How do you tell if a plant is doing well or poorly? Is there a way to increase agricultural productivity in our world of climate change and overpopulation? The answers to these pressing questions may be found in a tiny yet powerful plant sensor created by researchers from Japan's Tohoku University.



This is more than just a tale of innovation; it's the story of how we're transforming the way we monitor our planet's green life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-methods-new-problems">Old methods, new problems</h2>



The adverse impacts of climate change are not news. Harsh weather conditions such as heatwaves, intense rainfall, and prolonged droughts stress our plants and crops, reducing yields and endangering the long-term health of our farms, forests, and biodiversity.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tracking plant responses</a> has always been challenging, and while drones and aircraft offer a bird's eye view of our greenery, they capture only surface-level information.



Moreover, these high-tech solutions need constant adjustments to track plants accurately over time. On the other hand, smaller, ground-level sensors that can monitor individual plants require manual checks, which become impractical for larger fields or forests.



"The traditional methods may work well for some purposes, but they are difficult to operate and quite expensive. In order to continuously monitor small changes, we needed a new solution," said Kaori Kohzuma, a member of the research team at <a href="https://www.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-step-towards-smarter-agriculture">Step towards smarter agriculture</h2>



Addressing these challenges, the researchers developed a unique sensor that can be attached directly to the underside of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-secret-breathing-strategy-in-response-to-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> leaves. Framed in its small body is a powerful spectroscopic sensor and light source that can measure leaf color over time without blocking sunlight.



Easy to use and durable, the sensor is powered by a battery and equipped with Wi-Fi for data transfer. Thanks to its waterproof design, it can work outdoors for over a month, ensuring extended data collection.



"Smart agriculture is a huge time-saver," said Ko-ichiro Miyamoto, a researcher at Tohoku University.



"Farmers don't have time to manually check every single plant. This sensor is able to provide fine-tuned readings for what's going on in real time. Then, they can react accordingly to areas where plants are experiencing high levels of stress."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-the-plant-sensor-to-test">Putting the plant sensor to test</h2>



The sensor was put through stringent tests where it had to take on a commercial spectrometer across about 90 leaves from 30 different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>. 



In the face-off, the sensor distinguished colors accurately across seven out of its eight detectable wavelengths. It also showed similar readings to commercial chlorophyll meters at 620 nm.



An outdoor trial was conducted to test the sensor under real-world, changing conditions. Attached to birch leaves, it tracked changes in leaf color during autumn, leaf fall, and aging over a span of two weeks.



The sensor recorded a decrease in chlorophyll - often an indication of plant stress - and documented how the plant's response shifted with sunlight intensity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-smart-agriculture">Future of smart agriculture</h2>



"This affordable sensor is a promising tool for accurately monitoring plant health and stress through leaf color and light reflection data," said Kohzuma.



"Its low cost makes it possible to place multiple sensors across various locations, creating a network for simultaneous monitoring in many spots."



Indeed, the future of agriculture looks bright, and this smart sensor technology could well be the forerunner in a new wave of precision farming. 



Farmers, forest rangers, and researchers alike could benefit from the granular data provided by these sensors, and use it to ensure the health and productivity of our plant life in a challenging environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-plant-sensors">Significance of plant sensors</h2>



Smart farming is more than a buzzword; it's an essential part of our initiatives to sustain life on Earth. 



"The plant sensor can be a powerful tool in the field of agriculture and ecological study by realizing simultaneous, multi-point and remote monitoring at a low cost," noted the researchers.



As we continue to battle against climate change and overpopulation, innovative solutions like the plant sensor offer a beacon of hope for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">green world</a>. It's time to embrace technology that will help plants thrive in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214180424000709?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research</a>.



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New sensor remotely tracks plant health in real time

How do you tell if a plant is doing well...

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires...

Plant reproduction is fundamental to our food systems and ecological balance, yet it remains a complex and diverse process.&nbsp;



Some plants are male or female, others are hermaphroditic, and some even change sex over their lifetime.&nbsp;



Understanding the mechanisms that determine plant sex is crucial for advancing modern agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-strategies-of-flowering-plants">Reproductive strategies of flowering plants</h2>



A study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-024-01858-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a> has unveiled new perspectives on the intricate reproductive strategies of flowering plants. 



Led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.hudsonalpha.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology</a> and the University of Georgia, the study was focused on the genetics of Amborella trichopoda. This unique species offers a rare glimpse into the early evolution of flowering plants. 



By producing a much-improved assembly of the Amborella genome and its sex chromosomes, the researchers have gained valuable insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fibonacci-spirals-an-unexpected-twist-in-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant evolution</a> and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-the-amborella-genome">Evolution of the Amborella genome</h2>



Amborella trichopoda is the sole surviving member of a lineage that branched off early from all other flowering plants. Its genome provides essential information about the genetic foundations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-diversity-can-help-combat-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diversity</a>.



Eleven years ago, an international team of researchers co-led by Jim Leebens-Mack, a professor of plant biology at the University of Georgia, completed the first Amborella genome. The results, published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1241089?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D90780648708216300104417575982572668868%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1732616953">Science</a> in 2013, have been cited over 575 times.



“The evolutionary lineage leading to Amborella diverged from all other flowering plant lineages approximately 150 million years ago, so our draft genome published in 2013 has been a foundation for comparative analyses of genes tracing back to the origin of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> and earlier,” Leebens-Mack said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-the-evolution-of-flowers">New insights into the evolution of flowers</h2>



The new insights from the improved genome assembly are particularly exciting for HudsonAlpha Faculty Investigator Alex Harkess, who was a PhD student in Leebens-Mack's lab during the original Amborella genome project.&nbsp;



Now leading his own lab at HudsonAlpha, Harkess and his mentee, senior scientist Sarah Carey, collaborated with Leebens-Mack and HudsonAlphafFaculty investigators Jeremy Schmutz and Jane Grimwood, on the new genome analyses.



“Working on the original Amborella genome in Jim's lab was transformative because it allowed me as a first-year PhD student to be on the very edge of newly developing technologies and software that was coming out to help handle all of this massive genomic data we were creating,” Harkess reflected.&nbsp;



“This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-genome-size-impact-evolutionary-success/">genome</a> reveals so much about the evolution of flowers, but also about the evolution of my own research career and the way I, and now my entire laboratory, view reproduction through the lens of diversity.”



Carey, who was a postdoctoral fellow in the Harkess lab when the new genome assembly was completed, led much of the genome analysis, including the study of the Amborella sex chromosomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-technology-and-plant-reproduction">Advanced technology and plant reproduction </h2>



Thanks to advanced sequencing and assembly technology, as well as emerging computational tools, Carey and the team at the HudsonAlpha Genome Sequencing Center were able to assemble a significantly improved Amborella genome.&nbsp;



The new, highly contiguous genome reference made it easier to search for the Amborella <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sex chromosomes</a>, which are Z and W chromosomes, unlike the familiar human X and Y chromosomes.



“The first Amborella genome was a mixture of short segments of DNA from different sequencing types and technologies,” Carey explained.&nbsp;



“Advancements in long-read sequencing and access to other pieces of information, like Hi-C data, allowed us to assemble larger pieces that made it easier to search for the ZW chromosomes than if it were in lots of smaller pieces.”



In addition to the improved sequencing tools, the team stayed at the forefront of new computational methods.&nbsp;



They developed a pipeline called cytogenetics-by-sequencing to more easily and cost-effectively identify and characterize sex chromosomes in plants, successfully applying it to nearly 30 dioecious plant and animal species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mechanisms-of-sex-determination">The mechanisms of sex determination</h2>



Through their analysis of the Amborella sex chromosomes, the researchers discovered intriguing aspects of the plant's sex-determination system.&nbsp;



Notably, the Z and W chromosomes are relatively young, having emerged more than 100 million years after Amborella diverged from other flowering plant lineages.



In many sex-determination systems, such as the human Y chromosome, the sex chromosomes stop exchanging genetic material with their partner chromosome - a phenomenon known as recombination suppression.&nbsp;



This allows the two sex chromosomes to diverge over time due to different rearrangements, deletions, and insertions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-associated-with-flower-evolution">Genes associated with flower evolution</h2>



While the team found evidence of suppressed recombination in Amborella, the Z and W chromosomes appear very similar, making their assembly more challenging.



“The cytogenetics-by-sequencing pipeline helped us to identify a difficult border on the Amborella sex chromosomes: where they no longer recombine,” Carey noted.&nbsp;



“This is an important task because within this region of non-recombination are expected to be the carpel and stamen sterility genes associated with the evolution of separate female and male plants.”



By carefully analyzing the sex chromosomes, Carey and the team identified two genes hypothesized to be responsible for sex determination in Amborella.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agriculture-and-plant-breeding">Implications for agriculture and plant breeding</h2>



“The big picture takeaway from this study is that we're learning another exception for how you can maintain separate sexes in plants,” Harkess said.&nbsp;



“That gives us another tool in our toolkit for engineering new ways to do plant breeding, creating separate sexes, preventing plants from self-pollinating, and enforcing outcrossing in a way that is controllable and predictable.”



The new Amborella genome project was part of the <a href="https://jgi.doe.gov/csp-2018-leebens-mack-open-green-genomes-initiative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Open Green Genomes Initiative</a>, a Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute Community Science Program.



“The Open Green Genomes initiative is filling phylogenetic gaps in the availability of reference-quality genomes for land plants,” said Leebens-Mack, lead principal investigator for the initiative.&nbsp;



“Our haplotype-resolved chromosomal assembly of the Amborella genome has enabled us to better understand aspects of the ancestral angiosperm genome and the derived characteristics of Amborella's sex chromosomes."



This research not only advances our understanding of plant reproduction but also offers practical applications for agriculture and plant breeding.&nbsp;



By unraveling the genetic mechanisms behind sex determination in plants, scientists can develop new strategies to improve crop yields, enhance biodiversity, and ensure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a>.



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A new window into the early evolution of flowering plants

Plant reproduction is fundamental to our food systems and ecological...

Ethiopian wolves, which are primarily carnivorous, have been observed feeding on the Ethiopian red hot poker flower - an unusual and fascinating behavior.



Furthermore, careful observations have revealed that the wolves are not only feeding on the nectar of these flowers but are also inadvertently playing a pivotal role in the pollination process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollination-by-ethiopian-wolves">Pollination by Ethiopian wolves </h2>



As the wolves feed, their muzzles become generously dusted with pollen, allowing them to transport the pollen from one flower to another as they continue to feed.



This remarkable behavior is possibly the first observed instance of plant-pollinator interaction that involves a large predator.



It’s a rarity to spot a primarily meat-eating predator indulging in nectar; this behavior challenges common perceptions and opens up exciting new avenues for research.



Dr. Sandra Lai is a senior scientist from the University of Oxford and lead author of the study.



"These findings highlight just how much we still have to learn about one of the world's most-threatened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/assessments-of-large-african-carnivores-urgently-needed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carnivores</a>. It also demonstrates the complexity of interactions between different species living on the beautiful Roof of Africa. This extremely unique and biodiverse ecosystem remains under threat from habitat loss and fragmentation," noted Dr. Lai.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-source-of-energy">Unusual source of energy</h2>



Professor Claudio Sillero, the director of the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Programme (EWCP) and a distinguished faculty member from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, was the first person to observe this behavior.



"I first became aware of the nectar of the Ethiopian red hot poker when I saw children of shepherds in the Bale Mountains licking the flowers. In no time, I had a taste of it myself - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sipping-on-nectar-hummingbirds-consume-a-surprising-amount-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nectar</a> was pleasantly sweet," said Professor Sillero.



"When I later saw the wolves doing the same, I knew they were enjoying themselves, tapping into this unusual source of energy. I am chuffed that we have now reported this behaviour as being commonplace among Ethiopian wolves and explored its ecological significance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethiopian-wolves-guardians-of-the-highlands">Ethiopian wolves: Guardians of the highlands</h2>



Ethiopia's&nbsp;endangered&nbsp;wolf,&nbsp;or&nbsp;"Roof of Africa's fox," is one of the world's most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-tracking-endangered-animal-habitats-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a> carnivores.



The species is&nbsp;only&nbsp;found on&nbsp;Ethiopia's&nbsp;high-altitude grasslands&nbsp;where it is an&nbsp;essential part of this fragile Afroalpine ecosystem.



With fewer than 500 individuals left in the wild, their survival speaks to the challenges and beauty of this unique landscape.



Ethiopian&nbsp;wolves live&nbsp;in&nbsp;approximately&nbsp;99 packs&nbsp;that&nbsp;are&nbsp;to be found in six isolated, highland regions. They are entirely dependent&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;environment&nbsp;in which they&nbsp;live. The threats&nbsp;from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hippopotamus-population-hit-hard-by-habitat-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat&nbsp;destruction</a>&nbsp;and human activity&nbsp;are perpetual pressures on the remaining individuals.



Even though&nbsp;their&nbsp;count is&nbsp;low, these wolves play an&nbsp;important&nbsp;role in&nbsp;being&nbsp;the top predator of the ecosystem and controlling&nbsp;rodent&nbsp;populations,&nbsp;which form the majority of their prey.



These&nbsp;are&nbsp;no&nbsp;ordinary&nbsp;wolves;&nbsp;they are guardians of a habitat that is&nbsp;home&nbsp;to&nbsp;countless species, including many other plants and pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethiopian-wolf-conservation-program">Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Program</h2>



Initiated in 1995, the Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Program (EWCP) has made sustained efforts to protect these unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-may-not-be-heroes-but-theyre-not-villains-either/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> and their precious habitat from extinction and threats.



It is a collaborative initiative between the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU) at the University of Oxford, the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA), and Dinkenesh Ethiopia. 



This iniative holds the distinction of being the longest-running conservation program in Ethiopia, and has worked relentlessly to safeguard the future of natural habitats for the benefit of wildlife and the people who co-habit these highlands.



Being witness to such remarkable behavior from these wolves reinforces the importance of our conservation efforts and renews our commitment to preserving these magnificent creatures and their habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wolves-and-flowers-a-symbiotic-connection">Wolves and flowers: A symbiotic connection</h2>



The unexpected interaction between Ethiopian wolves and the Ethiopian red hot poker flower highlights the intricate relationships that can exist between species in delicate ecosystems.



While the wolves gain a supplementary energy source through the flower’s nectar, the plants benefit from a reliable pollinator that helps ensure their successful reproduction.



This symbiotic relationship demonstrates how even apex predators can contribute to the health of their environment in surprising ways.



Such interactions also emphasize the interconnectedness of life in the Ethiopian highlands where every species, from the smallest plant to the largest predator, plays a vital role in sustaining the ecosystem.



Recognizing and studying these complex dynamics could open doors to more innovative and inclusive conservation strategies that prioritize not just individual species but the broader web of life in ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.4470" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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First wolf species discovered that eats fruit and pollinates flowers

Ethiopian wolves, which are primarily carnivorous, have been observed feeding...

Few sights can be as awe-inspiring as New Zealand's legendary "walking tree," a towering ancient giant that stands like a sentinel from a fantasy world.



This extraordinary tree remains unmatched, as though it has stepped right out of the imagination of J.R.R. Tolkien, author of The Lord of the Rings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-champion-of-the-forest">Champion of the forest</h2>



The "walking tree" is no ordinary one. It recently won the title of New Zealand's Tree of the Year with ease, claiming 42% of the public vote and leaving five other finalists behind. The contest was organized by the <a href="https://www.nzarb.org.nz" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Zealand Arboricultural Association</a>.



