such as a hummingbird, arrives at a flower, it may already be covered in pollen from previously visited plants.&nbsp;



This makes it challenging for the new flower to place its pollen, as space is limited. Even if the flower does manage to place its pollen, it must then compete with rival pollen grains for access to the ovules of the next flower.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-understanding-plant-evolution">Implications for understanding plant evolution</h2>



This discovery offers new insights into how plants may compete with one another for reproductive success in ways that were previously unimagined. Anderson and his colleagues suggest that plants may evolve strategies akin to those in animals, where physical adaptations aid in removing rival sperm.



As the researchers continue to explore this phenomenon, their findings could reshape our understanding of how plants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved</a> complex mechanisms to increase their chances of reproductive success. 



By manipulating pollen on the bodies of pollinators, flowers may be competing in a hidden but highly effective battle for space and, ultimately, for the continuation of their species.



In conclusion, this study adds a fascinating new dimension to our understanding of plant reproduction and competition. As Brito points out, these discoveries highlight the importance of further research into how plants interact with their environment, pollinators, and even each other in their quest for survival.



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Pollen wars: Plants compete for space on pollinators

New research by scientists from South Africa and Brazil reveals...

Plant life is the fundamental fabric of our planet, and it's astonishing to realize that about one-third of all known plant species have made islands their home. 



Despite representing a little more than 5% of Earth's land surface, islands are the embodiment of rich biodiversity. How did this happen?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-species-dwelling-on-islands">Plant species dwelling on islands</h2>



Dr. Julian Schrader from <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/faculty-of-science-and-engineering/departments-and-schools/school-of-natural-sciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macquarie University’s School of Natural Sciences</a>, along with an international team of researchers, analyzed data from around 304,103 plants – which essentially sums up all species known to science. The results highlight the incredible biodiversity existing on islands.



Out of 94,052 species that were identified as natives of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-amazon-became-a-biodiversity-hotspot/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">islands</a>, the team found that a whopping 63,280 are endemic. In layman's terms, these plant species can only be found on their home islands.



This means that 21% of global plant diversity is tucked away on islands across our planet. The research marks the first-ever comprehensive examination of vascular plants native to marine islands worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-and-endemic-plants">Native and endemic plants</h2>



A native plant is one that grows naturally on an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">island</a>, while an endemic plant species takes it one step further. They're exclusive to a specific island or a group of islands. 



Among these are vascular plants, a diverse group that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, ferns and grasses. They are distinctive from their non-vascular counterparts (like mosses and liverworts), thanks to their circulatory system.



“This is the first time we have had such a complete understanding of which species are where, globally,” noted Dr. Schrader.



“We can now explore the conservation status of some of our rarest plants and come up with distinct strategies to conserve them, such as identifying botanical gardens that could host rescue populations.”



It also allows researchers to strategize ways of protecting and preserving these unique species. For example, botanical gardens can help by hosting rescue populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-plant-paradox">Island plant paradox </h2>



While islands are bursting at the seams with species diversity, it's alarming to note that only 6% of islands with endemic species are making the cut for a UN goal to protect 30% of land and sea areas by 2030. 



The research also shines a spotlight on top centers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-life-on-islands-loses-diversity-when-humans-arrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> endemism. These regions are large, tropical islands shaped by a complex terrain and a long history of isolation.



The stars of the show are Madagascar with 9,318 endemic plant species, followed by New Guinea with 8,793 species, Borneo with 5,765, Cuba with 2,679, and New Caledonia with 2,493.



According to Dr Schrader, it's all about the geography. The physical distance, coupled with unique climates and environments, fuels the evolutionary process, leading to new species creation or "speciation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-island-biodiversity">Threats to island biodiversity</h2>



However, isolation can be a double-edged sword. Many plant species that have evolved uniquely in such isolated ecosystems may find it hard to compete with non-native species. 



Climate change adds another layer of complexity to this situation. The threat is particularly grave for low-lying islands that are susceptible to rising sea levels and extreme weather events.



In this light, the study offers a critical baseline for monitoring changes in islands and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-islands-can-counteract-biodiversity-loss-in-oil-palm-plantations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant communities</a> over time. Think of it as a roadmap for prioritizing protection efforts. It's about the survival of these unique species that dot our planet's islands, each with their own tale of evolution, adaptation and survival.



“In French Polynesia, I was trying to find one of the rarest plants in the world, the flowering shrub called tiare apetahi (Sclerotheca raiateensis), with only a few individuals left in the wild,” said Dr. Schrader.



This plant holds cultural significance to the local community but is grappling with overharvesting and predation. The solution may lie in botanical gardens, but figuring out how to grow the species outside its natural habitat is the challenge at hand.



The story of island biodiversity is a tale of enchantment, intrigue, and urgent rescue efforts. It's a narrative that highlights the need for collective action, careful stewardship, and informed conservation strategies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08036-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Islands are home to one-third of all known plants

Plant life is the fundamental fabric of our planet, and...

While all ecosystems are affected by climate change, the pace at which these impacts become visible can vary. Forests, for example, often show a delayed response to changes in temperature and precipitation. Grasslands, however, are reacting almost in real time, according to a new study.&nbsp;



The research, led by the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> (U-M), highlights how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-crucial-role-global-agriculture-environment-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grasslands</a> are adapting to climate shifts faster than forests, with immediate changes in plant communities that reflect the evolving environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-race-forests-vs-grasslands">Climate race: Forests vs. grasslands</h2>



Lead authors Kai Zhu and Yiluan Song describe the difference in responses between ecosystems as “climate debt” for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> and “paying as they go” for grasslands. Forest ecosystems accumulate a lag in their response to climate change, while grasslands adapt more swiftly to shifts in temperature and precipitation.



“Climate change does have consequences for our ecosystems. It’s going to come sooner or later,” said Song, a postdoctoral fellow at U-M. “Grasslands are at the faster end of the spectrum.”



This research offers the scientific community valuable insights into predicting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-grassland-ecosystems-handle-climate-change-better-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> will impact ecosystems. Understanding these dynamics will be especially useful for the restoration of grassland vegetation. 



“If you want to restore grasslands, you have to ask what types of species you will plant. In order to answer that, you need to at least take climate change into consideration,” said Zhu, an associate professor at the U-M School for Environment and Sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-climate-shifts-in-grasslands">Rapid climate shifts in grasslands</h2>



The research team, which included experts from over a dozen institutions, gathered years of observational data from grassland communities in the California Floristic Province, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity hotspot</a> along the U.S. West Coast. 



They analyzed 12 sites observed over several decades and found a clear trend: as the climate in the region became hotter and drier, species that thrive in those conditions became dominant in the plant communities.



The researchers also integrated data from long-term global change experiments in the region, allowing them to link climate change directly to the shifts in plant species. “We know correlation doesn’t imply causation,” Zhu said. “But the experimental data allow us to attribute the causality.”



By characterizing the climate preferences - or niches - of various plant species, the researchers were able to quantify shifts in grassland communities in direct relation to temperature and precipitation changes.&nbsp;



This combination of observational and experimental data provided a clear and consistent conclusion, which Zhu and Song note is uncommon in ecological studies of this nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-paced-ecological-changes">Fast-paced ecological changes</h2>



What surprised the researchers most was the speed of the ecological changes. The shifts in plant communities were happening at a pace comparable to the rate of climate change, but Zhu and Song cautioned that these rapid changes should not be seen as true <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a> - at least not without further research.



“To me, adaptation gives a positive impression that the system is changing to counter some of the negative effects of climate change,” Song said.&nbsp;



“The rapid shifts in grassland communities involve not only the gain of some hotter, drier species but also the loss of some cooler, wetter species. These shifts might have negative consequences such as dominance by non-native species and loss of biodiversity.”



The researchers emphasized that the loss of species adapted to cooler, wetter conditions could lead to a decline in biodiversity, as non-native species that thrive in hotter, drier environments take over.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-grasslands">Implications for global grasslands</h2>



Although this study focused on a single region, Zhu and Song believe that similar trends could occur in grasslands around the world, depending on the specific climate dynamics of each area.&nbsp;



For example, if a region's climate is becoming warmer and wetter, species that favor those conditions will likely become dominant at a rate that matches the pace of the climate changes.



“I would hypothesize that we may see an even greater response to climate change in other grasslands around the world,” Zhu said, suggesting that the speed of these shifts may be even more pronounced in grasslands outside the California Floristic Province.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-climate-sensitive-restoration">The need for climate-sensitive restoration</h2>



As the study illustrates, grasslands are on the front lines of climate change, showing swift responses to environmental shifts. This research provides critical insights for predicting how grassland ecosystems will continue to evolve in a warming world.&nbsp;



The study also highlights the importance of considering climate change when planning restoration efforts, as the types of species that thrive in grasslands may shift in tandem with the changing climate. 



Understanding these dynamics will help guide the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2024-a-call-for-land-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restoration</a> of grasslands and support the preservation of biodiversity in the face of rapid climate change.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-024-02552-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Grasslands are racing to adapt to climate shifts

While all ecosystems are affected by climate change, the pace...

A recent study is the first to suggest that the use of high-potency cannabis leaves a distinct mark on DNA, providing valuable insights into the biological impact of cannabis use.&nbsp;



High-potency cannabis is defined as having Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) - the principal psychoactive constituent in cannabis - content of 10% or more.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-impact-of-high-potency-cannabis-nbsp">Biological impact of high-potency cannabis&nbsp;</h2>



The research also showed the effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-cannabis-use-disorder-risk-varies-among-young-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> use on DNA is different in people experiencing their first episode of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-sleep-deprivation-linked-to-adult-psychosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychosis</a> compared to users who have never experienced psychosis. 



This suggests there could be potential for DNA blood tests to help characterize those cannabis users at risk of developing psychosis to inform preventative approaches.



“With the increasing prevalence of cannabis use and more availability of high-potency cannabis, there is a pressing need to better understand its biological impact, particularly on mental health,” said senior author Marta Di Forti, a professor of drugs, genes and psychosis at <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King's College London</a> (KCL).



“Our study is the first to show high-potency cannabis leaves a unique signature on DNA related to mechanisms around the immune system and energy production.”



According to Professor Forti, future research needs to explore if the DNA signature for current cannabis use - in particular the one of high-potency types - can help identify those users most at risk to develop psychosis, both in recreational and medicinal use settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-potency-cannabis-and-dna-methylation-nbsp">High-potency cannabis and DNA methylation&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers explored the effects of cannabis use on DNA methylation - a chemical process detected in blood samples that alters how genes are functioning (whether they are switched “on” or “off”).&nbsp;



DNA methylation is a type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-status-linked-to-lasting-epigenetic-changes-in-hyenas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetic change</a>, which means it alters gene expression without affecting the DNA sequence itself and is considered a vital factor in the interplay between risk factors and mental health.



The laboratory team at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> conducted complex analyses of DNA methylation across the whole human genome using blood samples from both people who have experienced first-episode psychosis and those who have never had a psychotic experience. 



The researchers investigated the impact of current cannabis use, including frequency and potency, on the DNA of 682 participants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-related-to-energy-and-immune-function">Genes related to energy and immune function</h2>



The analysis showed that frequent users of high-potency cannabis had changes in genes related to mitochondrial and immune function, particularly the CAVIN1 gene, which could affect energy and immune response.&nbsp;



These changes were not explained by the well-established impact that tobacco has on DNA methylation, which is usually mixed into joints by most cannabis users.



“This is the first study to show that frequent use of high-potency cannabis leaves a distinct molecular mark on DNA, particularly affecting genes related to energy and immune function,” said study lead author Emma Dempster, a senior lecturer at the University of Exeter.



“Our findings provide important insights into how cannabis use may alter biological processes. DNA methylation, which bridges the gap between genetics and environmental factors, is a key mechanism that allows external influences, such as substance use, to impact gene activity.”&nbsp;



Dempster noted that these epigenetic changes, shaped by lifestyle and exposures, offer a valuable perspective on how cannabis use may influence mental health through biological pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-new-insights">Valuable new insights</h2>



Dempster meta-analyzed data from two cohorts: the GAP study, which consists of patients with first-episode psychosis in <a href="https://slam.nhs.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust</a>, and the EU-GEI study, which consists of patients with first-episode psychosis and healthy controls across England, France, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, and Brazil.



This totaled 239 participants with first-episode psychosis and 443 healthy controls representing the general population from both study sites who had available DNA samples.&nbsp;



Most of the cannabis users in the study used high-potency cannabis more than once a week (defined as frequent use) and had first used cannabis at the age of 16 years old, on average.



This study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41380-024-02689-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Psychiatry</a> provides crucial insights into how high-potency cannabis use may impact DNA and lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychiatric disorders</a>, highlighting the need for further research to understand the biological mechanisms at play and to develop preventative strategies for those at risk of psychosis.



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High-potency cannabis use linked to epigenetic changes

A recent study is the first to suggest that the...

Our climate is changing, temperatures are rising, and research reveals that it's affecting two-thirds (66%) of the Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) in Earth's tropical forests. 



Sounds worrying, right? These KBAs are critical spots on our globe that harbor and nurture various species along with their habitats.



This profound study analyzed three decades of temperature conditions tucked beneath the forest canopies in these world-wide tropical KBAs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shift-in-kba-temperature">Shift in KBA temperature</h2>



The results might raise your eyebrows. A whopping 66% of these tropical KBAs have started flirting with new temperature regimes. 



That means over 40% of the temperature measurements now fall outside the range previously recorded there.



Meanwhile, the remaining 34% of these locations still enjoy their old temperature regimes. These places could turn into crucial hideaways for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, the researchers conjecture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-in-tropical-forests">Biodiversity in tropical forests</h2>



The research, published right on the heels of the United Nations Biodiversity Conference (<a href="https://www.cbd.int/conferences/2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COP16</a>) in Colombia, sheds some light on this critical matter.



“Beneath the canopy of tropical forests, a wealth of biodiversity exists in a very stable climate,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://biosciences.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=Brittany_Trew" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr Brittany Trew</a>, from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/research/esi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environment and Sustainability Institute</a>&nbsp;on Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“As such, species there are at particularly high risk from new annual temperature regimes because they have evolved under a narrow range of conditions. They may only be able to tolerate a small margin of warming above what they’re used to.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-to-action-in-kbas">Call to action in KBAs</h2>



Dr. Alexander Lees, a biodiversity expert at <a href="https://www.mmu.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Manchester Metropolitan University</a>, took a firm stand. 



"The amount of political and economic capital dedicated to safeguarding biodiversity is woefully inadequate," Dr. Lees explained.



"Our findings show that the painful process of conservation triage -- selecting new protected areas -- must therefore consider the impact of ongoing climate changes on those sites in prioritization assessments," he continued.



The Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework is one step towards acknowledging this problem. It proposes to conserve at least 30% of the global land area by 2030, with a special emphasis on our precious KBAs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loopholes-in-protection">Loopholes in protection</h2>



Here's another nugget of truth -- KBAs do not automatically receive formal protection. That decision rests with the national governments in those respective locations.



This research uncovers that, among the 34% of tropical forest KBAs not yet facing new temperature regimes, over half currently fall short of protection. 



Dr. Trew presses on the need for 'climate-smart' policies to safeguard these valuable refuges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-outlook">Global outlook</h2>



To capture the ground reality on tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, researchers made use of temperature measurements, satellite data, and a microclimate model. 



The change is more apparent in some regions than others. It's pretty high in Africa and Latin America, with 72% and 59% of KBAs entering new temperature regimes. Asia and Oceania have shown a lower shift, with only 49% of KBAs experiencing the transition. 



A minor percentage of KBAs in Latin America and a few in Asia and Oceania have almost fully embraced the new temperature regimes.



In Latin America, these crucial areas sprawl across Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama, with the tropical Andes feeling the heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-communities-and-kba-protection">Local communities and KBA protection</h2>



Local communities play an instrumental role in the stewardship of Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs). 



These communities, often residing in or near tropical forests, possess invaluable traditional knowledge and practices that can contribute to effective biodiversity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation strategies</a>.



Their involvement in conservation initiatives ensures that protective measures are culturally relevant and sustainable. 



Collaborations between local communities, scientists, and policymakers can foster a more inclusive approach to safeguarding KBAs, empowering those who are most affected by environmental changes to participate actively in decision-making processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-biodiversity-conservation">Tropical biodiversity conservation</h2>



Innovative solutions are crucial in addressing the challenges posed by emerging temperature regimes and ensuring the protection of biodiversity. 



Technological advancements, such as remote sensing and machine learning models, can enhance our ability to monitor and predict changes within KBAs with increased precision. 



Moreover, global networks and partnerships can facilitate the exchange of knowledge and resources needed to implement adaptive management practices. 



By embracing both cutting-edge technologies and integrative conservation approaches, we can develop robust strategies that balance ecological preservation with the needs of society, driving forward a sustainable future for tropical forests and their irreplaceable ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-kbas-in-tropical-forests">The future of KBAs in tropical forests</h2>



Now that we know the temperature beneath our tropical canopies is undergoing a significant upheaval, the question remains: What do we do about it? 



This study is more than just a collection of statistics - it's a stepping stone towards proactive conservation efforts and climate-smart policies. 



The shift in temperature regimes may be invisible to our eyes but has a profound impact on our KBAs and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> they house. The ball is now in our court!



The study is a timely reminder for us to align our actions with the needs of our planet. As we forge ahead, the hope is to strike a balance between human progress and the wellbeing of our natural world. 



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This research was spearheaded by leading brains from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, <a href="https://www.mmu.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Manchester Metropolitan</a>, and the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.13050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Letters</a>.



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Climate change is altering the temperature in 66% of tropical forests

Our climate is changing, temperatures are rising, and research reveals...

Viruses, those tiny invaders wriggling their way into host cells are a marvel of biological survival. Among them, arteriviruses, found in a variety of animals across the globe, have evoked great interest.



These viruses have remained largely elusive to the human immune system. A recent study has unveiled an intriguing mechanism by which arteriviruses sneak into host cells and initiate an infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-friendly-protein-turned-foe">Friendly protein turned foe</h2>



In the center of this microscopic drama is a protein found in mammals - an unsuspecting gatekeeper that unwittingly opens the door to arteriviruses.



The research team also discovered a monoclonal antibody - an immune system ally - that binds to this protein, effectively shielding the cells from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-a-virus-capable-of-causing-a-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viral infection</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arterivirus-infections">Arterivirus infections</h2>



Why should we concern ourselves with arteriviruses? These are viruses that we do not have immunity against.



“It’s important to consider that since we have no known arteriviruses infecting people that we’re essentially immunologically naïve, so we can’t rely on preexisting immunity to help us,” said co-lead author&nbsp;Cody Warren, assistant professor of&nbsp;<a href="https://vet.osu.edu/departments-offices/biosciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">veterinary biosciences</a>&nbsp;at The Ohio State University (<a href="https://www.osu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSU</a>).



To understand the gravity of the situation, we must consider the potential implications. Arteriviruses are found in various mammals like non-human primates, possums, pigs, and horses. They are often present without causing noticeable disease.



But, when they switch hosts, the viruses can cause serious health problems such as pneumonia, hemorrhagic fever, or encephalitis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-a-virus-in-a-cell">Journey of a virus in a cell</h2>



In the realm of viruses, breaking and entering is a step-by-step process. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-use-gps-to-move-precisely-within-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arteriviruses</a>, the first stop is the FcRn receptor, a protein complex formed by the coming together of two genes - FCGRT and B2M. This receptor otherwise plays a benign role, carrying antibodies across the placenta to a fetus.



However, when a virus comes along, the FcRn receptor becomes a conduit for infection. It is responsible for ushering in at least five different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/influenza-is-considered-the-biggest-pandemic-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arteriviruses</a> infecting monkeys, pigs, and horses.



When the researchers disrupted the FCGRT gene, the primary component of the FcRn complex, the cells became resistant to the infection. Better yet, pre-treating cells with monoclonal antibodies against FcRn protected them entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arteriviral-infection-of-host-cells">Arteriviral infection of host cells</h2>



There's a fascinating genetic subplot to this story. It turns out, the susceptibility of mammalian hosts to the arterivirus infection varies based on differences in their FcRn's genetic sequence. 



Essentially, the sequence variations of this receptor protein can either facilitate or impede cross-species infections.



The surface protein CD163, which has a history of playing a gatekeeper role for the simian hemorrhagic fever virus (an arterivirus), also came into the spotlight in this study. 



Experiments demonstrated that CD163 interacts with FcRn and aids in arteriviral infection of host cells. By identifying these arterivirus infection steps, we have reached an important milestone.



“If we’re looking at virus biology, one of the most important things we can understand is entry mechanisms. Because if you can stop the ability of a virus to infect a cell through disrupting that initial virus-receptor contact, now you have a potential therapeutic strategy,” said Warren.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-prepared-for-the-next-pandemic">Getting prepared for the next pandemic </h2>



Unveiling the secrets of how arteriviruses infiltrate host cells leaves us better prepared to face any future viral threats that may emerge. 



With an existing monoclonal antibody that can prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-viruses-link-up-and-bloom-into-amazing-sunflower-structures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viral infection</a> in cells, we have a ray of hope in our pre-pandemic preparedness toolkit.



"If one of these viruses emerged in humans, I believe we’d be in big trouble. So that is the motivator for me,” said Adam Bailey, assistant professor of pathology and laboratory medicine at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a> and co-lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Knowledge is indeed power. As we deepen our understanding of viruses infecting cells, we inch closer to better prevention methods and ideally, fewer global health crises. 



"Understanding the nuances of species-specific FcRn utilization will be important in anticipating the spillover of arteriviruses into new hosts, as our data indicates that FcRn can function as a molecular barrier to cross-species arterivirus infection," wrote the researchers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51142-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Animal viruses have a secret ally to infect human cells

Viruses, those tiny invaders wriggling their way into host cells...