The tree that seems to be on a stroll is not just unique in its appearance; it carries a rich legacy that stretches back centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-the-walking-tree">Journey of the walking tree</h2>



The tree - a northern rātā (Metrosideros robusta) - has its roots on the west coast of South Island, near Karamea.



Reaching heights of up to 105 feet (equal to a seven-story building), it exists as a remarkable symbol of nature's ingenuity and endurance. The tree stands by a cemetery, the lone survivor of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> that was cleared about 150 years ago.



Brad Cadwallader, organizer of the Tree of the Year competition, told Radio New Zealand that during the voting, the walking tree "strode out into the lead right from the very start."



"The farming family back then clearly thought it was special because they left it," noted Cadwallader.



This tree has been described as an "exceptional feature" and a "prime example of the remarkable trees that we, as New Zealanders, are fortunate to experience," said NZ Arb president Richie Hill in a statement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-growth-and-survival">A tale of growth and survival</h2>



Northern rātā trees are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epiphytes-are-increasingly-threatened-by-forest-disturbances/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epiphytes</a>, a type of tree that starts growing on the surface of a host tree before growing aerial roots that reach to the ground.



This walking tree likely lived, initially, high up in the canopy of its host, surviving on air and rainwater before it finally grounded itself.



Its unusual root layout is probably due to how it grew around its host tree, which probably died off centuries ago.



“That <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=host%20tree&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">host tree</a> has now gone," said Cadwallader. "Maybe the tree was either very, very big, or there may have been another tree that fell and lent against the host tree, and that's why the roots have split near the ground and given it that walking appearance.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plight-of-the-northern-rata">Plight of the northern rātā</h2>



Unfortunately, the majestic northern rātā is under significant threat. Once common in New Zealand's forests, these trees are now listed as nationally vulnerable.



Multiple factors, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a> and the invasive common brushtail possums, which wreak havoc by devouring the leaves and gnawing at the roots, pose significant threats.



The trees face danger from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scrub-mint-almost-extinct-lived-earth-millions-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hybridization</a> with the closely related pōhutukawa trees. They are also susceptible to myrtle rust, a pathogenic fungus that is native to South America but was detected in New Zealand for the first time in 2017.



As we appreciate the beauty and uniqueness of the "walking tree," it’s crucial to take note of the environmental challenges these giants face. Although the trees are evidence of nature's resilience, they also serve as a stark reminder of our responsibility to protect and preserve them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-and-ecological-legacy-of-the-walking-tree">Cultural and ecological legacy of the walking tree</h2>



The walking tree is more than just a botanical marvel; it serves as a living emblem of New Zealand's deep connection to its natural world.



For the indigenous Māori people, trees like the northern rātā are taonga, or treasures, woven into cultural myths, rituals, and traditions.



The rātā, with its crimson flowers, is often associated with strength, endurance, and renewal - qualities that are certainly epitomized by this lone survivor near Karamea.



Ecologically, the northern rātā plays a critical role in its environment. Its towering canopy provides shelter and sustenance for native birds like the tūī and kererū, while its roots stabilize the soil and prevent erosion.



The walking tree, standing alone and surrounded by cleared land, reminds us of what has been lost - and what still needs to be preserved.



As New Zealanders rally around this extraordinary tree, it becomes a symbol of hope and a call to action for conservation efforts. 



Protecting such iconic species ensures that future generations will not only learn about them in stories but also experience their majesty firsthand.



Image Credit: Gareth Andrews



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New Zealand’s 'walking tree': The final remains of a lost forest

Few sights can be as awe-inspiring as New Zealand's legendary...

While the Spanish explorers may have brought the first peach pits to North America, recent research reveals that the real credit for the fruit's widespread cultivation goes to the Indigenous communities of the continent.



The study, conducted by researchers at Penn State, sheds light on this often overlooked chapter of history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indigenous-networks-and-the-spread-of-peaches">Indigenous networks and the spread of peaches</h2>



Jacob Holland-Lulewicz, the first author of the study and an assistant professor of anthropology at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>, elaborated on the intensive care required for peaches to be productive.



This care includes finding appropriate places for plantation with abundant sunlight and proper soil drainage, along with regular pruning. 



The widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-sophisticated-strategies-to-balance-defense-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultivation</a> of peaches is a result of the Indigenous networks and land management practices - a fact that is often missed in narratives regarding the quick spread of peaches post-Spanish introduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-samples-from-archeological-sites">Samples from archeological sites </h2>



The researchers meticulously examined historical documents that mentioned peaches such as the writings of French missionary explorer Jacques Marquette and English merchant Jonathan Dickinson. 



Radiocarbon dating, a method that measures the decay of radioactive carbon-14 atoms in organic material, was used to determine the approximate ages of peach pits and other organic samples from various archaeological sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spread-of-peaches-in-north-america">Spread of peaches in North America</h2>



The researchers found that by 1620, a hundred years after the Spanish arrival in Florida and Georgia's Oconee Valley, peaches likely spread across the Indigenous settlements throughout the interior southeast.



But these communities didn't just adopt the fruit. They bred new varieties - so many that they outnumbered those found in Europe during the same era.



The researchers identified what are possibly the oldest peaches in North America unearthed at a Muskogean farmstead in Oconee Valley dating back to between 1520 and 1550.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indigenous-influence-on-peaches">Indigenous influence on peaches</h2>



Study co-author Victor Thompson is a research professor of archaeology at the University of Georgia (<a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UGA</a>) and executive director of the Georgia Museum of Natural History.



"Understanding the path that the introduction of species, such as peach trees, took through colonization and the role that Indigenous people and their long-term relationship with the environment played in shaping these histories demonstrates the importance of these events, people and processes to what becomes a broader American history,” said Thompson.



“Further, the fact that all of this work took place on museum specimens underscores the importance of maintaining these collections for future study.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legacy-of-indigenous-communities">Legacy of Indigenous communities </h2>



At this point in our story, peaches had so intertwined with Indigenous history and culture that when the ancestors of the modern-day Muscogee (Creek) Nation were forcefully relocated from Georgia and Alabama in the 1800s, they took peaches with them.



Today, peaches continue to be grown as heritage crops by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation, with the act of growing and caring for them being a significant cultural practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-s-role-in-peach-cultivation">Climate's role in peach cultivation</h2>



Understanding the climatic factors that affect peach cultivation is pivotal for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-uncover-how-plants-grow-wider-not-just-taller/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">successful growth</a>. Peaches thrive in regions with distinct seasonal variations, requiring cold winters to induce dormancy followed by warm springs to awaken the fruiting process. 



This adaptability explains their prevalence in temperate zones worldwide. However, climate change poses potential challenges, with rising temperatures and unpredictable frosts threatening the delicate balance necessary for peach production. 



The researchers emphasize the need for exploring cultivars resilient to climate fluctuations, ensuring the preservation of both traditional and newly developed peach varieties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



As the historical and anthropological perspectives have enriched our understanding of peach cultivation, future research may involve genetic studies and exploring innovative agricultural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electro-agriculture-grows-food-in-the-dark-with-94-less-land-required/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practices</a>.



With advances in biotechnology, scientists are unraveling the genome of peaches to identify traits that confer resistance to diseases and environmental stressors. This genetic insight is crucial for breeding programs aimed at improving yield and quality. 



Moreover, sustainable practices, such as permaculture and regenerative agriculture, are being explored to reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-and-flower-strips-improve-honey-bee-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental impact</a>. 



So, the next time you enjoy a sweet, juicy peach, remember the Indigenous communities that played a key role in its journey.



Their extensive care and management not only introduced this beloved summer fruit to a new continent but also paved the way for its spread and the diversity we enjoy today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52597-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How peaches spread across North America and the world

While the Spanish explorers may have brought the first peach...

Have you ever paused to admire a morning glory? Just as their name suggests, these flowers open at sunrise and often close by afternoon or evening.



Despite their fragile appearance, a recent study from the University of Michigan suggests that morning glory plants are quite resilient. The team discovered that these plants can withstand the effects of weed killers and display resistance to damage from herbivorous insects.



In particular, morning glory plants were found to resist glyphosate - the active component in the herbicide RoundUp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-resistance-to-insect-damage">Plant resistance to insect damage</h2>



Interestingly, the researchers found that plants which are susceptible to glyphosate are also susceptible to damage from insects. This implies that glyphosate can disrupt the co-evolution of plants and their insect adversaries.



Study lead author&nbsp;Grace Zhang is a U-M doctoral student working with&nbsp;Regina Baucom, a professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.



"When people think about herbicides and study them in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, they think about herbicide resistance," said Zhang. 



"Resistance is a big problem, tolerance is a big problem. But beyond that, we don't really have a great idea of how herbicides impact plant evolution in general, and also how it might impact how plants interact with other things in their environment."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-insect-damage-on-plants-with-glyphosate">More insect damage on plants with glyphosate</h2>



The researchers set up the study with 1,600 morning glory plants in <a href="https://umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-M</a>'s Matthaei Botanical Gardens. They sprayed half of the plants with glyphosate and recorded the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-leaf-eating-insects-have-a-huge-impact-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>' growth traits.



Noteworthy findings from the study included the fact that plants treated with glyphosate incurred more damage from insects compared to the non-treated (control) plants. However, plants resistant to glyphosate had less insect damage.



While conventional ecological theory would suggest a tradeoff between these two traits, Zhang said the team "saw the opposite."



The researchers also analyzed the fitness of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-technology-will-accelerate-the-pace-of-plant-species-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, i.e., their likelihood of producing seeds. They discovered a positive selection acting on glyphosate resistance: the more resistant the plants are to glyphosate, the fitter they are and the more likely to produce seeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-genes-and-insect-defenses">Plant genes and insect defenses</h2>



But, why are plants that are resistant to glyphosate also resistant to insect damage?



While Zhang and Baucom are yet to confirm, they hint at the role of the shikimate pathway - a metabolic process that glyphosate attacks, impacting the plant's herbivory defenses.



In contrast, the plants resistant to glyphosate seem to have multiple genes working together. These form detoxification pathways that can wade off glyphosate, thereby maintaining their insect defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agricultural-practices">Implications for agricultural practices</h2>



This study has profound implications for current agricultural practices and the management of herbicide application. Understanding the dual resistance to both glyphosate and herbivory challenges the conventional approach to pest and weed management. 



For farmers, this could mean re-evaluating the use of herbicides like glyphosate to mitigate potential unintended ecological repercussions. 



The development of crops that can naturally resist both herbicides and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-milkweed-beetle-safely-feed-on-a-toxic-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> predation could lead to more sustainable agricultural strategies, reducing the need for chemical inputs while preserving biodiversity in farmlands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The findings open the door to further exploration into the genetic underpinnings of plant resistance. Future research could investigate the exact genetic pathways involved in this dual resistance, potentially leading to breakthroughs in genetic engineering for crop improvement.



Another avenue of research could focus on the long-term evolutionary consequences of glyphosate use on plant-insect interactions. 



Scientists could harness these insights for developing crops that are better suited to withstand both chemical and biological stressors, ensuring food security in an ever-changing environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-made-impacts-on-nature">Human-made impacts on nature</h2>



"Studies in the past usually look at the evolution of herbicide resistance in these plants or they'll look at how applying the herbicide directly to specific insects will affect them," Zhang said. 



"But they haven't really looked at this question from more of a community level: How does herbicide act as a disruptor on this community level?" 



"So that's what we really wanted to focus on: how does this new disruptive agent that is human-made impact a very natural, long standing relationship between plants and their insects?"



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.20238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



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Herbicides disrupt the co-evolution of plants and insects

Have you ever paused to admire a morning glory? Just...

Phosphorus, a crucial nutrient for soil fertility and life sustainability, is increasingly vanishing from U.S. farmland, washing into rivers and streams at alarming rates.&nbsp;



A new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a> reveals that despite efforts to curb phosphorus loss, agricultural runoff has continued to rise over the past four decades, posing significant threats to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a> and water quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-nutrient-and-phosphorus-loss">Soil nutrient and phosphorus loss</h2>



Phosphorus is indispensable for life, playing a key role in DNA formation and cellular energy transfer.&nbsp;



However, unlike nitrogen, it is a non-renewable resource with limited geological reserves. Once it is lost from soil and enters <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-impacts-on-waterways-contribute-to-the-climate-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waterways</a>, it cannot naturally replenish in agricultural lands.



“This is a problem for many reasons,” said Li Li, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Penn State and corresponding author of the study.&nbsp;



“When it’s lost from farmland, it can reduce crop yields, potentially leading to higher food prices. Then, when phosphorus enters our waterways, it can cause harmful algal blooms that can make water unsafe for swimming and fishing - and can even reduce oxygen levels in water and kill fish and other aquatic life.”



Li also highlighted the economic impact of phosphorus depletion: “It makes it more expensive to treat drinking water, which means higher water bills for all of us.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-phosphorus-levels-in-rivers">Rising phosphorus levels in rivers</h2>



Analyzing data from 430 U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-disrupting-the-seasonal-flow-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> spanning 1980 to 2019, the research team used a deep learning model to uncover troubling trends. 



While phosphorus levels have declined in 60% of the studied rivers, overall phosphorus flowing into waterways has increased.



“Agricultural areas are the biggest contributors to the problem, with phosphorus levels increasing in most rivers near agricultural areas, even as they decline in rivers near urban areas,” Li explained.&nbsp;



“This suggests that efforts to control phosphorus pollution from sources like agricultural runoff are not as effective as we thought.”



By contrast, targeted efforts to reduce phosphorus pollution from urban wastewater treatment plants appear to be succeeding.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-nutrient-loss-is-beyond-local-control">Soil nutrient loss is beyond local control </h2>



However, the researchers warn that the broader problem is worsening due to factors beyond local control, particularly the increased frequency of extreme weather events linked to climate change.



“This means that even though we’re doing a better job at limiting phosphorus pollution from urban areas, the problem is getting worse overall, due to factors largely beyond the control of just one region,” Li said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-climate-change">The role of climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extreme weather events</a>, such as heavier rainfall and flooding, have amplified phosphorus runoff into waterways. As storms grow wetter and more frequent due to climate change, the volume of water flowing through rivers increases, pulling more phosphorus from the soil.



“We’ve seen from recent weather events that water quantity, the amount of water that storms and waterways carry, can lead to dangerous flooding and mudslides,” Li said.&nbsp;



“What we wanted to understand is what happens to the land when these storms pull the subsurface of the soil into rivers and streams. What we found is an alarming loss of this finite element that lets soil sustain life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-solutions-are-needed">Innovative solutions are needed</h2>



To combat this escalating issue, the researchers emphasize the need for innovation and changes in agricultural practices. One promising development is a technology invented at Penn State by alumnus Hunter Swisher.



Swisher, founder and CEO of <a href="https://www.phospholutions.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phospholutions</a>, has developed a fertilizer designed to improve phosphorus efficiency in soil. “We are advocating for more innovation, more creativity and more urgency,” Li said.



The company’s product has shown remarkable results, reducing phosphorus runoff potential by 78% compared to conventional fertilizers.&nbsp;



Phospholutions is now expanding its technology across the Americas, Europe, and India, aiming to address phosphorus pollution on a global scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-ddressing-soil-nutrient-loss">Addressing soil nutrient loss</h2>



The study highlights the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to address phosphorus loss.&nbsp;



With climate change exacerbating the problem, researchers call for a combination of advanced technologies and sustainable farming practices to mitigate the impacts on both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-agriculture-are-locked-in-a-destructive-feedback-loop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a> and aquatic ecosystems.