Bats have evolved to display a variety of different skills, such as plucking insects off leaves or hovering over flowers to drink nectar. Despite their diverse behaviors, one question has always lingered: why don't we see any flightless bats?



There are birds that waddle along riverbanks like ostriches, or spend their lives by the sea like the wandering albatross. But why not bats?



The answer to this question might have just been found by a group of researchers at Cornell University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bat-bird-evolution-paradox">Bat-bird evolution paradox</h2>



It is important to understand that the evolutionary pathways of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-bats-can-remember-the-past-and-plan-for-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> and birds are markedly different.



The evolution of bats' wings and legs is tightly coupled, which seems to have limited them to fewer ecological niches than birds. A surprising finding was that the opposite is true for our feathered friends.



"We initially expected to confirm that bat evolution is similar to that of birds, and that their wings and legs evolve independently of one another. The fact we found the opposite was greatly surprising," said Andrew Orkney, postdoctoral researcher in the laboratory of Professor Brandon Hedrick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flight-evolution-in-birds-and-bats">Flight evolution in birds and bats</h2>



The concept of wings and legs evolving independently makes intuitive sense, considering they perform different functions. 



Prior research had suggested that the origin of flight in vertebrates required forelimbs and hindlimbs to evolve independently, thereby allowing them to adapt to their distinct tasks more effectively. 



So, comparing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> and birds presented an ideal situation to test this idea. Since they do not share a common flying ancestor, birds and bats are independent examples to study flight evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-evolve-differently">Bats evolve differently</h2>



The research team measured the wing and leg bones of 111 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disappearance-of-bats-linked-to-a-rise-in-infant-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat species</a> and 149 bird species from around the world. The analysis included X-rays of museum specimens and new X-rays of bat specimens stored at the <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> Museum of Vertebrates.



A stark contrast in the evolution of these two flight capable creatures was noted. In both bats and birds, the shape of the bones within a species' wing (handwing, radius, humerus) or leg (femur and tibia) was found to be correlated - meaning that within a limb, bones evolve together. 



However, the correlation across legs and wings was significantly different in bats and birds. While bird species showed little to no correlation, bats displayed a strong one.



Essentially, in bats, forelimbs and hindlimbs did not evolve independently. When the wing shape changes (either increases or decreases) the leg shape follows the same trend.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-implications-of-bat-morphology">Ecological implications of bat morphology</h2>



The coupled evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-bat-appreciation-day-the-crucial-role-of-bats-in-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a>' wings and legs has profound ecological implications. Bats are predominantly adapted to aerial niches, which constrains them mainly to environments where flight is advantageous. 



This is in contrast to birds, whose limb independence allows them to occupy diverse habitats, ranging from arid deserts to aquatic environments.



The morphological constraints on bats mean that evolutionary pressures have favored adaptations which enhance aerial agility and efficiency, such as echolocation and varied wing shapes.



Consequently, bats have become specialized fliers, excelling in niches that demand proficient maneuverability and speed. 



However, this specialization may come with trade-offs, limiting their ability to exploit non-aerial ecological niches compared to the more versatile birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The discoveries from this research open avenues for further investigation into the evolutionary biology of flight.



Understanding how bone morphology influences ecological roles can provide deeper insights into the evolutionary constraints and drivers that shape species diversity. 



Future studies could explore the genetic and developmental factors underpinning the tight coupling between bat wings and legs. Additionally, research could focus on comparative studies across more vertebrate groups to dissect the underlying evolutionary mechanisms that enable or restrict limb independence. 



Such inquiries not only enhance our comprehension of evolutionary processes but also aid in conservation strategies by predicting how species may adapt to changing environments. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-evolved-to-stay-airborne">Bats evolved to stay airborne</h2>



The researchers acknowledge that the coupled evolution of wing and leg in bats could limit their capacity to adapt to new ecologies. However, this discovery has stirred interest in other areas. 



For instance, it raises questions about the evolution of pterosaurs, an extinct group of flying reptiles that had membranous wings akin to those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-can-ramp-up-their-heart-rate-to-900-beats-per-minute/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a>. 



With pterosaurs being significantly more diverse than either birds or bats, this research might shed some light on the factors behind their evolutionary prowess.



Following their discovery, the researchers have now redirected their focus to the evolution of bird skeletons.



"While we showed that the evolution of birds' wings and legs is independent, and it appears this is an important explanation for their evolutionary success, we still don't know why birds are able to do this or when it began to occur in their evolutionary history," said Orkney.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02572-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



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Why didn't bats evolve to walk on land like birds?

Bats have evolved to display a variety of different skills,...

For ages, people have wondered whether sea stars, commonly called starfish, have a head or not. Unlike creatures like worms or fish, where it's clear which end is which, starfish have five identical arms that can all move independently. 



This has made it hard to figure out where their front or back might be.



"It's as if the sea star is completely missing a trunk, and is best described as just a head crawling along the seafloor," said Laurent Formery, a postdoctoral scholar and lead author of a new study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starfish-symmetry-is-a-mystery">Starfish symmetry is a mystery</h2>



Formery works in the labs at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> and <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a>, both led by investigators from the Chan Zuckerberg <a href="https://www.czbiohub.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biohub</a> San Francisco. 



Their research has found that, contrary to previous beliefs, starfish are now assumed to be "all head" and no traditional body at all.



The researchers discovered that genes associated with head development are active throughout the starfish's entire "body," while genes related to the torso and tail are mostly absent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-look-at-an-old-question">New look at an old question</h2>



Most animals, including humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">have a body plan</a> that's symmetrical on both sides and runs from head to tail. 



Scientists have long understood how genes control this body plan in creatures like fruit flies and worms. 



But starfish, which belong to a group called echinoderms, have puzzled researchers because of their unique five-point symmetry and lack of an obvious head or tail.



Echinoderms like starfish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchins-have-some-unexpected-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea urchins</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-cucumbers-protect-coral-reefs-from-disease-and-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea cucumbers</a> have always been a bit of a mystery. Their unusual body structure doesn't fit neatly into the typical patterns seen in most animals. 



Some scientists thought that perhaps each arm of a starfish was like a separate head-to-tail axis. Others speculated that the axis might run from the top to the bottom of the sea star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-starfish-heads-with-cutting-edge-genetics">Studying starfish heads with cutting-edge genetics</h2>



To get to the bottom of this, the researchers used advanced genetic sequencing techniques. They partnered with <a href="https://www.pacb.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PacBio</a>, a company that develops genome-sequencing devices. 



Using a method called HiFi sequencing, they were able to read long stretches of DNA quickly and accurately. This allowed them to see which genes were active in different parts of the starfish's body.



"The kind of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-ocean-dna-study-uncovers-mysteries-of-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sequencing</a> that would have taken months can now be done in a matter of hours, and it's hundreds of times cheaper than just five years ago," said David Rank, a former PacBio Scientific Fellow and co-senior author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-of-starfish-are-only-associated-with-heads">Genes of starfish are only associated with heads</h2>



What they found was unexpected. Genes associated with the front part of the head in other animals were active in the middle of each starfish arm.



As you moved toward the edges of the arms, genes associated with more rear parts of the head became active. There was little to no expression of genes linked to the torso and tail.



"These results suggest that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-eating-sea-cucumbers-can-prevent-diabetes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">echinoderms</a>, and starfish in particular, have the most dramatic example of decoupling of the head and the trunk regions that we are aware of today," Formery said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-curveball">Evolutionary curveball</h2>



This suggests that starfish might have lost their bodies over evolutionary time, ending up as creatures that are essentially all head. 



The team is excited about what this means for understanding evolution. They hope to investigate whether similar patterns are found in other echinoderms like sea urchins and sea cucumbers.



"If we take the opportunity to explore unusual animals that are operating in unusual ways, that means we are broadening our perspective of biology, which is eventually going to help us solve both ecological and biomedical problems," said Daniel Rokhsar of UC Berkeley, an expert on the molecular evolution of animal species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-unanswered-questions-remain">Many unanswered questions remain</h2>



Formery is also interested in learning more about the starfish's nervous system, which remains a bit of a mystery. 



Starfish walk by moving water through thousands of tube feet and digest their prey by extruding their stomachs outside of their bodies. 



It only stands to reason that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brittle-stars-have-no-brain-but-still-manage-to-learn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unusual creatures</a> have also evolved completely unexpected strategies for staying healthy.



"It just opens a ton of new questions that we can now start to explore," Formery added. 



Questions like how their unique body plan affects their behavior and interaction with the environment are next on the list.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Christopher Lowe, a marine and developmental biologist at Stanford University, highlighted the importance of collaborative efforts. 



"The Biohub's willingness to take risks and provide support for a joint position between our labs has been critical for the success of this project," he said.



The collaboration between institutions and the use of innovative technology have paved the way for this breakthrough. 



The researchers utilized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationship-plant-roots-underground-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spatial transcriptomics</a> to pinpoint which genes are active in precise locations within the starfish's body, providing a detailed map of genetic activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starfish-heads-and-humanity">Starfish, heads, and humanity</h2>



To sum it all up, this study flips our understanding of starfish on its head -- literally. 



By revealing that starfish are essentially all head and no body, the researchers have opened up a whole new way of thinking about these fascinating creatures. 



"Exploring these unique animals broadens our perspective of biology," Rokhsar concluded.



Their unique genetic makeup challenges what we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal evolution</a> and body structures.



Looking ahead, this discovery unravels some of the mysteries surrounding starfish while setting the stage for exploring other unusual animals.



Studying these amazingly unique creatures might even lead to breakthroughs in medicine and new approaches to fighting diseases. 



It's exciting to think about what other secrets the starfish holds and how we're going to figure them out.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06669-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Starfish are just "one big head" crawling on the seafloor without an actual body

For ages, people have wondered whether sea stars, commonly called...

The future of chimpanzee conservation relies on smart strategies, which in turn require detailed data that is not always easy to obtain. 



Ecologist Adrienne Chitayat has led important research in Tanzania’s Mahale Mountains National Park, becoming the first to systematically survey chimpanzee population density across the entire park. 



Chitayat’s doctoral dissertation, conducted at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Amsterdam</a>, will likely serve as a crucial baseline for future conservation in this region - which is home to Tanzania's largest chimpanzee population. 



This area is significant not only for its biodiversity but because it represents the most southern range of the eastern chimpanzee, an endangered subspecies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-estimating-chimpanzee-population-density-nbsp">Estimating chimpanzee population density&nbsp;</h2>



Chimpanzees, along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/chimpanzees-vs-bonobos-whats-the-difference/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a>, are humans' closest living relatives. While the Greater Mahale Ecosystem is vast, covering nearly 20,000 square kilometers, there has been limited research on chimpanzee populations across the whole park.



“There have been estimates based on small-scale or localized surveys, but no comprehensive baseline data. And without that data, it is difficult to understand chimpanzee population patterns and develop good conservation strategies. My goal was to fill that gap,” Chitayat said.