“The connection between water and land is essential, and that balance is growing increasingly fragile,” Li concluded.



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Soil nutrient loss due to heavy rainfall threatens agriculture 

Phosphorus, a crucial nutrient for soil fertility and life sustainability,...

Our vast forests, those endless expanses of green mesmerizing beauty, showcase the incredible diversity of Mother Nature. However, rising forest damage threatens their role in maintaining ecosystem balance and supporting stable economies.



In a surprising turn of events, a recent study shows that forests seem to be facing an unwelcoming reality - increased vulnerability. And the culprit? Lack of diversity in tree species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-forest-diversity-matters">Why forest diversity matters</h2>



Life as we know it thrives on the principle of diversity. The more diverse an ecosystem, the more resilient it turns out to be. But what happens when this diversity dwindles?



When you explore the heart of the forest, areas dominated by a single species, such as the lodgepole pine, may reveal a striking vulnerability. Experts have identified significant risks associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> lacking species diversity.



The research on forest damage was led by researchers at Umeå University and the <a href="https://www.slu.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swedish University of Agricultural Science</a> in Uppsala.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-that-threaten-forest-health">Factors that threaten forest health</h2>



Swedish forests have their fair share of visitors, but not all of them are welcome. 



Fires, insects, cervids like moose, and fungi, are among the uninvited guests. These factors chip away at the health of the forest, sometimes to such an extent that they disrupt the ecosystem's functionality.



This impact is not just an environmental concern. It has significant implications on the forest industry, which relies on the forest's ability to provide wood and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-forest-damage">Climate change and forest damage</h2>



Our forests are up against another formidable foe - climate change. As the temperatures increase and weather patterns become more unpredictable, the forests face a heightened risk of damages.



“In a warmer climate with more extreme weather and new pest organisms, and with a more intense forestry, forest damages are expected to become more common and more severe," said Micael Jonsson of <a href="https://www.umu.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå University</a>, who led the study. 



"It is therefore important to understand causes of forest damages and whether it can be prevented." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-findings-on-forest-diversity">Findings on forest diversity</h2>



The research team relied on vast data collected by the Swedish national forest inventory since 2003. They sought to identify the most prevalent types of tree damages and what escalates the risk of trees getting damaged.



Knocking down assumptions, wind and snow damage topped the list, followed by forestry-related destruction and damage caused by fungi. Sadly, 94 percent of all trees had suffered some level of damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerability-to-forest-damage">Vulnerability to forest damage</h2>



The researchers observed that coniferous trees in younger stands, especially in warmer parts of Sweden, were at a higher risk for damages. And amongst all, the lodgepole pine, an introduced species, seemed to bear the brunt.



Jonsson and his team noted that introducing species like lodgepole pine may not be in the best interest of a profitable forestry in Sweden.



Not all news is bad news, though. The study reveals an encouraging finding: forests having a broader spectrum of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a> displayed resilience against extensive damages, especially in warmer climates.



So, Mother Nature has given us a hint - diversification may be the key to healthier, more resilient forests in the face of climate change!



“We must adapt Swedish forests and forest management methods to a future warmer climate," said study co-author Jan Bengtsson at the Swedish University of Agricultural Science.



"Including more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-living-organism-consists-of-47000-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> species in production forests seems to be an adaptation that could work!” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-room-for-improvement">Room for improvement</h2>



While the study brings forward several valuable insights, it also sheds light on the challenges encountered during research. 



“The national forest inventory collects important data for our understanding of the forest, but when it comes to the damage inventory, the data quality needs to improve to be fully usable in forestry practices,” said study co-author Jon Moen of Umeå University.



In conclusion, the study provides a compelling case for diversifying our forests and adapting our forestry practices. 



Can we thwart the looming risk of forest damages and create healthier, more thriving forests? Only time will tell, but for now, it's clear that we have some changes to make.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.70071" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosphere</a>.



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Forests face rising damage risks as their diversity dwindles

Our vast forests, those endless expanses of green mesmerizing beauty,...

Climate change has emerged as a formidable challenge to plant life on Earth. Changes in the environment, which plants are unaccustomed to, disrupt their growth, posing grave risks. 



Increasingly, plant scientists strive to comprehend how these environmental changes will impact plant life and whether plants can acclimate to a new status quo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptations-of-paper-birch-trees">Adaptations of paper birch trees</h2>



A team of researchers from the Walker lab at the <a href="https://msu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a>-U.S. Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, or PRL, has set their sights on how paper birch trees adapt to changing environments. They are keen on understanding the management of an important plant process known as photorespiration.



"If plant metabolism was a freeway system, photorespiration would be the second-highest trafficked road,” noted Berkley Walker, an associate professor in the Department of Plant Biology in the PRL.



The question is whether the roads of this crucial pathway can handle all this traffic under present and predicted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-shatters-heat-records-earths-hottest-year-is-here/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate conditions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-acclimation-in-humans-and-plants">Acclimation in humans and plants </h2>



Acclimation refers to the adjustment of living organisms to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">altered conditions</a>. In humans, we acclimate when we adapt to the cold weather of winter or while getting accustomed to a new job.



However, plants must acclimate too, which is made complex by the fact that the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and global warming have contrasting effects on photosynthesis and photorespiration.



As the temperature rises, so does photorespiration, but when CO2 levels rise, photorespiration decreases. This interplay may modify the efficiency of photorespiration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paper-birch-response-to-climate">Paper birch response to climate</h2>



In a study published in the journal Scientific Reports, the research team examined whether paper birch trees adjusted the activity of photorespiratory enzymes under varying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-days-getting-longer-rotation-slows-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a>.



Paper birch trees were selected because they inhabit boreal forest biomes located in the northernmost parts of the planet, which are expected to be among the ecosystems hit hardest by climate change.



The experimental growth conditions mirrored current, moderate, and extreme climate change scenarios for these boreal forest regions, as outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 



In each scenario, researchers modified the CO2 concentration and increased air temperatures in various combinations.



“This study explored whether plants fine-tuned their enzyme capacity based on demand or whether they keep a buffer, so they have extra capacity in reserve to handle unpredictable changes,” said Luke Gregory, former graduate student in the Walker lab and first author on the study.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-growth-in-a-changing-climate">Plant growth in a changing climate </h2>



Trees for the study were grown from seeds at the <a href="https://www.uwo.ca/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Western Ontario</a> by researchers in Professor Danielle Way’s lab. They used the university’s Biotron, a research facility capable of simulating almost any climate on Earth.



Surprisingly, the experts found that the trees did not increase their enzyme capacity depending on the climate they were grown in. Instead, they maintained similar capacities across all six future climate scenarios.



Remarkably, the measured enzyme capacities were more than adequate for the photorespiratory pathway, implying that the trees were poised to grow even under changing conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-resilience-in-changing-climates">Plant resilience in changing climates</h2>



Gregory highlighted an intriguing find: the plants have a “safety factor” or buffer capacity that enables them to cope with different changes, whether under current, moderate, or extreme conditions.



This discovery offers a glimmer of hope that plants have a built-in mechanism which might help them survive the adverse effects of climate change, at least in terms of photorespiration.



That being said, this research is just one piece of the larger puzzle in comprehending how photorespiration is and will continue to be impacted by human-induced climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-resilience-in-the-face-of-climate-change">Plant resilience in the face of climate change </h2>



“It’s important that we understand how plants are responding to current conditions and future conditions because we need them in our lives,” said Gregory. 



The question of whether plants can acclimate or adapt over generations to these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-of-2023-weakened-earths-carbon-storage-capacity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">altered environments</a> is pertinent as they provide us with oxygen, food, and energy.



This study opens a new window to appreciate and understand plant resilience in the face of the relentless challenges posed by climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77049-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Plants defy climate change through acclimation

Climate change has emerged as a formidable challenge to plant...

Across the globe, approximately 8.7 million different plant species exist, with around a quarter of them dwelling in the ocean.



For centuries, our understanding of these species, particularly those on land, has been largely shaped by their physical characteristics. 



The process of identifying species based on their morphological characteristics was first established by 18th-century scientist Carl Linnaeus.



However, new findings suggest that this method may not be as comprehensive as we once thought. The research suggests that DNA holds the key to uncovering the identities of plants. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-dna-to-identify-plant-species">Using DNA to identify plant species</h2>



While Linnaeus's method has guided our identification of species for centuries, advancements in technology have ushered in a new era of species identification - through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-ocean-dna-study-uncovers-mysteries-of-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA sequencing</a>. 



Over the last decade, biologists have begun to depend heavily on DNA sequencing to distinguish between species more accurately. This approach typically involves analyzing a single, species-specific site in the DNA, but it's not foolproof.



"There are times when different plant species are difficult to characterize from a small DNA sequence. But now DNA sequencing has taken several steps forward and we have been able to identify completely new species by analyzing a larger part of the genome," explained Zaynab Shaik, author of a doctoral thesis at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-case-of-the-cryptic-daisies">The case of the cryptic daisies</h2>



Shaik's research zeroes in on a group of daisies in the Cape Province of her native South Africa. This collection comprises 66 recognized species, and the first of these species was described in 1753.



Despite their prevalence and commonality, some daisies in the region have puzzled botanists. These "cryptic" plants appear identical in leaf and flower structure, growth habit, and distribution, yet they boast significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-few-genetic-differences-tailor-flowers-to-specific-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic differences</a>.



"It is important that we have a better understanding of plant relationships and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-tracking-is-crucial-for-preserving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> on Earth. It is easy to imagine how wrong it could be if we discover that a plant is suitable for use as a base in a drug, and then we pick another, similar, species instead, which may not have the same properties at all," said Shaik.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-reveals-new-plant-species">DNA reveals new plant species </h2>



Shaik's DNA analyses of these cryptic daisies have led to the unmasking of four new species. She noted that these species aren't new creations hidden in unexplored terrains. 



"When I'm asked about this, there's a bit of an anti-climax when I explain that it's not that I've found a new daisy in a remote location that no one has seen before. But these have been admired for a long time, but they have been mistaken for another species."



Shaik's identification method, known as integrative taxonomy, merges traditional observational techniques with modern DNA sequencing. 



This combination enhances our knowledge of species boundaries and is expected to ramp up the rate of new species discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-more-discoveries-to-be-made">Many more discoveries to be made</h2>



Shaik hints at a possible underestimation of the biodiversity in the Cape region and, by extension, other parts of the world. 



"In the Cape, it has been thought that only 1 percent of biodiversity remains to be discovered. My results suggest that it could be much more than that. And the same should reasonably apply to other areas of the globe."



Thus, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-parrots-in-the-illegal-wildlife-trade-with-dna-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA technology</a>, progressing hand in hand with traditional methods, is undeniably reshaping our understanding of Earth's biodiversity. 



As we continue to unravel more secrets within the realm of genetics, the question arises: how much more of nature's mysteries are waiting to be unveiled?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-and-plant-species-discovery">Technology and plant species discovery</h2>



The integration of DNA sequencing with traditional taxonomy, known as integrative taxonomy, is becoming the cornerstone of modern biodiversity studies. 



Unlike conventional methods that rely solely on observable physical traits, this approach combines morphological analysis with molecular data, offering a multi-dimensional view of species identification. 



This hybrid method addresses limitations found in singular approaches and helps clarify ambiguities, particularly in species with minimal visible differences.



Integrative taxonomy is not only accelerating the pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-magic-new-species-discovered-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species discovery</a> but also refining conservation strategies.



By identifying genetic differences that aren't apparent through morphology alone, researchers can better understand which populations may be at risk and develop more effective protection measures. 



This evolving field highlights the importance of embracing modern technology alongside traditional scientific practices to enrich our understanding of life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S025462992400320X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South African Journal of Botany</a>.



Image Credit: Zaynab Shaik



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DNA technology will accelerate the pace of plant species discovery

Across the globe, approximately 8.7 million different plant species exist,...

Pando, an extraordinary organism residing in Utah, quietly stands out among the myriad of living beings that inhabit our planet, captivating scientists and nature enthusiasts alike. 



This remarkable colony of quaking aspen trees (Populus tremuloides) stretches across 106 acres, and is connected by an extensive underground root system that forms a single, unified organism rather than just a forest of unrelated individuals.



With its remarkable size and age, Pando dwarfs its fellow inhabitants, holding the potential to be not only the oldest living being but also the largest organism on Earth. It is a symbol of nature's resilience and complexity over millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-utah-s-pride-the-incredible-pando">Utah's pride: The incredible Pando</h2>



A group of American researchers has suggested that this 106-acre woodland in the heart of Utah could have originated from a single seedling, which sprouted 34,000 years ago, pre-dating the end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">last ice age</a>.



Even bolder estimates propose that this clonal organism, which appears to consist of 47,000 separate trees, might have been present tens of thousands of years earlier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-astonishing-life-of-clonal-organisms">The astonishing life of clonal organisms</h2>



Pando (which means "I spread" in Latin) is intriguing because of its massive size, but it also boasts a unique genetic identity shared by all its individual parts that are linked together through one vast network of roots.



This form of asexual reproduction makes Pando a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/listening-to-the-largest-and-oldest-tree-on-earth-what-does-it-have-to-say/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clonal organism</a>, with each 'tree' being a part of the whole, rooted and growing from the same entity. 



There are other life forms, including fungi and the bristlecone pines on the White Mountains in eastern California, that display similar capabilities. They survive through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-had-a-breakthrough-in-cloning-coconut-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cloning</a> methods for hundreds, or even thousands of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-pando-s-historical-tales">Unlocking Pando's historical tales</h2>



To discern Pando's true age more accurately, the research team meticulously collected around 500 samples, including root, leaf, and bark, from different parts of this giant organism.



They also obtained specimens from other, unrelated aspens and embarked on a journey to sequence their DNA.



The scientists identified 4,000 genetic variations within these samples, and the mutation patterns narrated a captivating story that dates back potentially between 16,000 and 80,000 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-genetic-enigma">Unraveling the genetic enigma</h2>



The researchers, led by Rozenn Pineau of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>, noted that they had initially expected a close genetic correlation between trees that are physically near each other.



"You would expect that the trees that are spatially close are also closer genetically," Pineau told Helena Kudiabor at Nature. "But this is not exactly what we find. We found a spatial signal, but that is much weaker than what we expected."



Those trees that were in close proximity did share more similar mutations than those that were far apart - but only slightly more.



This discovery adds a new layer of complexity to understanding Pando's genetic structure and resilience.



Additional research focusing on Pando's mutation history and its genomic protection methods could provide insights into how this plant (and other similar organisms) has managed to survive for millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ensuring-pando-s-enduring-legacy">Ensuring Pando's enduring legacy</h2>



Concerns are mounting over the longevity of Pando. Ensuring its survival will require a deep understanding of this ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant's resilience</a> against the assaults of man and nature.



Moreover, similar investigations into other clonal organisms elsewhere may offer Pando competition for its venerable title. 



One competitor lies in a patch of Posidonia oceanica seagrass off the Spanish island of Formentera, which some believe to be more than 200,000 years old.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ecological-significance-of-pando">The ecological significance of Pando</h2>



Pando is more than just a marvel of age and size; it plays a crucial role in the local ecosystem. 



This vast network of quaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-forests-could-reverse-biodiversity-loss-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aspens</a> supports a diversity of wildlife by providing habitat and food for numerous species, from insects and birds to larger mammals such as deer and elk.



The interconnected root system of Pando also aids in soil stabilization, which prevents erosion and supports the health of the surrounding environment.



However, understanding Pando's ecological contributions has become more urgent than ever, as climate change and human activities threaten its survival. 



Efforts to study and preserve this unique organism are now critical, not only to protect its ancient legacy but also to help maintain the delicate balance of the ecosystem it anchors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-enduring-hymns-of-pando">The enduring hymns of Pando</h2>



Pando's survival through the ages is a tribute to time itself. It stands as a constant reminder of the ancient world, sharing with us stories of an era long gone. 



As we continue to unravel the mysteries of Pando, we can only hope that this ancient marvel stands tall and flourishes in the years to come.



The research is published in <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.10.19.619233v2">BioRxiv</a>.



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The world's largest living organism consists of 47,000 trees

Pando, an extraordinary organism residing in Utah, quietly stands out...

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA, yet the amount of DNA - or genome size - varies dramatically across the tree of life.&nbsp;



In animals alone, genome sizes range from the minuscule genome of Intoshia variabili, a marine parasite - which is about 200 times smaller than the human genome - to the massive genome of the marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) - which is over 40 times larger than ours.&nbsp;



Plants exhibit a similar range, with the fork fern (Tmesipteris oblanceolata) setting the record with a genome size over 50 times larger than that of humans.



This diversity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> size reveals the vast variety of life forms on Earth, but it also raises a fascinating question: If smaller genomes lead to faster, more efficient growth, why do some species have larger genomes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-smaller-genome-sizes">Advantages of smaller genome sizes</h2>



The replication of DNA is essential for cell production and growth, making smaller genomes more efficient as they require fewer resources and time to replicate.&nbsp;



Smaller genomes demand fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>, especially the DNA-building elements nitrogen and phosphorus, making them ideal for rapid growth and reproduction.



Because of these advantages, it’s not surprising that most species have evolved with relatively small genomes.&nbsp;



However, large genomes persist in some organisms, suggesting that these genomes may confer certain benefits in specific environments, where the costs of carrying extra DNA are outweighed by unique growth advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-large-genome-benefits-in-grasses">Exploring large genome benefits in grasses</h2>



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> has recently studied the potential benefits of large genomes in grass species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fairy-circles-kill-all-newly-planted-grasses-deepening-their-mystery/">Grasses</a>, a vast plant family found worldwide from arctic tundras to tropical savannas, vary in genome size, making them an ideal group to examine how genome size affects growth in different conditions.



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.20150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>, examined the growth of various grass species under conditions mimicking their natural environments - high temperatures, low nutrients, and drought. 



The scientists compared growth rates to each species’ genome size and observed that while grasses with smaller genomes generally grew better across most conditions, larger genomes provided advantages in two specific scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-genomes-thrive-in-nutrient-rich-environments">Large genomes thrive in nutrient-rich environments</h2>



The first scenario where larger genomes proved beneficial was in nutrient-rich soils. While low nutrient levels slowed down large-genome grasses, those with large genomes thrived in high-nutrient environments.&nbsp;



Here, the extra DNA content meant larger cells that produced more biomass, such as leaves, which allowed these plants to outgrow and overshadow neighbors with smaller genomes.&nbsp;



In nutrient-poor areas, however, the demands of replicating additional DNA outweighed these benefits, making smaller genomes more favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-seasons-and-genome-sizes">Growing seasons and genome sizes</h2>



The second advantage for large-genome grasses occurred in cooler environments, such as temperate regions with lower growing season temperatures.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant growth</a> typically has two stages: cell division, where new cells are generated, and cell expansion, where cells swell with water to help the plant grow taller or spread. 



Cool temperatures significantly slow down cell division, but they have less impact on cell expansion.&nbsp;



Consequently, grasses with larger cells, which accompany large genomes, can expand more rapidly by cell enlargement even in cooler weather, outpacing smaller-genome plants that rely on faster cell division in warmer temperatures.



This cell expansion process explains the early spring growth of plants like daffodils and bluebells, which also have large genomes.&nbsp;



These plants perform much of their cell division in warmer months, allowing them to use cell expansion to grow quickly in early spring, well before smaller-genome plants begin to compete for light and nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-diversity">Genome size diversity</h2>



The diversity in genome sizes among grasses may be one reason for their global success, as it allows them to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions.&nbsp;



While smaller genomes typically support efficient growth, larger genomes offer unique advantages in specific environments, enabling certain species to thrive where others cannot.&nbsp;



This genetic diversity in grasses underscores the importance of variation in supporting species’ survival and adaptability across ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-size-and-evolutionary-success">Genome size and evolutionary success</h2>



The relationship between genome size and survival is not limited to plants. Our own medium-sized genome has supported humanity’s adaptability, though we don’t face the same nutrient limitations as stationary plants.&nbsp;



Unlike grasses, humans can move to seek out food and resources, which may allow us to bear the metabolic costs associated with our DNA without significant limitation.&nbsp;



This mobility highlights how different species leverage their genetic make-up in conjunction with unique behaviors and environmental interactions to thrive across diverse habitats.



In summary, the role of genome size in evolutionary success is nuanced and complex.&nbsp;



From the efficient replication of small genomes to the adaptability enabled by larger ones, genome size continues to shape the ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-forests-proving-resilient-both-climate-change-human-actions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> and global distribution of life on Earth.



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How does genome size impact evolutionary success?

Every living organism relies on a genetic blueprint encoded in...

Rainforests are not just a symbol of natural beauty; they are a crucial component of our planet’s ecosystem. Yet, climate change poses an imminent threat to these vital habitats and beyond.



Up to two-thirds of the world’s temperate rainforests could fall victim to climate change by the year 2100 according to a new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-assessment-of-temperate-rainforests">Global assessment of temperate rainforests</h2>



The study is one of its kind - the first-ever global assessment of the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperate-rainforests-can-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> on temperate rainforests.



"Temperate rainforests are rare ecosystems found only in wet and cool regions, making them vulnerable to a warming climate. They are important to conserve because they host unique species and can store high amounts of carbon," noted the study authors. 



With the help of comprehensive maps detailing tree cover, forest conditions, and climate data, the researchers were able to evaluate how human activity and climate change have collectively impacted the world's temperate rainforests and how they might continue to do so.



Although covering less than one percent of the Earth's land surface, temperate rainforests have a significant role to play. The forests are located in many countries such as Canada, the United States, Chile, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and the UK.



They are globally acknowledged for their ecological importance. Their high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-losing-their-carbon-storage-capacity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage capacity</a> exceeds that of forests in other latitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-temperate-forests">The future of temperate forests</h2>



The researchers predict that in the most pessimistic scenario, we stand to lose up to 68 percent of our planet's temperate rainforests in the coming decades. In certain regions, this loss might reach a staggering 90 percent.



However, there's a silver lining: our actions can change the trajectory. If we take robust measures against <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Ffossil-carbon-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuel</a> emissions, the projected loss would be only about 23 percent.



Rapid and decisive actions could further curtail this loss to a mere nine percent. This, once again, emphasizes the dire need for urgent, effective steps to counter climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-most-vulnerable-forests">Identifying the most vulnerable forests</h2>



The research was led by Ben Silver, a research fellow at Leeds' School of Earth and Environment.



"Unmitigated climate change is a disaster for temperate rainforest in the UK and globally, as they cannot survive the kinds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scorching-summer-of-2024-could-make-it-the-hottest-year-on-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high summer temperatures</a> which we are starting to observe more regularly and are only predicted to worsen in future climate change simulations," said Silver. 



"Our study also shows that if we work hard to slow climate change it is not too late to save the world’s temperate rainforests." 



"We hope our study will support the conservation of temperate rainforests by identifying those areas that are the least or the most vulnerable to climate change, and where there is potential to restore forest."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-british-rainforests-a-case-study">British rainforests: A case study</h2>



Temperate rainforests dot the UK's western seaboard, forming one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiverse habitats</a>.



It's here that the high humidity and low temperature range create the perfect conditions for moisture-loving lichens and bryophytes.



Britain's temperate rainforests cover less than one percent of the land. Yet, the UK stands with more potential for restoration than any other place globally, hosting a quarter of the world's unforested temperate rainforest climate zone.



The researchers found that temperate rainforests in the UK are resilient to low and medium amounts of future warming.



Professor Dominick Spracklen, co-author of the study, emphasized the need for the UK to lead the world in temperate rainforest restoration.



"The UK could and should be a global leader in restoration of temperate rainforests. New funding and bold action by large landowners are urgently needed to help deliver government targets for temperate rainforest restoration," said Spracklen.



Dr. Dominick A. DellaSala, Chief Scientist of the U.S group Wild Heritage, reiterated the importance of the world’s rainforests as the "lungs of the planet."



"All the world’s rainforests are the ‘lungs of the planet’ that must be protected and restored as natural climate solutions to avoid the worst of global overheating," said Dr. DellaSalla.



"Temperate rainforests need to take their place alongside tropical rainforests and the boreal forests of the north as strategically vital to a safe climate."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF004812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Two-thirds of temperate rainforests could be lost this century

Rainforests are not just a symbol of natural beauty; they...

We often hear about the insidious creep of climate change and the warming that's altering landscapes around the world. Well, the Arctic and its plants aren't immune to this silent invasion.



New evidence suggests that it's not just the temperature change we should be monitoring, but also our hoofed friends out on the tundra. Arctic greening, as it is often called, might be more about caribou and muskoxen than we ever realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greening-of-the-arctic-landscape">Greening of the Arctic landscape </h2>



Research released from the University of California, Davis (<a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/academics/graduate" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>) indicates that the large grazers of the Arctic landscape - the caribou and muskoxen - have a direct effect on the timing and abundance of Arctic plants.



This correlation reveals significant implications for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-planting-trees-in-the-arctic-is-not-a-good-climate-solution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overall Arctic ecosystem</a>. 



The findings were recently detailed in a study published in the journal PNAS Nexus and illuminate the vital role that these large herbivores play in our understanding of the Arctic ecosystem.



The focus of the narrative so far has been climate change and the increasing temperatures, but there seems to be more to it than that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-emerging-in-the-arctic">Plants emerging in the Arctic</h2>



To fully appreciate the impact of this discovery, it's essential that we first understand phenology- the study of timing and patterns in nature.



It's what alerts us when birds are migrating, or when a plant first bursts to life or bursts into bloom. Within the context of a rapidly warming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-melting-arctic-sea-ice-could-disrupt-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a>, understanding these patterns becomes critical.



“Caribou and muskoxen play a key role in how soon plants emerge and this translates to how abundant they become,” said lead author Eric Post, a professor and arctic ecologist in the UC Davis Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology. 



“This is an important, and overlooked, factor we need to consider as we seek to more fully understand climate change impacts on tundra vegetation in the Arctic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbivores-and-plant-growth">Herbivores and plant growth </h2>



The research that led to these insights was conducted over a period of 22 years near Kangerlussuaq, Greenland. Here, Post and his team designed an exclusion experiment to understand the effect of herbivores on the timing of plant growth and abundance.



The researchers compared the timing of spring green-up of nine plant species with and without the grazing animals, from 2009 to 2017.



The overall conclusion was that plants where caribou or muskoxen were present underwent earlier green-up and enjoyed greater abundance later into the growing season.



However, not all plants responded equally to the grazing. While about two-thirds of plants greened up earlier, and three-quarters thrived more effectively later in the season with grazing animals present, some species such as dwarf birch and harebell emerged later when grazers were present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-herbivore-grazing">Impact of herbivore grazing</h2>



While it's still unclear why Arctic plants respond this way to the presence of grazers, what is clear is that there is a connection.



“We’re used to thinking of the timing of plant availability as impacting the productivity of grazing animals, but not the reverse,” Post said. “The absence or presence of herbivores can also impact the timing of plant growth and their productivity.”



This understanding becomes increasingly important in light of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">current decline</a> of many caribou populations in the Arctic. According to the IUCN Red List, migratory tundra caribou are now considered vulnerable, having lost more than half of their total abundance since the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planting-trees-in-the-arctic">Planting trees in the Arctic</h2>



In a related study, Post suggested that supporting sustainable populations of herbivores in the Arctic could be a more effective nature-based solution to climate change in the region than planting trees there. The findings of the PNAS Nexus study lend credence to this suggestion.



We now have a better understanding of the crucial role our hoofed friends play in the Arctic ecosystem, but it is clear that more research is needed.



The challenge is enormous, yet with every bit of new knowledge, we get one step closer to a comprehensive understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-alters-the-atmosphere-in-the-remote-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic ecosystem</a> and how we can best protect it against the backdrop of climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/PNASNEXUS-2024-00279RR" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Arctic grazers secretly shape plant growth and survival

We often hear about the insidious creep of climate change...

Psilocybin, a compound at the forefront of psychedelic research, has sparked new hope in the perennial quest for an effective cure for psychiatric ailments, particularly anorexia nervosa. 



A clinical trial conducted by researchers at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) highlights how this compound could potentially revolutionize treatment methods and result in improved clinical outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-s-effect-on-anorexia-patients">Psilocybin’s effect on anorexia patients</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-disorders-can-be-contagious-among-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anorexia nervosa</a> is a psychiatric disorder that has resisted conventional treatments and currently has no effective medications approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. It is also the psychiatric illness that holds the record for having the highest mortality rate.



The <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSD</a> research explores the effect of psilocybin treatment on this condition and provides a first-hand account of its consequences.



“Our findings suggest that psilocybin may be helpful in supporting meaningful psychological change in a subset of people with anorexia nervosa," explained Dr. Stephanie Knatz Peck, lead author of the study.



"What's particularly interesting is that 60% of participants reported a reduction in the importance of physical appearance, while 70% noted quality-of-life improvements and shifts in personal identity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-treatment-outcomes">Psilocybin treatment outcomes </h2>



The clinical trial revealed some fascinating outcomes. An overwhelming 90% of participants described their psilocybin session as one of the top five most meaningful experiences of their lives.



Additionally, 40% of the subjects showed clinically significant reductions in eating disorder psychopathology.



However, despite these positive results, the study notes that improvements in psychological outlook did not necessarily translate to weight restoration. 



Furthermore, psilocybin treatment appeared to work very effectively for some individuals while others showed minimal improvements. 



These discrepancies highlight the need for further research, particularly into how genetic variations in serotonin receptors might influence treatment outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transformative-experience-for-some-patients">Transformative experience for some patients </h2>



The impact of this treatment transcends the scientific data and filters into the personal lives of the subjects. 



As one participant shared: “You are able to act in a way that maybe had felt unachievable before, if you set the right intention.”



Another participant echoed similar sentiments, stating: “Things might not look that different from the outside, but they feel completely different from the inside.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



The study employed a single 25mg dose of psilocybin alongside specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overweight-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychological</a> support before, during, and after administration. 



Despite showcasing potential, the results also highlight the intricacy of treating anorexia nervosa and suggest a synergistic approach might be the most effective.



Dr. Walter H. Kaye, the study's senior author and UCSD Eating Disorders Treatment Center director, maintains that while the findings are promising, they need to be backed by larger, well-controlled studies. 



This includes the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-imaging-method-will-unravel-mysteries-of-neural-processes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain imaging</a> and genetic analysis to ascertain who might benefit most from this innovative treatment approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalized-medicine-for-eating-disorders">Personalized medicine for eating disorders </h2>



The fascinating findings of the clinical trial initiated new trajectories for personalized medicine for eating disorders. 