Chimpanzees build new nests each night, rarely reusing them, which makes nest counting a reliable method for estimating population density.&nbsp;



Chitayat conducted these counts park-wide, determining density figures between 1.1 and 3.7 chimpanzees per square kilometer, depending on the specific habitat characteristics in each area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystems-threatened-by-climate-change">Ecosystems threatened by climate change</h2>



The Mahale Mountains feature diverse landscapes, from dense forests to expansive savannahs. Chitayat observed that chimpanzees occupy all these habitats, even the open vegetation, rather than sticking solely to forested areas. This discovery is crucial as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> threatens these ecosystems. 



“By looking at how the chimpanzees use the landscape and move within it, we can conclude that not only the densely forested areas are important for the protection of the animals,” said Chitayat.



Protecting this wide range of habitats, including establishing corridors, could support long-term population health and resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-chimpanzees-with-acoustic-detection">Monitoring chimpanzees with acoustic detection</h2>



Traditional nest counting, while effective, is labor-intensive and costly. Recognizing the limitations, Chitayat developed a new monitoring approach: a deep learning-based acoustic detector.&nbsp;



This technology uses passive acoustic monitoring to capture ambient sounds, including the calls of unhabituated chimpanzees that are difficult to observe up close.&nbsp;



“Passive acoustic monitoring is a revolutionary technique that automatically records all the sounds in the vicinity of the acoustic device, including the sounds of chimpanzees. It can be used to find out where the chimpanzees are, how often, at what times, and how many individuals,” said Chitayat.



“The problem is that you have hours, days, even weeks of sound recordings that are far too laborious to listen to manually.”



Fortunately, her <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-learning-can-help-track-changes-in-forest-cover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep learning</a> algorithm is able to automate the identification of chimpanzee sounds, saving time and resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-chimpanzee-communication">Understanding chimpanzee communication</h2>



Creating the acoustic detector presented unique challenges. Chimpanzees <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-a-much-more-complex-language-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communicate</a> through a complex range of sounds, from loud, long-distance “pant-hoots” to softer grunts. 



Chitayat focused her detector on pant-hoots, which are vital for group cohesion and individual identification but difficult to interpret due to their variability.&nbsp;



Developing the detector to recognize these calls required extensive training data and sophisticated algorithm design, marking a substantial achievement in bioacoustic technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-chimpanzee-conservation">Future of chimpanzee conservation</h2>



Chitayat’s work opens important doors for future innovations. She envisions refining the acoustic detector to distinguish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-mean-chimpanzees-fare-better-in-life-than-nice-ones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">individual</a> chimpanzees, offering insights into group demographics, social dynamics, and age and sex distributions. 



Such data would be invaluable for shaping targeted conservation strategies that address specific population needs. “The more we learn, the better we can protect chimpanzees,” said Chitayat.



This technology could enhance our understanding of not just population size but also the social structure and health of groups over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-resilience-through-data-driven-strategies">Building resilience through data-driven strategies</h2>



With her research, Chitayat aims to integrate ecological data into conservation planning for chimpanzees in the Greater Mahale Ecosystem.&nbsp;



By tracking population density, movement patterns, and habitat usage, conservationists can design interventions that align with the needs of this vulnerable species.&nbsp;



In an era of climate change, such comprehensive data enables proactive measures, from protecting essential habitats to creating corridors that allow chimpanzees to adapt to shifting environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuller-understanding-of-chimpanzee-populations-nbsp">Fuller understanding of chimpanzee populations&nbsp;</h2>



Chitayat’s contributions highlight the power of combining field ecology with advanced technology. By using nest counts, acoustic monitoring, and deep learning, her work brings a fuller understanding of chimpanzee populations and offers a model for innovative conservation strategies.&nbsp;



As climate change reshapes ecosystems, tools like Chitayat’s detector will be essential for adapting and responding to the challenges facing chimpanzee populations.



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How machine learning can help us protect chimpanzees 

The future of chimpanzee conservation relies on smart strategies, which...

Bats navigate effortlessly over vast distances using their natural GPS - echolocation. A recent study published in the journal Science has provided new insights into the extraordinary navigational capabilities of bats, and these abilities are more fascinating than we realized.



Echolocation - a technique not disrupted by darkness - is used by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-north-american-bats-face-extinction-risk-in-15-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> to avoid obstacles and orient themselves in the vastness of their environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-dimension-of-bat-navigation">A new dimension of bat navigation </h2>



By bouncing sound waves off objects and listening to the echoes, these nocturnal creatures can skillfully navigate their surroundings. Now, a new dimension has been added to their echolocating prowess. 



The research was led by Iain Couzin’s group at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior and the Cluster of Excellence Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a>.



Through experiments, the experts found that bats can recognize their location even after displacement and utilize echolocation for map-based navigation over long distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-a-bat-s-journey-home">Tracking a bat's journey home</h2>



In Israel's Hula Valley, a bat species named Kuhl’s pipistrelle (Pipistrellus kuhlii), weighing only six grams, was put to the test.



Across a few nights, 76 bats were relocated to various spots within a three-kilometer radius of their home. Each bat was equipped with an innovative lightweight reverse GPS tracking system, ATLAS, which offered high-resolution, real-time tracking.



Interestingly, even when solely dependent on echolocation, 95 percent of the bats found their way back home within mere minutes, demonstrating that bats are capable of navigating long distances using their localized, highly directional mode of sensing. 



The researchers discovered that bats also employ vision, if available, for enhanced navigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-bat-navigation">Science of bat navigation</h2>



To investigate further, the research team generated a detailed map of the entire valley.



"We wanted to visualize what each bat experienced during flight and understand how they used acoustic information to navigate," explained Xing Chen, an expert in the School of Zoology at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>, who was responsible for developing the valley’s reconstruction.



The model revealed that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-bat-appreciation-day-the-crucial-role-of-bats-in-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> have a preference for flying near areas with substantial "echoic entropy," or regions that provide rich acoustic information.



The bats, during the localization phase, would meander around until a certain point - after which their flight was directed toward their destination.



This behavior clearly indicates that the bats possess some acoustic mental map of their home range. This allows them to identify distinctive environmental features such as a tree or a road, which they use as acoustic landmarks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-maps-and-memory">Mental maps and memory</h2>



Beyond their acute sensory perceptions, memory plays a crucial role in a bat's ability to navigate efficiently. Researchers suggest that bats, like Kuhl’s pipistrelle, develop and refine a cognitive map of their environment over time. 



This mental map is not a static image but a dynamic collection of experiences and stored acoustic information that aids in re-orientation after displacement. 



Bats may rely on memory to access familiar routes or locations, integrating both real-time echolocation data and past experiences to optimize their flight paths. 



This complex interplay between memory and sensory input enhances their adaptive navigation strategies, enabling them to thrive even in rapidly changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The findings of this study serve as a potential blueprint for developing advanced navigation systems. By understanding how bats combine echolocation with memory to navigate, scientists can draw parallels in designing autonomous vehicles or drones that require minimal visual input. 



The high efficiency of bats in interpreting environmental acoustics presents opportunities to innovate and refine sonar-based technologies. 



Future research might focus on exploring how bats adapt their echolocation strategies over different terrains or in varying atmospheric conditions, contributing further to our knowledge of sensory integration and its applications in technological advancements. 



As our understanding deepens, the biosonar abilities of bats may inspire developments across various fields such as robotics, communication, and environmental monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-senses-for-navigation">Combining senses for navigation </h2>



Kuhl’s pipistrelles are capable of navigating over several kilometers using echolocation alone, but when vision is accessible, they optimize their navigational efficiency by combining both senses.



After being displaced, they strategize by first identifying their new location and then flying home, using distinctive acoustically marked environmental features as their landmarks.



Drawing parallels from such remarkable findings could enhance human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-bats-can-remember-the-past-and-plan-for-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigation methods</a>, particularly in situations where traditional GPS systems fail. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn6269" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Bats have acoustic mental maps to navigate total darkness

Bats navigate effortlessly over vast distances using their natural GPS...

A fascinating piece of research has opened the conversation about the influence of parenting style on dog-ownership practices. 



What if the way your parents brought you up could determine how you treat your dog? According to this new study, it does, indeed, all boil down to your own childhood and how you were raised. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-child-to-dog-owner">From child to dog owner</h2>



The researchers examined the upbringing of 391 dog owners in the UK and US. 



Each participant contributed by completing an online survey, which quizzed them on the parenting styles they experienced as children and how they presently care for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dog-day-honoring-mans-best-friend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine companions</a>.



One might think, what does human parenting have to do with how one treats their dogs? Well, surprisingly a lot.



The results suggested a distinct correlation. Participants who experienced a permissive parenting style -- characterized by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-speech-changes-when-we-talk-to-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high warmth</a> and low discipline -- were more likely to replicate this approach with their dogs.



Now, what does permissive parenting look like? 



Permissive parents are typically liberal, shying away from strict rules, and allowing a significant level of freedom in decision-making. 



They are nurturing, attuned to their children's needs, but often miss the mark when it comes to providing direction and structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-authoritative-parenting-for-dogs">Authoritative parenting for dogs</h2>



On the other hand, an authoritative parenting style demonstrated the opposite effect. Participants raised in such environments were less likely to be permissive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog owners</a>.



Authoritative parenting leans heavily on clear rules, high expectations, and consistent discipline. It fosters independence while maintaining an open line of communication. 



The focus here is more on obedience than understanding, and parental authority is of utmost importance.



The big question is, does this dynamic translate to their relationship with their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-dogs-can-remember-their-toy-names-for-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orientations-of-dog-owners">Orientations of dog owners</h2>



"This study explores how parenting styles towards dogs are influenced by experiences in one's own upbringing."



"We found that a permissive parenting style tends to be passed down across generations, with individuals who experienced it growing up being more likely to use it with their dogs," the researchers from Universities of <a href="https://www.gla.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glasgow</a> and <a href="https://www.stir.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stirling</a> said.



And there's more. The research not only analyzed parenting styles but also the attitudes and orientations of dog owners. 



Some owners displayed a 'protectionistic' orientation, emphasizing control and discipline, while others showcased a 'humanistic' attitude, focusing on treating dogs more like companions and favoring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interacting-with-dogs-can-ease-physical-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional bonding</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-influence-on-dog-parenting">Cultural influence on dog parenting </h2>



Cultural background also emerges as a salient factor in shaping dog parenting styles. 



Various cultures around the globe possess distinct attitudes towards animal care, which inevitably influence how individuals interact with their pets.



For instance, in Western societies, there is a prevalent trend towards perceiving dogs as family members rather than just animals, which aligns with a more humanistic approach. 



These cultural ideologies often go hand in hand with the parenting styles experienced in childhood, further influencing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-and-human-brains-sync-up-during-eye-contact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog ownership practices</a>.



The interplay between cultural norms and parenting styles highlights the intricate web of factors that underpin how we choose to raise and care for our canine companions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



The findings of this study open the door to a multitude of implications, especially in terms of promoting responsible dog ownership. 



By understanding the profound impact of upbringing on how people treat their dogs, initiatives can be launched to educate current and prospective dog owners about the benefits of various parenting styles. 



Encouraging an authoritative style, which marries warmth with clear boundaries, may foster a balanced relationship that includes affection, discipline, and mutual respect between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">owner and the dog</a>.



Additionally, these insights can inform the development of training programs that consider personal and cultural history as part of cultivating healthy owner-dog relationships. 



As further research continues to unravel this complex dynamic, there is hope for improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-experience-puppy-blues-with-a-new-pet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet welfare</a> and enriched human-animal interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



So, what does this tell us? As fascinating as these revelations are, this is merely the first step. The study has paved the way for further investigation into the link between parenting styles and how we treat our pets. 



Until then, perhaps it's time to reflect on how our childhood may be shaping the way we interact with our four-legged friends.



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How people treat their dogs is directly tied to their own childhood

A fascinating piece of research has opened the conversation about...

Lake Erie, known for its rich aquatic life, has been facing some challenges. Interestingly, the current regulations limiting nutrients from agriculture flowing into Lake Erie may be too restrictive for some fish species.



However, these restrictions are anticipated to maintain healthy fisheries until at least mid-century when taking our warming climate into consideration, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-action-now-for-the-future">Taking action now for the future</h2>



"Hitting the target for the future is the right thing to do now," said&nbsp;<a href="https://seas.umich.edu/research/faculty/don-scavia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Don Scavia</a>, professor emeritus at U-M's School for Environment and Sustainability. "Even though the proposed limits are too much for now, I don't think they should be relaxed because it takes a decade or longer to affect change."



This intriguing study is the result of combined efforts from scientists across the United States and Asia. 



The team integrated climate projections, historical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-illuminates-fish-interactions-in-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishery</a> data, and innovative mathematical modeling of the lake's nutrient load. The researchers also looked at an important indicator of water quality - the oxygen levels in the lake's depths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrients-in-lake-erie">Nutrients in Lake Erie</h2>



With all of these elements in the mix, the researchers found that the situation is even more complex than one might expect.



Reducing nutrient flows does indeed improve water quality, but this doesn't automatically translate into a boon for all fish species. 



"There are tradeoffs," said Scavia. He noted that as the planet continues to warm, temperature - not nutrient load - will be the primary influence over Lake Erie's oxygen levels and other similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-fish-populations-are-boosted-by-ocean-connectivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solutions-for-a-wicked-problem">Solutions for a "wicked problem"</h2>



Does this complexity mean we're in a no-win situation? Not at all. Instead, it simply means that management strategies will need to adapt as conditions change. 



Because there isn't a single, perfect solution for these ecosystems, our approach must remain flexible to accommodate new realities. In the world of land management, this is known as a "wicked problem."



The nutrients used in fertilizers, while incredibly beneficial for crops, pose a problem when they enter our water systems. They act as a buffet for microorganisms like algae and cyanobacteria, leading to algal blooms in places like Lake Erie, the northern Gulf of Mexico, and Chesapeake Bay.



As these blooms decompose, they create hypoxic, or low-oxygen, conditions that are disastrous for many fish species. 



While cyanobacteria thrive in nutrient-rich waters, so do the plankton that provide food for larger fish species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-nutrients-in-lake-erie">Balancing nutrients in Lake Erie</h2>



Stuart Ludsin, a professor in the Aquatic Ecology Laboratory at Ohio State University (<a href="https://www.osu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSU</a>), explained that hypoxia is bad news for lake whitefish that prefer the cold bottom water of Lake Erie.



However, not all fish live in depths where hypoxia is a concern. Yellow perch, for instance, actually benefit from nutrient-rich waters, noted Professor Ludsin.



Currently, nutrient levels in Lake Erie are also beneficial to walleye. Achieving the right balance for both water quality and fish populations is a delicate, moving target.



The goal is not to encourage pollution to support fisheries but rather to find a level of nutrients that can balance water quality goals and support the lake's suite of fisheries.



Anna Michalak, founding director of Carnegie Science's Climate and Resilience Hub, suggests that determining this level should involve the system's managers and stakeholders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptive-tactics-to-tackle-the-issue">Adaptive tactics to tackle the issue</h2>



Michalak, who has been working with Scavia for a decade studying Lake Erie and other aquatic ecosystems, advocates for a systems-level approach. She emphasizes that the optimal choices for one aspect, such as water quality, might come with a cost to another, like fisheries.



According to Professor Dan Obenour of North Carolina (NC) State University, the study provides a template and prior knowledge that can be applied to other systems.



Pointing out that the climate-hypoxia model has proven robust and reliable over long time periods, Professor Obenour reinforces the need for adaptive tactics to tackle this wicked problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-climate-change">The role of climate change</h2>



Climate change further complicates the web of challenges faced by Lake Erie nutrient limits and similar water systems. Rising global temperatures alter precipitation patterns, increasing the frequency of intense rainfalls that wash more nutrients into bodies of water. 



This not only exacerbates the existing nutrient management issues but also demands more dynamic solutions. Scientists are beginning to incorporate climate resilience into their models to predict more accurately how these aquatic systems will change over time. 



By understanding and planning for these shifts, policymakers and stakeholders can better devise strategies that preemptively address the changing environmental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovation-in-environmental-policy">Innovation in environmental policy</h2>



Advancements in technology and data analytics are playing pivotal roles in shaping effective environmental policies. By leveraging satellite imagery and real-time sensor data, researchers can monitor nutrient loads and algal blooms with greater precision than ever before. 



These innovative tools allow for the rapid assessment of water quality and the development of more targeted mitigation strategies. 



As environmental challenges become increasingly complex, the integration of cutting-edge science with proactive policy measures stands to offer a beacon of hope for maintaining Lake Erie's ecological balance and preserving its invaluable natural resources.



Indeed, determining the best management solutions is a challenging task. Even after reaching a consensus, future changes will require continued <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-gets-a-boost-from-genomics-roadmap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reassessments</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2322595121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Balancing the nutrient load in Lake Erie is a 'wicked problem'

Lake Erie, known for its rich aquatic life, has been...

Every organism on this planet, from the tiniest bacterium to the colossal blue whale, grapples with the task of adjusting to its ever-changing environment. Picture an animal on its never-ending quest for food, navigating the shifting sands of edible resources molded by the seasons.



Yet learning, as we know, isn't a walk in the park. It drains time and energy. An <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-and-bees-are-capable-of-complex-social-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organism</a> that sluggishly learns may find itself lagging behind the environmental shifts, while one that learns too quickly might find itself swept up in the whirlwind of insignificant fluctuations.



Enter a newly developed mathematical model that tackles this head-on. Constructed by researchers at the Complexity Science Hub (CSH) and <a href="https://www.santafe.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Santa Fe Institute</a>, this model breaks down the optimal pace of learning for any organism existing in our dynamic world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-rate-of-animals">Learning rate of animals</h2>



“The key insight is that the ideal learning rate increases in the same way regardless of the pace of environmental change, whether the organism changes its environment or alters its interaction with it. This suggests a generalizable phenomenon that may underlie learning in a variety of ecosystems,” said CSH Postdoc <a href="https://csh.ac.at/eddie-lee/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eddie Lee</a>.



In layman's terms, this model conceives an environment that transitions between various states such as wet and dry seasons or day and night.



The organisms pick up on these environmental cues and hold onto memories of these past states. But as time marches on, these older memories get relegated to the background, taking a backseat based on how quickly the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organism</a> learns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-and-environmental-timescales">Learning and environmental timescales</h2>



Treading the line between animals learning too quickly and too slowly is no simple feat. The model brings forth an interesting proposition: the learning timescale should correspond to the square root of the environmental timescale.



Think of it in these terms: if the environment fluctuates twice as slowly, the organism's learning rate should dip by a factor of 1.4 (the square root of 2). The square root scaling tells us there's a limit to the benefits of having a long memory.



Our model doesn’t stop there. It also mimics organisms that aren’t passive learners. Some can actively reshape their environment, a power known as "niche construction."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-on-animal-learning">Environmental impact on animal learning</h2>



"If an organism can keep its surroundings stable, it gains an evolutionary advantage. But, this only works if the benefits stay within the organism. If other organisms move in and exploit the stabilized niche, the whole strategy falls apart," explained Lee.



The model uses beavers as an example to illustrate this. A beaver builds dams in rivers, leading to the formation of steady ponds that provide habitats for them and other species as well. 



This construct equips them with a crucial evolutionary advantage - constant food supply and defense against predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-effort-required-for-learning">Mental effort required for learning </h2>



An intriguing aspect of this model is its consideration of cognitive load - the mental effort required to adapt and learn. In a complex and rapidly changing environment, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-tool-superanimal-can-accurately-analyze-animal-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms</a> must balance the amount of information they process to avoid cognitive overload.



An organism inundated with too much data might fail to effectively discern which changes are critical and which are benign. The model posits that there is an optimal level of cognitive load that allows organisms to respond adeptly to environmental shifts without becoming overwhelmed. 



This balance enables organisms to allocate their resources efficiently, maintaining focus on the most pertinent environmental cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-learning">Implications for human learning</h2>



The principles outlined by this model hold potential implications for understanding human learning processes, particularly in educational and professional settings. 



As we encounter ever-growing volumes of information, determining an optimal learning rate becomes crucial. 



Educators can harness insights from the model to design curricula that sync with the natural pace of learning, ensuring students grasp <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex concepts</a> without succumbing to cognitive fatigue. 



In the workplace, this understanding could lead to tailored training programs that align with an employee's ability to absorb new information, promoting a more innovative and adaptive workforce.



By drawing parallels between the learning strategies of animals and humans, this model enriches our approach to education and lifelong learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metabolic-costs-and-learning">Metabolic costs and learning</h2>



Additionally, the researchers evaluated how learning capability interacts with the metabolic costs of maintaining life in animals. 



They propose that for smaller, short-lived beings like insects, the costs of learning and memory are critical. For larger, long-lived creatures like mammals, the metabolic costs overshadow the costs of learning.



This suggests that short-lived organisms like insects have well-rounded memories tailored to their environments. 



“In contrast, larger organisms like elephants have longer memories, but exactly how long they retain information may have more to do with non-learning costs or other types of environments such as social groups which impose further cognitive demands,” said Lee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-and-memory-of-animals">Learning and memory of animals</h2>



Ultimately, the model serves as a quantitative mechanism to discern how organisms juggle learning demands and survival imperatives in our ever-evolving world.



The results point towards an optimal pace of adaptation that's in sync with the speed of environmental change and lifespan of the organism, touching every rung of the ladder of life - from microbes to humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Animal learning speed: Keeping pace with a changing environment

Every organism on this planet, from the tiniest bacterium to...

In a remarkable development in the fight against wildlife trafficking, African giant pouched rats have been trained to detect pangolin scales, elephant ivory, rhino horn, and African blackwood.&nbsp;



Previously known for detecting explosives and tuberculosis, these rodents are proving to be versatile allies in conservation efforts.