However, it also sparked a flurry of questions around optimizing therapeutic protocols for this vulnerable demographic. 



Surely, it's a profound addition to the current discourse around non-traditional treatment methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-psilocybin-therapy">Challenges of psilocybin therapy</h2>



The promise of psilocybin as a treatment for anorexia nervosa comes with its share of challenges. One major concern is ensuring that the therapy takes place in a safe, supportive environment. 



Psychedelic experiences can be intense and unpredictable, making it crucial to have professional guidance in place to support patients before, during, and after treatment.



This guidance helps maximize the benefits while minimizing any potential risks or adverse reactions.



There are also questions about how psilocybin therapy could fit into existing treatment plans. Researchers are looking at how it might complement traditional methods like <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=cognitive-behavioral%20therapy&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive-behavioral therapy</a> to boost long-term recovery. 



As more studies are conducted, it will be vital to address these challenges and questions. Only then can psilocybin potentially become a reliable, safe, and effective treatment option for those battling the complexities of anorexia nervosa.



The journey forward is one of thorough research, careful observation, and continued exploration to bring the best possible outcome to patients who need it most.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427429/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a>.



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Psilocybin shows promise for treating anorexia

Psilocybin, a compound at the forefront of psychedelic research, has...

Researchers have discovered that mangrove forests - a shield against destructive storms across many coastlines - are now suffocating underwater in the Maldives.



The data shows that the combination of an escalating sea level and a shift in Indian Ocean conditions has caused some Maldivian islands to lose more than half of their mangrove <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cover</a> since 2020.



The researchers, led by Lucy Carruthers and Dr. Vasile Ersek of Northumbria University, noted that this isn't a singular incident affecting only the Maldives. 



The experts said that extreme climate events represent an emerging threat to mangroves and coastal ecosystems worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowly-deteriorating-mangroves">Slowly deteriorating mangroves</h2>



In 2020, the mangroves on more than a quarter of the Maldives islands started showing signs of slow deterioration, sliding into a state known as dieback, before bidding the world adieu. 



The intensity of this mangrove loss phenomenon was captured by satellite imagery. The experts found that some islands had lost more than half of their mangrove cover.



For their investigation of mangrove dieback, the researchers combined evidence from sea level, climate data, and remote sensing. Field observations of sediment geochemistry and dendrology were also taken into consideration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-salinity-stress-in-mangroves">Signs of salinity stress in mangroves </h2>



According to the results, the dead trees exhibited increased signs of salinity stress when compared to their living counterparts.



This stress gives us a clue that the tree roots were having a tough time dealing with the heightened salt levels, which played a key role in their demise.



The scientists concluded that sea levels around the Maldives had risen at an escalated rate of over 30mm per year from 2017 to 2020. 



Adding fuel to the fire, there was a particularly intense shift in the Indian Ocean Dipole during this period. This brought along warmer sea surface temperatures and a sea-level increase in the Western Indian Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-tidal-movement">Limited tidal movement </h2>



While mangroves do have a way to cope with slow and steady rising seas by building up sediment, they found the pace of sea level rise over the past few years too fast to keep up with. 



Due to limited tidal movements in the basin areas where many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangrove forests</a> grow, the rising sea levels essentially drowned them. 



The lack of tidal movement and the consequent flooding obstructed the mangroves from building the sediment they needed to stay above water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-magnitude-of-forest-dieback">Extreme magnitude of forest dieback</h2>



Dr. Vasile Ersek is an associate professor in Northumbria University’s <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/academic-departments/geography-and-environmental-sciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences</a>.



"Dieback was first observed in the center of low-lying basin areas before gradually spreading outwards," said Dr. Ersek.



"As these basin areas have something we call limited tidal flushing we saw evidence of the rising sea level inundating the forests with seawater. This prolonged exposure created higher concentrations of salt."



“As the mangroves’ build-up of sediment slowed down due to the pace of the rising sea level, the soil salinity increased beyond what even these salt-tolerant trees could handle. Essentially, the mangroves were drowning."



Dr. Ersek noted that the extreme magnitude of dieback seen in the Maldives is a vivid illustration of how climate change may push natural systems past their limits, with cascading consequences for both nature and people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-mangroves-in-a-warning-climate">Future of mangroves in a warning climate</h2>



Lucy Carruthers, the study's lead author, is now a postdoctoral scholar in <a href="https://coastal.ecu.edu/faculty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Carolina University’s Department of Coastal Studies</a>.



“Sea level in the region reached its highest point on tide gauge records when the dieback occurred in 2020. This coincided with an intense positive phase in the Indian Ocean Dipole which can induce climate extremes for countries within the Indian Ocean," said Carruthers. 



“As our planet continues to warm, we can expect to see the Indian Ocean Dipole occurring more frequently and at higher magnitude, meaning events like this mangrove die-off may become more common."



“These remarkable forests have thrived at the interface of land and sea for many centuries. Whether they can survive the rapid changes of the coming decades will depend largely on our actions in managing the climate crisis today.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-73776-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Drowning mangroves: Climate change is pushing nature past its limits

Researchers have discovered that mangrove forests - a shield against...

Incredibly, trees have their own savvy ways of handling destructive winds during storms and cyclones. But, how do they do it? 



This was the driving question behind a recent study conducted by an international team of researchers from Japan, Germany, and France. The experts explored the fascinating swaying behaviors of Cryptomeria japonica, also known as the Japanese Cedar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-and-wind-stress">Forests and wind stress</h2>



Let's face it - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather conditions</a>, which include tropical and extratropical cyclones and tornadoes, are no less than calamities. 



They damage our forests, leading to environmental and financial losses. Fallen trees can disrupt entire ecosystems, and cleaning up the mess is not exactly cheap.



In addition, with climate change on the rise, we can expect increasingly severe storms in the future. With this in mind, it is important that we understand how forests respond to wind stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-trees-react-to-wind">How trees react to wind</h2>



This is not the first time scientists have examined the resilience of trees. However, previous studies have not given us a clear understanding of how trees react to wind across different forest configurations and weather conditions.



Recognizing this knowledge gap, the team embarked on a mission to unravel the mysteries of tree movements and wind resistance.



The research team was led by Professor Kana Kamimura, an expert in the School of Science and Technology at <a href="https://www.shinshu-u.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shinshu University</a>, Japan.



Other team members included Kazuki Nanko, Asako Matsumoto, and Saneyoshi Ueno from the <a href="https://www.ffpri.affrc.go.jp/ffpri/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute</a> in Japan, and Barry Gardiner from the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Freiburg</a> in Germany and the Institut Européen de la Forêt Cultivée- <a href="https://www.plantedforests.org/fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEFC</a>, France.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-in-various-wind-conditions">Trees in various wind conditions</h2>



"Several techniques have been developed to predict wind damage. However, they largely depend on empirical data and parameters, and overlook how wind damage occurs," noted Professor Kamimura.



"Our research aims to shed light on how winds directly impact trees and how trees reduce the stress from winds to survive."



For the investigation, the researchers monitored the behavior of trees during various wind conditions.



Their laboratory was the great outdoors, where they set up two Cryptomeria japonica plots in November 2017 in Kasumigaura City, Japan. 



The experts paid special attention to how these trees managed to dodge strong winds, gathering data over two years, including during multiple typhoons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-secret-defense-strategy">Trees' secret defense strategy</h2>



The results of the study were remarkable. The researchers found that cedar trees have two distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival modes</a>, depending on wind speed.



With lighter winds, the trees swayed at around 2-2.3 cycles per second, with their branches absorbing much of the wind energy. But when the winds got rough, the resilient trees switched to a slower swaying pattern, moving together as one unit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-speed-vs-tree-density">Wind speed vs. tree density</h2>



The transition between the two swaying modes was found to depend on the wind speed and also on the forest density. 



The densely populated P-100 plot made the shift at wind speeds between 1.79 and 7.44 meters per second. On the other hand, the transition happened at slightly lower wind speeds in the less dense P-50 plot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-of-typhoon-trami">Case of typhoon Trami</h2>



Typhoon Trami, in 2018, offered the team a real-world scenario to test their theories. They found that the thinned P-50 plot, despite its 48% resistance, suffered significant damage. 



“The 52% difference between actual and expected resistance values was likely due to the roots weakening because of strong winds, even before the winds became more severe," noted Professor Kamimura.



"This root fatigue occurred because the trees moved more due to less support from nearby trees and more wind penetrating the plot." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-forest-management">Implications for forest management</h2>



The insights drawn from this study are indeed valuable. They have revealed the crucial balance between thinning practices and wind resistance in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest management</a>. 



Thinning, although helpful in promoting tree growth, can make forests more vulnerable to storms, especially soon after the thinning process.



"With more frequent storms in a changing climate, forest management practices must adapt to maintain resilience," concluded Professor Kamimura.



So, as we face a future with more storms, let's stand together, just like our trees, ready to sway but not break in the face of adversity. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112724005358?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Trees cleverly adapt to withstand storms and high winds

Incredibly, trees have their own savvy ways of handling destructive...

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms.



Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. 



But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-fuel-for-evolution">Energy: Fuel for evolution</h2>



The boring billion period appears to mark a time when the evolution of complex life was delayed and conditions were so stable as to border on stagnant. 



Scientists state that oxygen levels at this time were drastically decreased and conditions were fairly harsh for most forms of life.



A new study by Michael Lynch of <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> has revealed that the transition from unicellular to multicellular life forms would have come at a cost.



Using the water flea, Daphnia, as a <a href="https://phys.org/tags/model+organism/">model organism</a>, the study shows that multicellular organisms require more than a tenfold increase in energy compared with the simpler, unicellular organisms characteristic of the boring billion period. 



"No one doubts that multicellularity can bring substantial advantages to the table, but the privilege of attaining such benefits comes at a steep investment cost," said Lynch, who directs the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fbiodesign.asu.edu%2Fmechanisms-of-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution</a> at ASU.



The study emphasizes the importance of respiration and other metabolic processes in navigating the transition to more complex life forms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-complexity">Cost of complexity </h2>



Every organism, from the smallest bacterium to a human, is driven by energy. Having an entire body made of only one cell reduces the need for energy and nutrients to grow and reproduce. 



But multicellular organisms, like plants, animals, and fungi, have to maintain a multitude of cells in complex tissues, organs and structures. And this places a far higher energy demand on the organism.



As the cell count increases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organism</a>, so does the demand on ATP synthase, the molecular machinery in cells that manufactures ATP, the universal energy currency. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1s.webp" alt="A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś" class="wp-image-1950209"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś</figcaption></figure>



Each new cell in a multicellular body is another mouth to feed in terms of energy, and the cost increases with the number of cells.



The findings of the Daphnia study show that metazoans - the group that includes multicellular creatures - need a lot more ATP synthase complexes in each cell than their simpler, unicellular counterparts.



In fact, for every increment in body mass, these organisms require 30 to 50 times more oxygen than simpler, unicellular creatures. This additional oxygen supports the complex needs for metabolism, cellular communication, and tissue maintenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-comes-at-a-price">Size comes at a price</h2>



Growth isn't cheap, particularly for multicellular organisms. 



While larger, unicellular organisms, like some amoebas, become more efficient as they grow, multicellular organisms face unique challenges that require extra energy to sustain their larger sizes and more complex structures.



Given this steep energy price, why did multicellularity evolve at all? 



The answer seems to be that multicellular life offers evolutionary advantages, such as being able to consume unicellular organisms en masse, evade predators, and live in various environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-energy-barriers">Overcoming energy barriers</h2>



To surmount the energetic challenges presented by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-snowball-earth-conditions-drove-evolution-complex-multicellular-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>, organisms have developed remarkable adaptations to utilize their resources efficiently. 



One key adaptation is the division of labor between specialized cells, tissues, and organs; this specialization allows for optimized energy usage where cells perform distinct functions more efficiently than they would if they had to carry out all the different life activities.



For example, mitochondria within eukaryotic cells have evolved highly efficient pathways to generate ATP, thus maximizing the energy harvested from different substrates.



Furthermore, the development of vascular systems in plants and circulatory systems in animals allows for the effective distribution of energy resources, and ensures that all cells have access to the oxygen and nutrients necessary to produce energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-boring-billion">Implications of the "boring billion"</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary narrative of the "boring billion" holds powerful implications for modern scientific research. 



This era not only reflects the energy-centric challenges of the past but also informs the fields of synthetic biology, evolutionary biology, and bioengineering.



By studying the metabolic pathways and energy efficiencies developed during this period, researchers can potentially design bio-inspired systems and organisms with enhanced functionalities and sustainability.



Furthermore, insights gained from this epoch's evolutionary innovations could pioneer future advancements in medical therapies, agriculture, and ecosystem management. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This study primarily focuses on aerobic, animal-like organisms. But there's a vast and varied spectrum of life out there, including plants and fungi, and the researchers plan to extend their investigations to these life forms. 



Future insights could shed light on why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life forms</a> took a considerable time to appear and diversify on our planet.



Multicellular life has high energy demands and this study suggests that the constraints of bioenergy could be a universal phenomenon that is applicable to any carbon-based, oxygen-breathing life, no matter where it exists in the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2414742121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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'Boring billion' wasn’t a dull period, it fueled a shift to complex life

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in...

Plants captivate us as they grow not only upward but also in width, expanding their girth. Imagine a pencil-thin tree growing taller without becoming sturdy - hardly stable, right?



Our perception of plants reveals a simple truth: they must grow outwards as well as upwards. Yet, most research focuses on the tips of shoots, where a plant's height increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-grow-stronger">How plants grow stronger</h2>



"Plants can’t grow endlessly in height. They also need to grow in thickness, or they would simply fall over," noted biologist Kirsten Ten Tusscher from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>.



So, while examining the increase in a tree’s height makes sense, understanding how they get "broader" is just as crucial.



We've all marveled at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-trees-help-the-endangered-wolf-lichen-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older trees</a> growing visibly thicker and more robust over time. This outward growth, especially in trees, is necessary for structural strength.



What's the key to this increase in width over time? It's all in the cambium layer's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-stem-cells-could-support-human-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a>.



These crucial cells are the ones calling the shots, producing wood to support the tree's structure as it grows. However, until now, the genetic mechanisms behind the activation of these stem cells has remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-processes-in-plants">Growing processes in plants</h2>



In collaboration with colleagues from the University of Helsinki, Durham University, and the University of California, Ten Tusscher and her team set out to solve this mystery. The researchers designed and developed a computer model that played a central role in the study.



The model provided invaluable insights and made significant predictions while supporting the laboratory results of the team members.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-replicating-the-magic">Replicating the magic</h2>



Where the scientific community had studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-trees-change-their-genetic-structure-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> for growth in height before, increase in width was uncharted territory. Until now, it was unclear which genes enable these cambium&nbsp;<a href="https://phys.org/tags/stem+cells/">stem cells</a>&nbsp;to become active and how this is controlled.



Ten Tusscher's model tackled the genes controlling thickness growth and shed light on the activation processes. The model's results were astonishing.



The output from the model indicated that growth in thickness is controlled by specific chemical signals within the cambium layer. Gradients in these chemical signals intersect to form a precise zone where stem cells are "switched on."



This subsequently guides the cells to produce woody tissue, thereby ensuring the continuous formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-engineered-wood-poplar-cottonwood-trees-store-more-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wood</a> throughout the plant’s life. The steady process guarantees the strength and stability a plant needs in order to support its upwards growth.