“Our study shows that we can train African giant pouched rats to detect illegally trafficked wildlife, even when it has been concealed among other substances,” said lead author Isabelle Szott, a researcher at the <a href="https://okeanos-foundation.org/">Okeanos Foundation</a>. 



“The rats also continued to detect the wildlife targets after not encountering that species for a long period,” added co-author Kate Webb, an assistant professor in psychiatry and behavioral sciences at <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>.



The study was conducted at <a href="https://apopo.org/">APOPO</a>, a non-profit organization based in Tanzania that develops low-tech, cost-effective solutions to humanitarian challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-in-the-fight-against-wildlife-trafficking">Rats in the fight against wildlife trafficking</h2>



To prepare for the detection tasks, the rats - Kirsty, Marty, Attenborough, Irwin, Betty, Teddy, Ivory, Ebony, Desmond, Thoreau, and Fossey (many named after renowned conservationists) - underwent a series of training stages.&nbsp;



Each rat learned to recognize specific wildlife scents through what researchers called “indication training,” where the rats held their noses over a scented target for a few seconds. A correct response was rewarded with flavored rodent pellets, motivating them to repeat the behavior.



As their training progressed, the rats were introduced to various non-target scents such as electric cables, coffee beans, and washing powder - substances often used by traffickers to mask wildlife scents.&nbsp;



“During the discrimination stage, rats learn to only signal the odors of the wildlife targets while ignoring non-targets,” Szott explained.



The study demonstrated the rats’ impressive retention <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-rats-have-an-imagination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abilities</a>. After periods of five and eight months without exposure to the target scents, the rats could still recognize them with perfect retention scores, a level of cognitive retention comparable to that of trained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-smell-human-stress-and-it-makes-them-feel-gloomy/">dogs</a>. 



By the end of the training program, eight rats successfully identified four wildlife species from 146 other substances commonly found in shipping cargo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-are-a-practical-solution">Rats are a practical solution </h2>



“Existing screening tools are expensive and time intensive, and there is an urgent need to increase cargo screening. APOPO's rats are cost-efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/">scent detection</a> tools,” said Szott.



“They can easily access tight spaces like cargo in packed shipping containers or be lifted up high to screen the ventilation systems of sealed containers.”&nbsp;



Given their size and agility, these rats offer a practical solution for wildlife detection in various port and cargo environments.



The research team’s next objective is to adapt these rats for use at international ports. To achieve this, the rats will wear specially designed vests fitted with a small pull cord. When they detect a target scent, they can pull the cord to emit a beeping sound, signaling their handler.



“The vests are a great example of developing hardware that could be useful across different settings and tasks, including at a shipping port to detect smuggled wildlife,” Webb said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-development">Challenges and future development</h2>



This study, while promising, does face some limitations. For instance, the research was conducted in a controlled environment that differs significantly from the busy, noisy, and variable conditions typically found at ports and trafficking checkpoints.&nbsp;



Deploying rats in real-world settings will require additional testing and adjustments to ensure their effectiveness and reliability under less predictable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research-nbsp">Broader implications of the research&nbsp;</h2>



Furthermore, while the current study focused solely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-using-forensic-science-to-fight-wildlife-trafficking/">wildlife trafficking</a>, researchers believe that these detection skills could also aid in other efforts to disrupt organized crime.&nbsp;



“Wildlife smuggling is often conducted by individuals engaged in other illegal activities, including human, drug, and arms trafficking,” Webb noted. “Therefore, deploying rats to combat wildlife trafficking may assist with the global fight against networks that exploit humans and nature.”



This study opens new avenues for wildlife <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/">conservation</a> and anti-trafficking measures. If African giant pouched rats can effectively identify and signal the presence of endangered species products, they could become a critical component in stopping illegal wildlife trade and reducing its impact on vulnerable species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2024.1444126">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>.



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Rats can sniff out horns and tusks to combat wildlife trafficking

In a remarkable development in the fight against wildlife trafficking,...

Tales of animals appearing “drunk” after eating fermented fruit have circulated for years. Still, many scientists believed that ethanol consumption among wild animals was rare and largely accidental.&nbsp;



Challenging this assumption, ecologists now argue that animals frequently consume low levels of alcohol in their natural diets.&nbsp;



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2024.09.005" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, a new review suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oriental-hornets-have-the-highest-alcohol-tolerance-of-any-animal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a> is ubiquitous across ecosystems and regularly consumed by many fruit- and nectar-eating species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-ethanol-in-nature">The role of ethanol in nature</h2>



Behavioral ecologist Kimberley Hockings of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> believes that this finding broadens our understanding of ethanol’s role in nature.&nbsp;



“We’re moving away from this anthropocentric view that ethanol is just something that humans use,” she said. “It’s much more abundant in the natural world than we previously thought, and most animals that eat sugary fruits are going to be exposed to some level of ethanol.”&nbsp;



This perspective emphasizes that ethanol isn’t unique to human consumption but rather a natural compound that animals regularly encounter in their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethanol-dates-back-100-million-years">Ethanol dates back 100 million years</h2>



The presence of ethanol in the environment dates back approximately 100 million years, around the time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> began to flourish.&nbsp;



These plants produce sugars in nectar and fruits, creating an ideal environment for yeast fermentation, which naturally generates ethanol.&nbsp;



Today, ethanol is present in ecosystems worldwide, with tropical and humid regions showing higher concentrations due to more consistent warmth and moisture.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-in-fermented-fruits">Alcohol in fermented fruits</h2>



In most cases, fermented fruits have alcohol levels of 1%-2% by volume (ABV), though over-ripe fruits, such as some palm fruits in Panama, have been found to reach up to 10.2% ABV.



Long before the appearance of ethanol-producing yeast, animals had already evolved genes to break down ethanol. Evidence suggests that evolution further adapted these genes for mammals and birds that consume fruit and nectar regularly, particularly in species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-may-have-inherited-a-love-of-alcohol-from-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> and treeshrews.&nbsp;



This evolutionary adjustment likely enabled animals to tolerate the presence of ethanol in their food sources, allowing them to consume it without experiencing severe intoxication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-need-the-calories-in-alcohol">Animals need the calories in alcohol</h2>



“From an ecological perspective, it is not advantageous to be inebriated as you’re climbing around in the trees or surrounded by predators at night - that’s a recipe for not having your genes passed on,” said co-author Matthew Carrigan, a molecular ecologist at the <a href="https://www.cf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Central Florida</a>.&nbsp;



“It’s the opposite of humans who want to get intoxicated but don’t really want the calories - from the non-human perspective, the animals want the calories but not the inebriation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-animal-alcohol-consumption">Benefits of animal alcohol consumption</h2>



Though researchers are still investigating whether animals actively seek out ethanol, it’s becoming clear that its consumption may offer several benefits.&nbsp;



First and foremost, ethanol provides an additional source of calories, which is vital for survival. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fermented-foods-combat-depression-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fermentation</a> also releases odorous compounds that can lead animals to food, although it remains uncertain if animals are capable of detecting ethanol itself or are simply drawn to the overall scent of fermentation.



In addition to being a source of energy, ethanol may have protective effects against certain environmental threats. For example, fruit flies lay eggs in ethanol-containing substrates, which can deter parasites.&nbsp;



Likewise, when parasitized by wasps, fruit fly larvae increase their ethanol consumption as a protective measure. Ethanol could have other biochemical or medicinal benefits in wild animals, an area researchers are keen to explore further.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-effects-on-animal-behavior-nbsp">Potential effects on animal behavior&nbsp;</h2>



“On the cognitive side, ideas have been put forward that ethanol can trigger the endorphin and dopamine system, which leads to feelings of relaxation that could have benefits in terms of sociality,” adds lead author Anna Bowland, a behavioral ecologist at the University of Exeter.&nbsp;



“To test that, we’d really need to know if ethanol is producing a physiological response in the wild.”&nbsp;



Such a physiological response could mean that ethanol’s presence in animals’ diets has broader social or psychological impacts, potentially influencing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-tool-superanimal-can-accurately-analyze-animal-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal behavior</a> in subtle ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain-nbsp">Many questions remain&nbsp;</h2>



Despite these intriguing insights, the extent and implications of ethanol consumption in wild animals remain largely unknown.&nbsp;



The research team plans to examine the behavioral and social effects of ethanol intake in primates and investigate how alcohol-metabolizing enzymes function across species.&nbsp;



They are particularly interested in whether animals consume ethanol intentionally or if it’s simply a byproduct of their search for food.&nbsp;



This question opens the door to understanding how evolution might have shaped animals’ ability to tolerate or benefit from low ethanol levels in their diets.



“To really understand if animals consume ethanol intentionally, we need to observe how they interact with ethanol-containing fruits in their natural habitats,” Hockings said.&nbsp;



These future studies could reveal whether ethanol has played an adaptive role in the diets of certain species, and if so, what evolutionary benefits it may have conferred.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-in-the-animal-kingdom">Alcohol in the animal kingdom</h2>



This research challenges the assumption that ethanol consumption is unique to humans and raises new questions about its evolutionary significance for nonhuman species.&nbsp;



By exploring the role of ethanol in natural ecosystems, scientists may uncover previously overlooked benefits that ethanol offers animals.&nbsp;



Understanding how animals consume and process ethanol could reveal broader ecological patterns and even help us trace the evolutionary origins of how different species interact with this potent molecule.



“There is much more to learn about how ethanol affects wildlife and whether it plays a larger part in the ecological relationships that shape species interactions and evolution,” Carrigan concluded.



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‘Drunk animals’ may explain humans’ love of alcohol

Tales of animals appearing “drunk” after eating fermented fruit have...

Ever wondered how much water it takes for humans to cultivate the world's primary crops? A recent study illuminates some startling numbers. 



Our demand for water keeps increasing, despite our improved ability to grow more food with less water. This escalating demand could lead to a cluster of environmental and socio-economic problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-footprint-of-crops">Water footprint of crops</h2>



The research, led by experts from <a href="http://www.utwente.nl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Twente</a>, scrutinized the water footprints of 175 crops spanning from 1990 to 2019. What's a water footprint? Simply put, it's the amount of water used in the production process.



This study separated water into two types - green and blue. The green kind comes from rainfall, while the blue kind is derived from irrigation and groundwater. 



"We need to differentiate between these two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-has-caused-crisis-levels-of-food-and-water-scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> types as they play different roles in ecosystems and society," said Oleksandr Mialyk, a postdoctoral researcher at the Multidisciplinary Water Management group.



On a brighter note, the study revealed that around 80% of the scrutinized crops in 2019 required less water per ton than they did in 1990. So, we have become better at using less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-a-focus-on-prosperity-and-peace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> to produce more food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surge-in-water-usage-for-crops">Surge in water usage for crops</h2>



Sadly, the productivity rise hasn't stopped the overall water footprint of crop production from inching higher. Since 1990, it surged by nearly 30%, or 1.55 trillion m3 (That's roughly 410,132 billion gallons). 



"Our estimate for 2019 stands at 6.8 trillion m3&nbsp;of mainly green water, which is around 2,400 liters per person per day," said Mialyk.