The model centered on the small plant, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-adjust-roots-to-reach-their-preferred-form-of-nitrogen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis</a>, a popular choice with biologists worldwide who study plant growth.



It demonstrated how cambium stem cells are activated and sustained, facilitating continuous thickness growth throughout a plant's life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-scientific-triumphs">Beyond scientific triumphs</h2>



Unraveling the mystery of growth in thickness isn't just a scientific triumph; it has practical implications in forestry and climate action.



"If you fully understand plant growth, and develop a tree that grows twice as fast in thickness, it's a great benefit for more sustainable timber industry," noted Ten Tusscher.



"It's also advantageous for climate efforts, as faster-growing trees can store more CO₂. Perhaps, it could even help researchers tune thickness growth in crops for better agricultural yield." 



This study, therefore, not only quenches a scientific curiosity but could also lead to a greener, healthier planet. Furthermore, it has profound implications for our environment and economy. 



Plants' hidden growth secret, it turns out, is a secret no more!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



With climate change at the forefront of global challenges, the knowledge gained from this study could transform approaches to reforestation and sustainable timber production in future.



Enhanced growth in tree thickness means greater carbon storage capacity, which plays a critical role in carbon sequestration efforts.



Moreover, unlocking the secrets of cambium-driven growth can guide innovations in crop breeding to optimize plants that produce higher yields and withstand environmental stresses.



By harnessing this newfound understanding, scientists can develop plants that not only meet timber and agricultural demands but also contribute to climate resilience.



The findings of the study pave the way for practical applications that could lead to a greener, more sustainable future, where plants not only reach sky-high but also play an even larger role in supporting life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj8752" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Scientists uncover how plants grow wider, not just taller

Plants captivate us as they grow not only upward but...

A new study reveals the remarkable evolutionary history of anglerfish, deep-sea creatures whose unusual adaptations have long fascinated both scientists and the public. 



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-024-02586-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, the research reveals how these mysterious animals defied expectations by diversifying in the harsh, resource-poor environment of the bathypelagic zone - the open ocean depths ranging from 3,300 to 13,000 feet below the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-seafloor-to-open-waters">From the seafloor to open waters</h2>



The study, led by biologists including Kory Evans of <a href="https://www.rice.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a> and his former undergraduate student Rose Faucher, investigated the evolutionary progression of anglerfish (Lophiiformes) as they moved from seafloor habitats to the deep sea's open waters.&nbsp;



By employing advanced genetic analysis and 3D imaging of museum specimens, the researchers reconstructed the anglerfish's evolutionary tree and identified the morphological innovations that enabled them to thrive in one of Earth's most challenging environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-adaptations-of-deep-sea-anglerfish">Unique adaptations of deep-sea anglerfish</h2>



While anglerfish are famous for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioluminescence-emerged-in-animals-540-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioluminescent</a> lures that dangle from their heads to attract prey in the deep sea's eternal darkness, their evolutionary tale encompasses much more than this notable feature.&nbsp;



The study revealed that deep-sea pelagic anglerfish (ceratioids) descended from benthic, or seafloor-dwelling, ancestors.&nbsp;



These ancestors inhabited the continental slope before venturing into the bathypelagic zone's open waters - a shift that paved the way for rapid evolutionary changes.&nbsp;



The ceratioids developed characteristics such as larger jaws, smaller eyes, and laterally compressed bodies - adaptations suited to an environment with scarce food and no sunlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-diversity-of-anglerfish">Surprising diversity of anglerfish </h2>



Despite these directional trends, ceratioids exhibited remarkable variability in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-anemones-can-regrow-their-entire-body-in-its-original-shape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body shapes</a>, ranging from the typical globose anglerfish to elongated forms like the “wolftrap” phenotype, which features a jaw structure resembling a trap.&nbsp;



This was the most unexpected finding of the study, as the bathypelagic zone did not limit evolution as previously thought, despite its apparent lack of ecological diversity.&nbsp;



Instead, anglerfish achieved high levels of phenotypic disparity, surpassing their benthic relatives in both shallow and deep waters.&nbsp;



This suggests that, rather than being constrained by the deep sea's environmental challenges, ceratioids explored new evolutionary avenues, diversifying their body forms and hunting strategies.



“With their unique traits like bioluminescent lures and large oral gapes, deep-sea anglerfish may be one of the few documented examples of adaptive radiation in the resource-limited bathypelagic zone,” said Evans, a co-corresponding author on the paper and assistant professor of biosciences.&nbsp;



“These traits likely gave anglerfish an edge in exploiting scarce resources and navigating the extreme conditions of their environment, although we don’t have strong evidence directly linking this diversity to this kind of resource specialization.”



Evans pointed out that the research allows for the possibility that nonadaptive processes, such as relaxed selection or random mutations, might have also contributed to the observed variability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anglerfish-evolutionary-trends">Anglerfish evolutionary trends</h2>



The researchers also compared anglerfish groups across different habitats and uncovered more surprising results. 



Coastal species like frogfish, which live in diverse and productive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-not-adapt-quickly-enough-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reef</a> environments, displayed much lower rates of evolutionary change than their deep-sea counterparts.



“The idea that a resource-poor, homogenous environment - like being surrounded on all sides by nothing but water - would produce diverse body and skull plans is really counterintuitive in this field,” said Faucher, who was co-first author of the paper along with Elizabeth Christina Miller, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Irvine</a>.&nbsp;



“When fish have different features to interact with, like corals and plants in shallow water or sand and rocks on the seafloor, that’s when we would expect fish to have a lot of variation in shape. Instead, we’re seeing it in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-legacy-decades-old-ddt-found-in-deep-sea-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea fish</a> who have nothing but water to interact with.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methodology-and-breakthrough-findings">Methodology and breakthrough findings</h2>



To carry out this study, the researchers utilized a combination of advanced methods. They constructed a phylogeny of anglerfish using data from 1,092 genetic loci across 132 species.



This represented about 38% of described species and was supplemented by fossil calibrations and genomic data to estimate divergence times and ancestral habitats. 



Morphological data were gathered from museum specimens, including linear body measurements and 3D skull shape analyses via micro-CT scans.&nbsp;



To assess evolutionary trends, they applied phylogenetic comparative methods to evaluate phenotypic and lineage diversification, while disparity analyses measured the extent of morphological variation across anglerfish groups and habitats.&nbsp;



They then used Bayesian models to reconstruct ancestral habitats, revealing that ceratioids originated from benthic ancestors before moving to the pelagic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zone</a>.&nbsp;



Finally, principal component analyses visualized how anglerfish occupied different regions of phenotypic space, shedding light on evolutionary trends in body, skull, and jaw shapes.



“Anglerfish are a perfect example of how life can innovate under extreme constraints,” said Evans. “This work not only enhances our understanding of deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> but also illustrates the resilience and creativity of evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-life-in-extreme-environments">Understanding life in extreme environments</h2>



The significance of this study extends beyond the evolutionary history of anglerfish. It offers valuable insights into how life adapts to extreme environments. 



The deep sea is one of Earth's least understood ecosystems, yet it plays a crucial role in global biodiversity and the planet's carbon cycle. 



Understanding how organisms like anglerfish succeed in such conditions helps scientists predict how life might respond to environmental changes, including those caused by climate change. 



Moreover, the study addresses broader questions in macroevolution: how new species arise, adapt, and diversify. 



By demonstrating that even resource-poor environments can foster significant evolutionary radiation, the research challenges conventional wisdom and opens new pathways for studying evolution in extreme habitats.



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Deep-sea anglerfish defy evolutionary expectations

A new study reveals the remarkable evolutionary history of anglerfish,...

We've always considered ourselves unique, haven't we? But peel back the layers, and you'll find that humans, like all species, are bound by the threads of evolution. 



One such thread is the instinct to come together when faced with external threats. The "common enemy effect" is&nbsp;a phenomenon in which we bond with others over a shared opponent or issue.



Humans do it, chimpanzees do it, and now we've learned that even our peaceful relatives, bonobos, exhibit this behavior in their own subtle way.&nbsp;At some point in their evolution, bonobos chose to make social bonding a priority.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-outgroup-threats-and-ingroup-cohesion">Outgroup threats and ingroup cohesion </h2>



The discovery suggests that the link between outgroup threats and ingroup cohesion may have evolved several million years ago, before our evolutionary paths diverged.



The study was conducted by an international team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a>. 



They surmised that outgroup threats and ingroup cohesion may be an adaptation for group-based competition, a notion that has floated around since Darwin's days.



But they had a burning question - what about species that aren't known for their fierce inter-group rivalries? What about bonobos?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-basics">Bonobo basics</h2>



Bonobos are some of our closest primate relatives, sharing about 98.7% of their DNA with us humans. 



These smart apes are known for their peaceful and cooperative social structures, which really sets them apart from their more <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/chimpanzees-vs-bonobos-whats-the-difference/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggressive chimpanzee cousins</a>.



They live in matriarchal societies where females take the lead, and they often use sexual behaviors to sort out conflicts and build social bonds. 



With their slender bodies, dark faces, and pink lips, bonobos are pretty easy to tell apart from chimpanzees, and their expressive, human-like eyes show a lot of emotion and understanding.



Bonobos thrive by foraging for fruits, leaves, and small animals. They're naturally arboreal, spending plenty of time in the trees, but they’re also pretty skilled on the ground. 



Lastly, they communicate using a mix of vocalizations, gestures, and facial expressions, showcasing their complex and sophisticated social intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-evolution-of-bonobo-benevolence">Studying evolution of bonobo benevolence</h2>



Picture this -- eight groups of bonobos spread across five sites in four countries, all part of an experiment designed to echo previous studies conducted with chimpanzees. 



The process was simple -- expose the bonobos to vocalizations from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peaceful-bonobos-are-actually-more-aggressive-than-chimps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">other groups</a> and observe their reactions.



James Brooks, the study's lead author, was as curious as any of us. 



"We had no idea how this would turn out. If the bond between group cohesion and outgroup competition wasn't adaptive due to the lack of lethal competition between groups, there would be no point," Brooks shared. 



"But, if the effect had evolved before the human-chimpanzee-bonobo split, we might find some vestiges in modern bonobos."



The findings were startling yet insightful. The bonobos were clearly alert to the calls from outside groups, but their affiliation with their own group showed only a minor increase compared to chimpanzees.



Bonobos were seen sitting upright more and resting less, hinting at a slight increase in social grooming, a crucial behavior for reinforcing social bonds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-dynamics-in-bonobos-evolution">Social dynamics in bonobos evolution</h2>



The reactions of the bonobos during the study spark a fascinating discourse on social dynamics within their groups. 



Unlike chimpanzees, who often exhibit heightened aggression in response to outgroup threats, bonobos are recognized for their relatively peaceful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-cooperation-challenges-beliefs-about-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a>. 



This raises an intriguing question: how do these contrasting responses inform our understanding of social behavior in primates?



The study suggests that while awareness of external vocalizations exists, the bonobos maintain a subtle approach to group cohesion, prioritizing social bonding over defensive aggression. 



This behavior may reflect an evolutionary strategy that emphasizes alliance-building in the face of potential threats, thereby fostering collaboration within rather than competition between groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



The insights gained from this research extend well beyond the realm of academia; they carry significant implications for conservation efforts and our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-theory-enemy-of-my-enemy-is-my-friend-proven-by-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of human behaviour</a>.



Recognizing that evolutionary traits from our primate relatives can inform why and how we interact socially underscores the importance of preserving species like the bonobo. 



Their unique perspective on social interaction offers a valuable lens through which we can examine human responses to conflict and cooperation today. 



As we navigate global challenges that require cross-cultural collaboration, appreciating the nuances of social behavior across species can illuminate pathways to strengthen our own communal ties and foster understanding in an increasingly interconnected world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-evolution-and-group-conflict">Bonobos evolution and group conflict</h2>



The authors suggest that our shared ancestor, who roamed the earth 5–6 million years ago, might have experienced some group-based conflict. 



But as the intensity decreased in the bonobos' evolutionary journey, so too did the strength of the effect.



"Although our research unearths deep roots of group conflict among our species, the real takeaway is that it can be overcome. And not just in isolated incidents, but on a species level," said Brooks.



Contrast this with other ape species -- <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-gorilla-day-supporting-the-guardians-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorillas</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-orangutan-day-2024-protecting-the-people-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-chimpanzee-day-celebrating-our-closest-cousins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-groups-of-skywalker-gibbons-found-through-their-love-songs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gibbons</a>, and humans -- all of whom have been observed killing each other.



Bonobos seem to have found a way to break this vicious pattern. It's not just because they don't commit lethal aggression today, but more importantly, they somehow stopped doing it millions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



"Humans are capable of both: we can commit horrific acts to those we see as outside our group, but we're also capable of collaborating and working together across borders," said study senior author Shinya Yamamoto.



"Bonobos teach us that the ways our ancestors treated other groups does not seal our fate. Our own species has elements of both chimpanzee and bonobo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-interested-in-the-emotions-of-strangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group relations</a>, so it is crucial that we understand how both can, and have, evolved."



So next time you find yourself in a heated debate, think about our peaceful cousins, the bonobos. After all, they've proven that it's possible to adapt, evolve, and most importantly, choose peace over conflict.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0307975" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Bonobos are the only primates, including humans, that don't kill others in their species

We've always considered ourselves unique, haven't we? But peel back...

Many,Living,Earthworms,For,Fishing,In,The,Soil,,Background

There's an invasion happening right under our feet, and most of us have no idea. Across North America, at least 70 imported, alien earthworm species are quietly altering our ecosystems, posing a largely overlooked threat.



That's where Elizabeth Hadly steps in. She's the Paul S. and Billie Achilles Professor at the <a href="https://humsci.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford School of Humanities and Sciences</a> and the senior author of a recent study on this very issue.



“Earthworms tell the story of the Anthropocene, the age we live in,” says Hadly. “It is a story of global homogenization of biodiversity by humans, which often leads to the decline of unique local species and the disruption of native ecosystem processes.”



They built the largest-ever database of these alien earthworms and warn that we need to better understand and manage these invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthworms-friends-or-foes">Earthworms -- Friends or foes?</h2>



Earthworms are nature’s ultimate recyclers, quietly working their magic beneath our feet. 



These wriggly creatures belong to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-worms-can-distinguish-sunlight-from-moonlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">annelid family</a> and thrive in soil worldwide, except in places that are too cold or dry for their taste.



They come in a variety of sizes, ranging from tiny half-inch worms to some whoppers over 10 feet long (looking at you, giant Gippsland earthworm of Australia).



Most earthworms prefer moist, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-soil-esoil-boosts-crop-production-by-50-in-just-15-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient-rich soil</a>, where they spend their days munching on organic matter like dead leaves, decomposing plants, and other goodies.



Since the late 1800s, people have brought earthworms to North America from places like Asia, Europe, South America, and Africa.



Sometimes, these introductions have boosted the agricultural economy. Other times, they've done more harm than good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-earthworms-do-their-jobs">How earthworms do their jobs</h2>



What’s cool about earthworms is their ability to transform dirt into fertile soil. 



As they eat, they break down organic material and poop it out as castings, which are packed with nutrients that plants absolutely love.



They also create tiny tunnels as they burrow, which helps water and air flow through the soil -- essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-makes-flowers-more-attractive-to-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy plant roots</a>. 



These little guys are underground architects and farmers, keeping ecosystems balanced without breaking a sweat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alien-earthworm-invasion-consequences">Alien earthworm invasion consequences</h2>



These imported earthworms often consume aboveground leaf litter more aggressively than native species. 



This change in the soil's surface can negatively impact native plants, amphibians, and insects. 



In the northern broadleaf forests of the U.S. and Canada, alien earthworms stress trees like sugar maples by altering the soil's microhabitat. 



This shift can set off a chain reaction, making it easier for invasive plants to spread.



Ironically, for a creature we associate with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-amazonians-modified-the-soil-to-create-fertile-dark-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improving soil</a>, some alien earthworms can actually degrade it. They may alter soil properties like nutrients, pH, and texture, leading to poorer quality crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthworm-biology">Earthworm biology</h2>



Earthworms are also biologically fascinating. They breathe through their skin, so staying moist is a must for them. 



They don’t have eyes, but they’re sensitive to light and vibrations, which helps them avoid predators.



Speaking of predators, they’re a favorite snack for birds, frogs, and even some mammals. And get this -- earthworms are hermaphrodites, meaning each worm has both male and female reproductive organs.



When they mate, they exchange sperm, and each worm can produce cocoons filled with eggs. It’s a pretty efficient way to keep the worm world thriving!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-alien-earthworms-are-winning">Why alien earthworms are winning</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Invasive species</a> of all kinds are a problem, but alien earthworms especially troublesome because they have some tricks up their sleeves. 



Unlike most native species, many female alien earthworms can reproduce without needing a male. 



On top of that, climate change is opening up new territories for them. As permafrost melts in northern areas void of native earthworms, these invaders find new places to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-opening-numbers">Eye-opening numbers</h2>



The research team built a database of native and alien earthworms using thousands of records from 1891 to 2021. They found alien earthworms in 97% of the soils they studied across North America. 



These invaders represent 23% of the continent’s 308 earthworm species and account for 12 of the 13 most widespread species. 



To put that in perspective, in the U.S., only 8% of fish species, 6% of mammals, and 2% of insects and arachnids <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-use-wildfires-and-drought-as-an-opening-to-move-in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">are alien</a>.



In Canada, the situation is even more striking. The proportion of alien earthworms is three times greater than that of native ones. 



Across most of the lower 48 U.S. states and Mexico, there's about one alien earthworm for every two native species.



“These ratios are likely to increase because human activities facilitate the development of alien species that threaten native earthworm species, a phenomenon still largely overlooked,” says study lead author Jérôme Mathieu, an associate professor of ecology at the Sorbonne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-these-alien-earthworms-matter">Why do these alien earthworms matter?</h2>



To sum it all up, not all alien earthworms are troublemakers. But their widespread presence and unknown impacts on various ecosystems make them worth paying attention to. 



The researchers suggest several solutions, like encouraging the use of native worms for composting and fishing bait, and early detection through regular monitoring and citizen science initiatives.



By shedding light on these little-known dynamics, the study highlights the vital roles earthworms play in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killing-animals-ecosystem-non-native-culling-harmful-strategy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shaping ecosystems</a> and how they function in landscapes dominated by humans.



“This is most likely the tip of the iceberg,” says co-author <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/lab/John-Warren-Reynolds-Lab" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John Warren Reynolds</a> of the Oligochaetology Laboratory and the New Brunswick Museum in Canada. 



“Many other soil organisms may have been introduced, but we know very little about their impacts.”



Next time you're out in your garden or taking a walk in the woods, remember that there's a whole world beneath your feet that's more complicated than it seems. 



Those wriggly worms might not just be helping your plants grow -- they could be part of a bigger story of ecological change that we're only beginning to understand.



----



The study was conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, <a href="https://www.sorbonne-universite.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sorbonne University</a>, and other institutions. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-023-02310-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Alien earthworms are invading and harming ecosystems across North America

There's an invasion happening right under our feet, and most...

Sustainability in cattle farming has taken a promising step forward. Researchers discovered that feeding a seaweed supplement to grazing beef cattle can reduce methane emissions by nearly 40%.



This study demonstrates that environmental benefits can align with cattle health and productivity.



Professor Ermias Kebreab, a researcher at the University of California (UC), Davis, led the team behind this study. Earlier findings showed that seaweed could cut methane emissions by 82% in feedlot cattle and over 50% in dairy cows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cattle-grazing">Understanding cattle grazing</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-have-an-unexpected-role-in-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cattle grazing</a> is an important part of farming around the world. It makes use of land that can’t be used for crops, turning grass into food and other useful products. 



Grazing also helps keep grasslands healthy, supports wildlife, and reduces the risk of wildfires.



 The management of grazing cattle varies significantly based on geography, climate, and available resources.



In arid regions, rotational grazing helps preserve soil quality and ensures pasture regeneration. In wetter areas, continuous grazing may be possible due to faster grass regrowth. Proper grazing techniques also minimize soil compaction and erosion, contributing to long-term land health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circular-farming-practices">Circular farming practices </h2>



Additionally, grazing systems often integrate with other agricultural practices. For instance, cattle can graze on crop residues post-harvest, reducing waste and enriching the soil with organic matter. 



This integration supports circular farming approaches, which enhance sustainability and resource efficiency.



Despite its benefits, cattle grazing must be carefully managed to avoid overgrazing, which can deplete vegetation, increase soil erosion, and reduce water retention capacity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-emissions-in-cattle">Methane emissions in cattle</h2>



Livestock contribute 14.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Methane, primarily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-reductions-in-methane-emissions-are-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">released by cattle through burping</a>, constitutes the largest share. 



Grazing cattle, that consume more fiber from grass, produce more methane compared to feedlot cattle or dairy cows. The United States alone is supports 9 million dairy cows and over 64 million beef cattle, making the mitigation of methane production crucial.



"Beef cattle spend only about three months in feedlots and most of their lives grazing on pasture," explained Professor Kebreab.



"We need to make this seaweed additive or any feed additive more accessible to grazing cattle to ensure sustainable farming while meeting global meat demand."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-reducing-methane-emissions">Challenges in reducing methane emissions</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-a-pill-stop-cows-from-burping-methane/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lowering methane emissions</a> in grazing cattle presents unique difficulties. Unlike feedlot or dairy cows, grazing cattle roam far from ranches for extended periods, which makes daily supplementation complicated. 



However, ranchers often provide dietary supplements during winter or when grass availability declines. This study aimed to overcome these logistical barriers.



The researchers conducted a 10-week experiment on a Montana ranch, dividing 24 beef steers into two groups.



One group received the seaweed supplement in pellet form, while the other did not. Despite voluntary intake, emissions dropped by nearly 40% in the supplemented group.



Professor Kebreab noted that most previous research took place in controlled settings. Fewer than half of these methods are effective for grazing cattle. This study represents a significant step in addressing the challenges unique to pasture-based systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-seaweed-reduces-methane-in-cattle">How seaweed reduces methane in cattle</h2>



Seaweed supplements reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-have-emerged-as-major-source-of-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane emissions</a> by interfering with the gut microbes responsible for producing methane. The researchers suggest delivery mechanisms like lick blocks to make supplementation more practical for ranchers.



"This method paves the way to make a seaweed supplement easily available to grazing animals," said Professor Kebreab. 



Lick blocks could simplify the process, ensuring consistent access for cattle even in remote grazing areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-and-social-benefits">Environmental and social benefits</h2>



Pastoral farming sustains millions of people globally, often in regions most vulnerable to climate change. 



This study on reducing methane emissions in beef cattle offers a scalable solution to improve environmental sustainability while supporting livelihoods. By reducing emissions, cattle grazing could contribute positively to global efforts against climate change.



Professor Alison Van Eenennaam from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> highlighted related efforts in the same&nbsp;PNAS&nbsp;issue. Her article emphasizes improving livestock efficiency in low- and middle-income countries through better genetics, feeding, and health practices. 



"This approach is key to meeting global meat demand while limiting greenhouse gas emissions," said Professor Eenennaam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seaweed-supplements-and-methane-mitigation">Seaweed supplements and methane mitigation</h2>



The research marks a significant advancement in sustainable cattle farming. It bridges the gap between practical challenges and environmental goals, ensuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-will-boost-methane-emissions-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> mitigation without compromising cattle health or productivity.



Supported by Matador Ranch in Dillon, Montana, this work sets the stage for broader implementation of seaweed supplements worldwide.



Postdoctoral researchers Paulo de Méo Filho and John-Fredy Ramirez-Agudelo also contributed to the study. The findings highlight the importance of innovative, science-based approaches to combat climate change while supporting global food security.



Future research may refine supplementation methods further, making them accessible to a wider range of farming systems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410863121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS).



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Seaweed supplements reduce methane in grazing cattle

Sustainability in cattle farming has taken a promising step forward....

Can you imagine surviving the chilly winter months without food or water? Sounds impossible to us, but for the thirteen-lined ground squirrel, a small creature of the North American plains, this is pretty much normal.



They manage to weather the cold seamlessly, without a drop of water or a morsel of food during their lengthy hibernation period.



This intriguing phenomenon has become the focus of a new investigation by a group of molecular and physiology specialists.



At the <a href="https://medicine.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University School of Medicine</a>, a dedicated group of scientists has been studying the peculiar bio-mechanics of these squirrels.



Their remarkable findings have recently been published, shedding light on the arcane winter survival secrets of these extraordinary creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-squirrels-sleep-through-the-cold">How squirrels sleep through the cold</h2>



Documented research over the years has revealed that these ground squirrels hibernate for six to eight months every year during the unforgiving North American <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-winters-are-getting-colder-while-world-is-getting-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">winter</a>.



During this entire hibernation period, they neither consume food nor drink water, even during their sporadic and brief moments of wakefulness.



In their recent endeavor, the scientists sought to unravel the enigma of how such a phenomenon could be possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squirrel-balancing-act">Squirrel balancing act</h2>



Deepening their investigation into the biochemistry of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-hibernating-squirrels-can-teach-space-travelers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hibernating squirrels</a>, the Yale University team discovered that these critters maintain their blood ion levels close to the levels found in active squirrels. 



They accomplish this by effectively conserving water in their bodies and relocating ion reserves into areas of their bodies where they wouldn't be absorbed into the bloodstream.



The study also brought to light an interesting facet of the squirrel's hormonal activity. Certain hormones in the squirrel’s body act as antidiuretics that aid in water retention.



Furthermore, the areas in the squirrel's brain responsible for the production of such hormones remained active, even during hibernation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-off-thirst-how-do-they-do-it">Turning off thirst: How do they do it?</h2>



The researchers were most eager to uncover the mechanism that allowed the squirrels to switch off their thirst during times of hibernation.



The team observed that when they offered water to the squirrels awakened from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ground-squirrels-have-changed-their-hibernation-patterns-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hibernation</a>, or during their fleeting waking periods, the squirrels adamantly refused to drink. There was no apparent struggle to suppress the desire for water either.



On the other hand, the squirrels readily accepted an offering of salt, hinting at its role in the hibernation process.



In their quest to find the underlying mechanisms that control thirst, the researchers analyzed protein expression in the brain, neural activity, and the neurons’ response to thirst-triggering hormones. 



They discovered that the neurons responded in the same manner they would when the squirrels were not in hibernation. It seems that a certain brain mechanism prevents the neuronal signals from triggering the sensation of thirst.



Although the elusive mechanism that controls this thirst suppression remains a mystery, the team is undeterred.



The researchers are determined in their pursuit, believing that understanding how a mammal like a squirrel can survive the harsh conditions of hibernation, with body temperatures plummeting to near freezing, might provide invaluable insights for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-disruption-threatens-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human survival</a> in extreme situations, such as lengthy space missions or enduring long surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-survival">Implications for human survival</h2>



The fascinating discoveries about the hibernation mechanisms of thirteen-lined ground squirrels have implications that go far beyond the animal kingdom.



Scientists believe these insights could revolutionize our understanding of human survival under extreme conditions. 



For instance, the ability to suppress thirst and conserve resources efficiently could inform the development of advanced medical techniques for patients undergoing prolonged surgeries or recovering in intensive care units.



Moreover, the study holds promise for space exploration. As missions to Mars and beyond become increasingly plausible, replicating these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-are-squirrels-adapting-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptive traits</a> could help astronauts endure long-duration space travel. 



Researchers envision that mimicking such biochemical and neural processes might pave the way for humans to sustain life in resource-scarce environments without jeopardizing their health.



The tiny squirrel’s ability to endure months of extreme cold and scarcity serves as a remarkable biological blueprint for overcoming challenges that humans may face in the future. 



This makes these seemingly ordinary creatures extraordinary in terms of their potential impact on science and innovation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp8358" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How squirrels survive winter without food or water

Can you imagine surviving the chilly winter months without food...

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have unearthed fossils of tiny whiteflies preserved in incredible detail. 



These fossils, found in Miocene-age sediments at Hindon Maar near Dunedin, measure about 1.5mm by 1.25mm (0.059 inches by 0.049 inches). Despite their small size, the fossils reveal essential insights into ancient ecosystems.



Dr. Uwe Kaulfuss from the University of Göttingen in Germany led the excavation that uncovered these minute yet extraordinary specimens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whitefly-fossils-and-their-preservation">Whitefly fossils and their preservation</h2>



Adult whiteflies measure about 3mm (0.12 inches), while immature ones are even smaller.



The fossils discovered at Hindon Maar are preserved in their natural living positions, attached to the underside of fossil leaves. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-are-changing-insects-in-subtle-yet-deadly-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>, with oval black bodies, share similarities with modern whiteflies but feature distinctly defined body segments separated by deep sutures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-discovery-of-whitefly-fossils">Rare discovery of whitefly fossils</h2>



"Fossils of adult whitefly insects are not uncommon, but it takes extraordinary circumstances for the puparia – the protective shell the insect emerges from – to become fossilised," Dr. Kaulfuss explained.



"Some 15 million years ago, the leaf with the puparia must have become detached from a tree, blown into the small lake and sank to the deep lake floor to be covered by sediment and become fossilized. It must have happened in rapid succession as the tiny insect fossils are exquisitely preserved."



According to Dr. Kaulfuss, this new genus and species confirm that whiteflies were part of ancient forest ecosystems on New Zealand’s South Island.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-whitefly-fossils">Importance of whitefly fossils</h2>



Professor Daphne Lee from the <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Otago</a>’s Department of Geology emphasized the rarity and significance of these fossils.



"The fact that they are still in life position on the leaf is incredible and extremely rare. These little fossils are the first of their kind to be found in New Zealand and only the third example of such fossil puparia known globally," said Professor Lee.



Twenty years ago, only seven insect fossils older than the Ice Ages had been found in the country. Today, that number exceeds 750, with most housed at the Otago Geology Department. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-biodiversity">Broader implications for biodiversity</h2>



The findings from whiteflies' fossils showcase the long history of insects in Aotearoa New Zealand. 



With 14,000 insect species in the country - 90 percent of which are unique to New Zealand - these fossils add a critical data point for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary histories</a>.



"Discovery of these minute fossils tells us this group of insects has been in Aotearoa New Zealand for at least 15 million years. This provides a well-dated calibration point for molecular phylogenetic studies," explained Professor Lee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-knowledge-through-collaboration">Expanding knowledge through collaboration</h2>



The discovery from <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a> is part of a broader trend of uncovering new insect fossils in Otago. 



In addition to whiteflies, researchers have identified fossils of danceflies, craneflies, phantom midges, and marsh beetles this year. 