The most surprising part? A whopping 90% of the total increase happened between 2000 and 2019.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-crops-more-water">More crops, more water</h2>



So, what sparked this rise? The researchers highlight three significant socio-economic factors. First, our fast-paced globalization and economic growth have notably amplified our consumption of a variety of imported crops and crop products.



In addition, there has been a shift in our global diets towards more water-guzzling products like animal produce, sweetened beverages and junk food. 



Finally, many government efforts to secure energy and promote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2024-a-call-for-land-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">green initiatives</a> have increased the production of crop-based biofuels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-versatility-in-water-consumption-of-crops">Versatility in water consumption of crops</h2>



Interestingly, these socio-economic shifts have mainly boosted the cultivation of "flex crops." These crops can be transformed into a myriad of products such as food, animal feed, and biofuels.



This flexibility gives farmers, investors, and insurers a safety net, reducing financial risks linked to crop production.



Over the last few decades, largely thanks to aggressive agricultural lobbyism, the production of these flex crops has rapidly shot up. 



The three biggest ones - oil palm fruit, soya beans, and maize (corn for many of us) - account for half the total water footprint increase of crop production from 1990–2019.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-guzzling-nations">Water-guzzling nations</h2>



India, China, and the United States are the biggest water consumers. But, the total water footprint increase has primarily happened in the tropics, often coupled with other environmental impacts like deforestation and biodiversity loss.



"This region offers optimal geographical conditions for crop production while favorable agricultural policies attract investments from large agrifood corporations," explained the researchers.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-implications-of-the-study">Environmental implications of the study </h2>



The intricate relationship between water usage and agriculture bears considerable environmental consequences. Extensive water consumption, primarily of green water, often results in diminished natural resources, ecosystem disruptions, and heightened groundwater depletion. 



These effects lead to losses in biodiversity and degradation of local habitats, which are often difficult to reverse. Furthermore, increased reliance on irrigation can exacerbate soil salinity and reduce soil fertility, posing severe long-term challenges to sustainable agriculture. 



An understanding of these environmental implications is crucial for developing effective water management strategies to ensure future agricultural sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-water-use-for-crops">Increasing water use for crops</h2>



"Our data suggests that humanity will keep increasing&nbsp;water consumption&nbsp;for crop production in the following decades," said Mialyk.&nbsp;



However, all hope isn’t lost. The researchers believe that there remains a lot of untapped potential in improving crop water productivity and shifting production to less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-soil-can-absorb-water-from-the-air-and-feed-itself/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water-scarce areas</a>.



Moreover, a broader adoption of less water-intensive diets and minimizing the reliance on first-generation biofuels could also help. 



""Our research shows that we have many problems and now it is time to work on the solutions for a more water-sustainable future of crop production," concluded Mialyk.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ad78e9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Trillions of cubic meters of water is used to grow crops each year

Ever wondered how much water it takes for humans to...

Between 635 to 541 million years ago, during the Ediacaran Period, Earth witnessed a remarkable emergence of early life in the form of multicellular organisms. These weren't just tiny microbes; some were over three feet long and could move around. 



What could have triggered this sudden burst of life?



John Tarduno, a professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the <a href="http://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a>, thinks he might have an answer. His team studied Earth's ancient magnetic field and found something intriguing.



Tarduno and his colleagues discovered that Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a> during the Ediacaran Period was up to 30 times weaker than it is today. 



This ultra-weak field lasted for at least 26 million years -- the weakest it's ever been, according to their data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-earth-s-magnetic-field">Importance of Earth's magnetic field</h2>



But why does this matter? Earth's magnetic field basically serves as our planet's invisible shield against all of the nasty stuff in the universe that would immediately kill all life on the planet.



It deflects harmful solar radiation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-rays-help-archaeologists-determine-age-discoveries-prehistoric-settlements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic rays</a> that would otherwise strip away our atmosphere and expose us to levels of radiation that would be devastating.



Without this magnetic protection, not only could we get fried by cosmic rays, but we might also lose our water and essential gases to space -- making Earth a far less hospitable place to live.



Without it, life as we know it wouldn't be possible. So, if the field was so weak back then, how did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life manage to flourish</a>?



Well, the timing caught the researchers' attention. The appearance of these large, mobile creatures coincided with the weakest magnetic field on record. 



Tarduno explains, “They were notable for their resemblance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-of-earths-earliest-animals-found-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early animals</a> -- some even reached more than a meter in size and were mobile, indicating they probably needed more oxygen compared to earlier life forms.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weak-magnetism-linked-to-oxygen-levels">Weak magnetism linked to oxygen levels</h2>



This led them to think about how environmental factors, especially oxygen levels in the atmosphere and oceans, might have played a role. 



If the magnetic field was weak, more charged particles from the sun could strip away hydrogen from our atmosphere. With less hydrogen to react with, oxygen levels could rise.



Imagine that: a weaker shield leading to more oxygen, which in turn supports larger and more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex life forms</a>. It's a bit counterintuitive, isn't it?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-answers-in-ancient-rocks">Finding answers in ancient rocks</h2>



To dig deeper, Tarduno's team used some high-tech tools. They examined ancient crystals called feldspar and pyroxene from a type of rock known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-origins-of-earths-largest-igneous-rocks-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anorthosite</a>. 



By studying the magnetism locked inside these crystals, they pieced together a timeline of Earth's magnetic field.



Using a CO₂ laser and a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometer, they measured the magnetic signals with great precision. 



Their findings painted a picture of an Earth with a very weak magnetic field during a critical time in life's history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-earth-s-atmosphere-and-life">Implications for Earth's atmosphere and life</h2>



A weaker magnetic field means more solar particles hitting the atmosphere, which can strip away light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydrothermal-vents-earths-first-living-beings-hydrogen-gas-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elements like hydrogen</a>. 



Over tens of millions of years, this loss of hydrogen could lead to more oxygen hanging around. And more oxygen means more fuel for complex organisms.



Tarduno and his team suggest that this increase in oxygen may have been just what these early creatures needed to thrive. 



“If the extraordinarily weak field had remained after the Ediacaran, Earth might look very different from the water-rich planet it is today: water loss might have gradually dried Earth,” he notes.



Luckily for us, Earth's magnetic field bounced back during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-the-first-animals-appear-on-earth-we-are-now-one-step-closer-to-knowing-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian Period</a>, which followed the Ediacaran. This stronger field provided better protection, allowing life to continue evolving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-earth">Looking beyond Earth</h2>



So, what does all this mean? For one, it highlights how interconnected our planet's systems are. 



Processes deep within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-has-begun-moving-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's core</a> can have a big impact on life on the surface. It's also a reminder that when we think about the possibility of life on other planets, we need to consider not just the surface conditions but what's happening deep inside.



“It’s fascinating to think that processes in Earth’s core could be linked ultimately to evolution,” Tarduno explained. “As we think about the possibility of life elsewhere, we also need to consider how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-will-search-for-signs-of-life-on-jupiters-icy-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interiors of planets</a> form and develop.”



This research opens up new questions. Could other planets with weak magnetic fields have seen similar bursts of life? Or does Earth's unique history make it one of a kind?



As we explore these ideas, it's clear there's still so much to learn about our own planet's past. The Ediacaran Period might have been a time when Earth's defenses were down, but life found a way to take advantage of it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-magnetic-fields-and-life">Earth, magnetic fields, and life</h2>



To sum it all up, understanding the interplay between Earth's magnetic field and the rise of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complex-life-emerged-1-5-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex life</a> gives us a whole new appreciation for our planet's history. 



It's wild to think that a weaker magnetic shield, which is supposed to protect life on Earth, might have actually helped life flourish by boosting oxygen levels.



This unexpected connection highlights just how intertwined Earth's systems are -- from deep within its core all the way to the organisms roaming its surface.



As we keep digging (sometimes literally) into these ancient mysteries, we're reminded that there's still so much to learn about how life evolves. 



One thing's for sure: studies like John Tarduno's help us piece together our own story and get us thinking about life's possibilities elsewhere in the universe. 



After all, if something as subtle as a magnetic field can tip the scales, the potential for life beyond Earth might be greater than we ever imagined.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01360-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Earth had an issue 600 million years ago that may have kickstarted complex life

Between 635 to 541 million years ago, during the Ediacaran...

A recent observational study suggests that lifetime cannabis use is linked to various changes in brain structure and function in later life.&nbsp;



However, when researchers conducted a genetic analysis on the same data, they found that these associations might not be causal, indicating that other unidentified factors could be at play.&nbsp;



The experts highlight the need for further investigation to fully understand how the frequency and potency of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-and-hallucinogen-use-are-at-historically-high-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis use</a> may impact the brain, particularly given the global increase in cannabis use following its legalization in many areas for medical and recreational purposes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-over-long-term-brain-health">Concerns over long-term brain health</h2>



The scientists underscore the importance of a deeper understanding of cannabis’s long-term effects, especially since its use has been linked to deleterious effects on neurocognitive performance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-diet-positively-influences-the-brains-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain structure</a>, and function. 



Moreover, the precise threshold of safe cannabis consumption, if any exists, is currently unknown.&nbsp;



While past observational studies have suggested changes in brain structure among regular users, these studies could not confirm causation, and few have focused on older populations, where the effects of lifelong cannabis use are especially relevant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-links-to-risk-factors">Genetic links to risk factors</h2>



To strengthen the evidence base, the researchers used Mendelian randomization, a genetic method that employs genetic variants as stand-ins for particular risk factors.&nbsp;



In this study, the method was used to identify any potential causal links between cannabis use or dependence and changes in brain structure.&nbsp;



Data was drawn from a large group of <a href="https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Biobank</a> participants (15,896 people), which included both genetic profiles collected from 2012-13 and MRI brain imaging data collected from 2014-19.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-structure-and-frequent-cannabis-use-nbsp">Brain structure and frequent cannabis use&nbsp;</h2>



Participants were asked if they had “ever taken cannabis,” with response options ranging from occasional use to over 100 times.&nbsp;



Based on responses, 3,641 participants who answered “yes” were categorized as lifetime cannabis users, averaging 61 years in age, while the 12,225 “no” responders formed a comparison group, with an average age of 64.&nbsp;



Cannabis users were further categorized into low-frequency users (lifetime use of up to 10 times) and high-frequency users (lifetime use of 11 to 100+ times). The participants also reported the age at which they last used cannabis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-and-brain-structure-changes">Cannabis and brain structure changes</h2>



The research team accounted for multiple influential factors, including age at first scan, sex, socioeconomic status, mental health, BMI, blood pressure, and various lifestyle factors, ensuring a more accurate assessment of cannabis-related brain differences.&nbsp;



After adjusting for these factors, the results showed that cannabis use was associated with changes in multiple brain structures and functions.



Participants who had used cannabis at any point in their life displayed lower integrity in their white matter - a part of the brain critical to cognitive function. This was especially prominent in the corpus callosum, the major pathway connecting the left and right sides of the brain.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-differences-in-brain-changes">Gender differences in brain changes </h2>



Additionally, cannabis users had weaker neuronal connectivity in the default mode network, which is generally active during periods of mind-wandering and self-reflection. The researchers noted that these areas are densely packed with cannabinoid receptors, suggesting a possible direct impact of cannabis.



Despite these associations, the study found no significant link between either the length of time since last cannabis use or the frequency of use and changes in brain structure and function.&nbsp;



However, they observed gender differences: significant associations were found across six specific brain regions in men, while associations in women spanned 24 brain structures and regions, primarily affecting white matter integrity in women and functional connectivity in men.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, these results indicate that cannabis may impact male and female brains differently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifelong-cannabis-use-and-brain-structure-nbsp">Lifelong cannabis use and brain structure&nbsp;</h2>



Applying Mendelian randomization to the findings, the researchers found no significant associations between genetically predicted cannabis dependence or lifetime use and changes in brain structure.&nbsp;



“To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest observational study of relationships between cannabis use and brain structure and function to date, and the first Mendelian randomisation investigation,” the authors wrote.&nbsp;



“Cannabis users had significant differences in brain structure and function, most markedly for markers of lower white matter microstructure integrity. Genetic analyses found no support for causal relationships underlying these observed associations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-the-study">Limitations of the study</h2>



There are several possible reasons for the disparity between the observational and Mendelian randomization findings. The researchers propose that other variables, such as family history, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-healthy-diet-can-reduce-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a>, or specific medications, may have influenced the observational findings. 



Additionally, they note that the Mendelian randomization analyses may have had limited statistical power to detect subtle effects.



Further, Mendelian randomization looks at the lifelong impact of cannabis use, while the changes in brain structure noted in observational studies may be due to factors arising at various points in an individual’s life, rather than a cumulative lifelong effect. 



The researchers also point to the limitations of the UK Biobank data, which includes predominantly healthy white participants with few reporting cannabis use disorders. Due to this demographic limitation, the findings may not fully represent the diversity of cannabis users worldwide.



Furthermore, the study faced limitations in assessing critical time points during life that could reveal when cannabis use most impacts brain structure.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



“Our results need to be interpreted with careful consideration. Additional research is needed to understand the effects of heavy cannabis use in this population, including considerations of potency and related information to inform public policy,” the authors wrote.



Further research may be crucial in clarifying the long-term impacts of heavy and frequent cannabis use on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-is-a-powerful-tool-to-boost-brain-health-and-overall-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>, with implications for both public health policy and individual health awareness.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjment-2024-301065" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMJ Mental Health</a>.



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How does cannabis use affect brain structure?

A recent observational study suggests that lifetime cannabis use is...

Plants are known to engage in fierce competition for essential growth elements - light, water, and nutrients. And one of the most fascinating phenomena observed in the green world is the "shade avoidance" response.



This is an instinctive survival mechanism where plants do everything possible to intercept light in high-density environments. The concept has been studied extensively, and yet, the world of science never ceases to surprise us.



A team in the Laboratory of Molecular Biology at <a href="https://www.wur.nl/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=organic&amp;utm_campaign=google-my-business" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wageningen University</a> has recently unveiled a brand new shade avoidance mechanism revolving around the crucial role of the hormone cytokinin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-fight-for-the-light">Plants fight for the light</h2>



So how do plants even realize that they're getting crowded? The answer lies in the minute details of light absorption.



"In densely planted crops, red light is absorbed faster than far-red light, which is instead reflected. The red-to-far-red ratio therefore decreases with greater density. Plants 'see' this through the light-sensitive pigment <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plants-response-to-light-can-be-manipulated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytochrome</a>," explained Professor Ronald Pierik.



Just think of this pigment as a light switch operated by the red-to-far-red light ratio. As the far-red light increases, likely in densely planted crops, responses such as elongating stems or leaves shifting from horizontal to vertical positions are triggered. 



The objective is simple: the plants must rise above their neighbors to intercept more light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-competition-beyond-light">Plant competition beyond light</h2>



While light competition among plants has been well-documented, Professor Pierik and postdoctoral researcher Pierre Gautrat studied these interactions from another angle.



They considered how plants compete for nutrients like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-adjust-roots-to-reach-their-preferred-form-of-nitrogen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a>, and whether the plant's response to far-red light is affected if it does not receive sufficient nutrition.



The fine details of plant communication are mind-boggling. But a simplified version is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-know-where-to-find-the-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant tissues</a> need to know the nitrogen availability in soil. They receive this information through a "message" passed from the roots.



The message carrier is cytokinin, a hormone produced in the roots that travels to the above-ground part of the plant. More nitrogen equals more cytokinin.



The Wageningen University team found that the shade avoidance response reduced when nitrogen was low. However, by adding extra cytokinin, even with low nitrogen, the length growth was significantly triggered by the far-red light.



This was a breakthrough discovery, indicating that cytokinin has a crucial role in shade avoidance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-cytokinin">The role of cytokinin </h2>



Even more intriguing is that previous research labeled cytokinin as a growth inhibitor. 



"Looking back, all the trials on which that conclusion was based involved seedlings raised in the dark," noted Professor Pierik. "You only get that response when you grow them in the light. And not with ordinary white light, but only with an excess of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflowers-use-multiple-light-response-systems-to-track-the-sun/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">far-red light</a>."



The research also shed light on the genetic level of this mechanism. Certain proteins inhibit plant sensitivity to cytokinin, and these proteins are inhibited when exposed to far-red light.



It's a fascinating game of inhibition which ultimately stimulates sensitivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-crop-cultivation">Impact on crop cultivation</h2>



The architecture of crops has a significant bearing on their productivity. For example, dwarf wheat and rice varieties of the Green Revolution proved to be highly productive as they put less energy into length growth and more into grains. 



These novel findings could help agronomists and growers improve yields in barley, wheat, maize, and rice.



The research ultimately highlights the ongoing enigma of plant biology and its potential to enhance our food production systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-in-sustainable-agriculture">New era in sustainable agriculture</h2>



The implications of these findings extend far beyond the lab, hinting at a future where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-nitrogen-oxide-pollution-could-boost-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop yields</a> could be optimized by leveraging our understanding of shade avoidance and cytokinin. 



For farmers, this research offers the possibility of tailoring crop growth under high-density planting conditions, especially as the demand for efficient food production continues to rise. 



With the right balance of cytokinin, crops can potentially be coaxed into maximizing growth even in nutrient-poor soils or densely populated fields. 



This breakthrough could inspire a new era in sustainable agriculture, where crop architecture is finely tuned for resilience and productivity, reducing the need for excessive fertilizer and supporting global food security efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52828-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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The quest for light: How plants compete to survive

Plants are known to engage in fierce competition for essential...

If you're not a tree hugger now, you might want to become one soon. A recent report has revealed that more than one in three tree species are at risk of extinction.



The Global Tree Assessment is part of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) Red List of Threatened Species update. The report was issued to coincide with the UN's COP16 summit on biodiversity.



The numbers paint an alarming picture. Out of an estimated 58,000 species thought to exist globally, over 16,000 tree species are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-majority-of-urban-trees-are-threatened-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">threatened</a> with extinction. In other words, more than one third of all tree species are endangered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worldwide-extinction-threat-to-trees">Worldwide extinction threat to trees</h2>



We're not talking about a handful of species in some remote part of the world. The experts looked at over 47,000 tree species and found that this extinction threat is worldwide.



Now, you're probably wondering, what's causing such a massive threat to our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">green friends</a>? Well, we are largely to blame. 



In previous studies, experts have estimated that since the onset of human civilization, the global number of trees has dropped by roughly 46 percent.



The <a href="https://www.bgci.org/our-work/networks/gta/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Tree Assessment</a> notes that trees are being cut down for logging and to clear lands for farming and human expansion. Climate change, drought, and wildfires are also playing a destructive role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-trees">Importance of trees</h2>



"People rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a> for food, timber, fuels (and) medicines," said Emily Beech, an expert who was part of the study. 



Trees also produce the oxygen we breathe and absorb heat-trapping carbon dioxide emissions from the atmosphere.



"Trees are essential to support life on Earth through their vital role in ecosystems, and millions of people depend upon them for their lives and livelihoods," said IUCN director general Grethel Aguilar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-with-the-highest-extinction-risk">Trees with the highest extinction risk</h2>



Now, let's turn to the species that are at the highest risk. These include horse chestnut and ginkgo, both known for their medical applications.



The big leaf mahogany, used in furniture making, and several ash, magnolia, and eucalypt species are also severely threatened.



Over 5,000 of the tree species on the IUCN Red List are used for construction timber, and more than 2,000 are used for medicines, food, and fuels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-areas-of-greatest-concern">Areas of greatest concern</h2>



The threat transcends national borders, sparing none of the 192 countries where tree species are at risk of extinction.



However, it's the islands that are taking the hardest hit due to rapid urban development, expanding agriculture, and the introduction of invasive species, pests, and diseases.



South America, a continent that boasts the greatest diversity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> in the world, is facing a particularly severe threat, with 3,356 out of 13,668 assessed species at risk.



What's even more alarming is that many species on this continent, home to the Amazon jungle, have likely not even been discovered yet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-we-save-trees-from-extinction">Can we save trees from extinction?</h2>



All hope is not lost. The IUCN report outlines various measures that can be taken to save our trees, such as tree planting, conservation of species through seed banks, and botanic garden collections.



Protecting trees requires both collective action and individual effort. Here are some impactful ways each of us can help:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choose-sustainable-products">Choose sustainable products</h3>



Select goods like paper, furniture, and food from companies that follow sustainable practices. Look for certifications like FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) to ensure the products come from responsibly managed forests.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduce-paper-and-wood-waste">Reduce paper and wood waste</h3>



Use digital alternatives, recycle paper products, and buy recycled wood furniture. These small choices lower demand for tree-derived materials, helping reduce unnecessary deforestation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advocate-for-tree-protection-laws">Advocate for tree protection laws</h3>



Support policies that protect forests and regulate industries responsible for deforestation. Contacting local representatives and voting for environmentally-conscious leaders can help push these initiatives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adopt-a-tree-or-green-space">Adopt a tree or green space</h3>



Many cities offer programs to adopt local trees or green areas. Caring for a tree or green space not only supports its health but also increases public awareness of its importance.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avoid-products-that-harm-forests">Avoid products that harm forests</h3>



Minimize or eliminate purchases of products linked to deforestation, like palm oil and non-sustainable soy. Choosing eco-friendly options helps curb the destructive agricultural practices that harm forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-overview-of-tree-extinction-risk">Global overview of tree extinction risk</h2>



Dr Malin Rivers is the Global Tree Assessment lead at Botanic Gardens Conservation International.



“This comprehensive assessment presents the first global picture of the conservation status of trees, which enables us to make better informed conservation decisions and take action to protect trees where it is urgently needed,” said&nbsp;Dr. Rivers. 



“The work is a global effort, with over 1,000 tree experts involved. We need to continue to work together to scale up local, national and international tree conservation action to support people and the planet.”



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More than one-third of the world’s trees face extinction

If you're not a tree hugger now, you might want...

species in Sciadopityaceae