These studies highlight extensive global collaborations, with contributions from scientists in Germany, France, Spain, Poland, and the United States.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-value-of-small-fossils">Value of small fossils</h2>



While large fossils often capture public attention, Professor Lee stressed the significance of tiny fossils. 



Most animals in forests are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-leaf-eating-insects-have-a-huge-impact-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. These small but vital creatures form the backbone of forest ecosystems. 



Each discovery - whether whiteflies or other insects - adds to the growing appreciation of their ecological roles in shaping ancient environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-whiteflies">More about whiteflies</h2>



Whiteflies belong to the insect family Aleyrodidae and are known for their small size and winged forms. These insects thrive in warm climates and are often found on the underside of leaves, where they feed on plant sap. 



Whiteflies are significant agricultural pests, as their feeding habits can damage crops and transmit plant diseases. Their life cycle consists of four main stages: egg, nymph, pupa, and adult, with each stage adapted to different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-changing-color-to-adapt-to-human-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a>.



Despite their agricultural impact, whiteflies also play a role in ecosystems by serving as food for predators like ladybugs and lacewings. Their ability to adapt to various plant hosts and environments has made them a subject of study in evolutionary biology. 



Research on modern whiteflies often focuses on controlling their population while understanding their genetic diversity. These studies provide a backdrop for examining their ancient counterparts, highlighting changes and continuities over millions of years.



Ultimately, the discovery of whitefly fossils at Hindon Maar offers a rare glimpse into New Zealand’s ancient forests. These fossils not only enhance our understanding of past biodiversity but also highlight the importance of small creatures in ecological research.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12549-024-00628-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments</a>.



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'Extremely rare' fossils reveal how whiteflies live on leaves

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have unearthed fossils of tiny...

Scientists have finally determined the number of bonobos residing in one of the largest pristine tropical forests on Earth. This region, Salonga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), serves as a critical sanctuary for these endangered great apes. 



A comprehensive study, conducted over two decades by 48 scientists, estimates that between 8,000 to 18,000 adult bonobos inhabit Salonga. While the population appears stable, researchers have noted signs of a potential decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-estimating-the-park-s-bonobos-population">Estimating the park's bonobos population</h2>



The findings not only shed light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo numbers</a> but also identify factors essential for their survival, offering actionable steps for their conservation.



"Estimating the population of bonobos in Congo's largest protected park is a significant step in conservation efforts," said Mattia Bessone, first author on the study.



"We highlight the effectiveness of park rangers in preserving this endangered species, showing that Salonga’s success can serve as a model for other conservation projects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-s-largest-pristine-forest">Africa's largest pristine forest</h2>



Salonga National Park, Africa’s largest protected forest, spans an area equivalent to Switzerland. 



Its untouched primary forest provides a haven for bonobos, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of great ape</a> found exclusively in the Congo. 



Unlike other regions, Salonga shields bonobos from the severe threats of deforestation and commercial hunting. Despite its reputation as a stronghold, the actual number of bonobos within the park had remained unknown due to the lack of comprehensive surveys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-bonobo-data-in-salonga">Revisiting bonobo data in Salonga</h2>



"There was an old number floating around of how many bonobos there were in Salonga, but this was an assumption based on surveys covering less than twenty percent of the entire park," said Barbara Fruth, a group leader at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior (<a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-AB</a>).



Salonga's unique research opportunity: 33,000 km² (12,741 sq miles) of protected forest and 9,000 km² (3,475 sq miles) of human settlement corridors offer vital insights into bonobo conservation.



"The unique thing about Salonga is that it is the only place where surveys have been repeated in the same areas. In this vast country, only Salonga offers the opportunity to model trends and assess whether bonobos are declining in Congo," noted Fruth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compiling-two-decades-of-data">Compiling two decades of data</h2>



The monumental task of compiling two decades of survey data fell to Mattia Bessone, a postdoctoral researcher with Fruth. 



Between 2000 and 2018, 13 surveys were conducted by a team of 48 scientists. However, varying survey methods - ranging from traditional nest counting to modern motion-triggered cameras - posed challenges.



Bessone applied statistical techniques to reconcile these differences, ensuring the data provided a clear picture of bonobo populations across the park, even in previously unstudied areas.



The resulting analysis represents the most extensive temporal comparison of bonobo populations to date, offering insights critical for conservation planning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-in-salonga-stable-yet-vulnerable">Bonobos in Salonga: Stable yet vulnerable</h2>



The study estimates that 8,000 to 18,000 adult bonobos inhabit Salonga, a figure aligning with past extrapolations from smaller surveys. 



While the population has remained stable since 2000, the researchers noted a concerning downward trend in density and distribution. Although this trend is not statistically significant, it signals the need for vigilance.



"What this tells us is that bonobos are not in immediate danger, but we need to stay vigilant and to keep investing in conservation efforts if we are to ensure their survival," said Bessone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bonobos-thrive-in-salonga-park">How bonobos thrive in Salonga Park</h2>



The study highlights factors that influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-cooperation-challenges-beliefs-about-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo distribution</a> and abundance. 



Primary forest cover emerges as the main predictor of bonobo presence, while proximity to villages has a negative impact. Interestingly, bonobos are more frequently found near park ranger posts, suggesting a protective effect of law enforcement.



"We can’t say what the rangers do specifically that leads to this effect," noted Bessone. "It could be that rangers are a possible deterrent to poachers. Whatever the reason, it is clear that just the presence of law enforcement has a positive effect on bonobos."



Another intriguing finding relates to the park’s southern side, home to traditional minority communities who have coexisted with bonobos for generations. 



"In these villages there is a cultural taboo that prevents hunting of bonobo," said Bessone. "It could be this that creates the positive effect they have on bonobo abundance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-for-bonobo-conservation">Benefits for bonobo conservation</h2>



Overall, the findings underline the importance of preserving forest cover and investing in law enforcement to ensure bonobo survival. Salonga’s long-term monitoring efforts have provided a model for other conservation initiatives across Africa.



"The biggest threats to bonobos are deforestation and commercial hunting, and our findings show that preserving forest and investing in law enforcement has concrete benefits for <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/chimpanzees-vs-bonobos-whats-the-difference/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo</a> conservation," said Fruth.



"We hope this motivates national and international conservation authorities to invest more into Salonga and other protected areas to ensure that bonobos remain part of our world far into the future."



By combining decades of research with actionable recommendations, this study has laid a strong foundation for future conservation efforts, offering hope for one of the world’s most endangered species.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10764-024-00468-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Primatology</a>.



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Bonobos are thriving in Salonga National Park

Scientists have finally determined the number of bonobos residing in...

The shoebill is a striking bird native to the wetlands of tropical East Africa, known for its unique appearance and remarkable presence. 



The bird gets its name from its large, shoe-shaped bill, which is both powerful and highly efficient for catching prey.



Shoebills can grow up to five feet tall, with a wingspan that adds to their commanding presence. Their gray feathers and intense, piercing eyes give them a prehistoric look.



However, behind the bird's striking exterior lies a story of survival and a call to action for its protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle-of-the-shoebill">Lifestyle of the shoebill </h2>



The shoebill is more closely related to pelicans than to storks. It's the sole species in its family, Balaenicipitidae, and belongs to the order Pelecaniformes. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-birds-commit-to-caring-for-young-males-abandon-family-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> is a relic, dating back millions of years.



The shoebill produces a sound resembling machine gunfire -- a behavior known as bill-clattering -- typically during nesting or interactions with other shoebills.



While these birds appear solemn, their behaviors and hunting strategies reveal an intriguing mix of precision and persistence. 



They are solitary creatures, rarely seen in groups, and their habitats are under threat due to human activities, making them a conservation priority.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-on-the-menu">What’s on the menu?</h2>



Shoebills are known for their calm and deliberate movements, often standing motionless for long periods as they patiently stalk their prey.



For a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> with such a theatrical hunting style, you might expect its diet to be equally dramatic.



The shoebill is a highly specialized predator and doesn’t eat just anything it finds in the water. The bird's diet primarily consists of large aquatic prey -- particularly lungfish, catfish, and tilapia.



A 2015 study in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.2989/00306525.2014.977364" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of African Ornithology</a> found that catfish composes around 71 percent of the shoebill's meals.



The bird occasionally indulges in other creatures like eels, snakes, and even baby crocodiles - showcasing its adaptability and the rich biodiversity of its habitat.



Once a creature ventures too close, the shoebill lunges with incredible speed and precision, using its massive beak to seize and crush the prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surviving-with-limited-resources">Surviving with limited resources </h2>



While shoebills are generally solitary, they form monogamous pairs during the breeding season. 



Both parents are involved in raising the offspring, including incubating eggs and feeding chicks. Despite this cooperation, the success rate of raising chicks is relatively low.



Shoebills usually lay two eggs per breeding season, spaced a few days apart. However, their reproductive strategy often results in siblicide -- a phenomenon where the older, stronger chick dominates the weaker one.



This behavior ensures that limited resources, such as food, are focused on the chick most likely to survive to adulthood. If the first chick dies, the second egg serves as a backup.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-struggles-of-the-shoebill">Struggles of the shoebill</h2>



Despite its apparent strength, the shoebill faces significant threats. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) estimates its global population at just 5,000 to 8,000 individuals.



The bird is primarily threatened by habitat destruction, illegal hunting, and practices of the exotic pet trade. 



Conservation efforts are focused on protecting wetlands, minimizing human interference, and monitoring populations in the wild.



These initiatives strive to preserve East Africa's distinctive wildlife by balancing conservation with human development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-east-african-wildlife">Other East African wildlife</h2>



East Africa is a wildlife lover’s dream, bursting with some of the most iconic animals you can imagine. The incredible wildebeest migration unfolds each year, showcasing one of nature’s greatest spectacles. 



You’ll also encounter majestic elephants, elegant giraffes, swift cheetahs, and the powerful lions that reign over the savannas. 



Beyond the open plains, East Africa is home to lush forests and breathtaking landscapes that shelter unique species, such as the elusive snow leopard in the mountainous regions.



But the magic of East Africa’s wildlife doesn’t stop with the big mammals. The region is teeming with diverse birdlife, like the Shoebill, vibrant reptiles, and fascinating insects that add layers of beauty to its ecosystems. 



Along the stunning coastlines of Zanzibar and the Seychelles, you can explore vibrant coral reefs and swim with playful dolphins and graceful sea turtles. 



Conservation efforts are strong here, with numerous reserves and community projects dedicated to protecting these incredible creatures and their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-shoebill">Significance of the shoebill </h2>



The shoebill serves as a symbol of ecological balance, both in East Africa and around the world as it's reputation spreads. 



Its presence reflects the vitality of the wetlands it inhabits -- critical ecosystems that support both wildlife and humans.



Wetlands provide a range of invaluable services, such as water purification, flood control, and carbon storage. They are also biodiversity hotspots, supporting a multitude of plant and animal species. 



By protecting and conserving wetlands, we ensure the preservation of not only the shoebill but also the many other species that rely on these vital ecosystems.



Education plays a critical role in raising awareness about the importance of the shoebill and the broader environmental issues it faces.



Regardless of where you live, you can play a part in the shoebill’s survival. Promoting educational initiatives and sharing information about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-regional-accents-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird's</a> challenges are great ways to help. Together, we can create a future where the shoebill thrives.



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These human-sized birds are tough enough to eat baby crocodiles, yet they face extinction

The shoebill is a striking bird native to the wetlands...

A recent discovery in a quarry near Bristol has sparked intense debate and controversy in the scientific community. Unearthed from Triassic-aged rocks, a tiny fossil skeleton has been identified as&nbsp;Cryptovaranoides microlanius, a modern-type lizard that died at least 205 million years ago.



This remarkable fossil is now the oldest lizard of its kind on record, which reframes our understanding of lizard evolution by pushing the origin of the Squamata group - which includes all lizards and snakes - back by 35 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hidden-predator">A hidden predator</h2>



The original study, conducted by a team from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, named the creature Cryptovaranoides microlanius. This translates to "hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a>, small butcher," which is a nod to its sharp teeth that probably helped it tear its prey apart.



The research team was led by Dr. David Whiteside, Dr. Sofia Chambi-Trowell, and Professor Mike Benton. 



The experts identified key anatomical features of the skull and skeleton that placed the fossil firmly within the Squamata and close to the Anguimorpha group, which includes modern anguids and monitors.



"We knew our paper would be controversial. But we were confident that we had looked at every possible feature and compared it with everything we could," explained Dr. Whiteside.



Their confidence was rooted in meticulous research, which included detailed examination of the fossil specimen and CT scans to analyze the intricate details of the skull and jaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controversy-around-the-lizard-fossil">Controversy around the lizard fossil</h2>



Despite their thorough investigation, the findings were greeted with skepticism.



In 2023, a rival team of researchers challenged the classification of Cryptovaranoides, suggesting it was not a lizard or even a lizard relative. 



Instead, they proposed that it belonged to the archosauromorph group, which includes crocodilians and dinosaurs. This claim surprised the original researchers.



"We were therefore surprised, perhaps even shocked, that in 2023 another team of academics suggested that Cryptovaranoides was not a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lizard-faces-an-unexpected-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a> or even a lizard relative, but in fact an archosauromorph, more closely related to crocodilians and dinosaurs," said Professor Benton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-the-lizard-fossil">Revisiting the lizard fossil</h2>



Determined to validate their findings, the Bristol team revisited the fossil and CT scan data. Their reassessment involved examining the original specimen alongside X-ray scans, which revealed details hidden within the rock. 



"We had the marvelous images from those CT scans as well as further access to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sea-lizard-khinjaria-had-teeth-like-daggers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> which enabled us to check all their suggestions. We found that most of the concerns raised were wrong," noted Dr. Chambi-Trowell.



The team’s new analysis scrutinized the criticisms point by point. They provided detailed descriptions and supplementary evidence, including additional photographs and 3D images, to substantiate their claim.



"All the details of the skull, the jaws, the teeth, and the limb bones confirm that Cryptovaranoides is a lizard, not an archosauromorph," Professor Benton stated.



"In our new paper, we provide great detail of every criticism made and we provide more photographs of the specimen and 3D images from the scans, so everyone can check the detail."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-s-oldest-modern-type-lizard">World's oldest modern-type lizard</h2>



The team’s confidence was further bolstered by phylogenetic analysis, a method that codes hundreds of anatomical features of Cryptovaranoides and compares them with other modern and fossil lizards, as well as archosauromorphs. 



"The result of all this had to be tested by a phylogenetic analysis. This is where we code hundreds of anatomical features in Cryptovaranoides and other modern and fossil lizards, as well as various archosauromorphs," explained Dr. Whiteside about the rigorous testing process.



"We ran the analysis time after time, and it gave our original result, that the little Bristol reptile is indeed the world’s oldest modern-type lizard."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-discovery">Significance of the discovery</h2>



This discovery has far-reaching implications for our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-lizards-scuba-dive-by-using-air-bubbles-to-breathe-underwater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a> evolution. 



Squamata, the group that includes all lizards and snakes, is one of the most diverse vertebrate groups today. Tracing its origins back 205 million years provides new insights into how modern reptiles evolved and adapted over millions of years.



Dr. Whiteside and his colleagues hope their findings will settle the debate and reaffirm the significance of Cryptovaranoides.



By pushing the timeline of Squamata’s origin further back, the discovery challenges existing models of reptilian evolution and highlights the importance of continued research and exploration in paleontology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visual-evidence-in-the-lizard-fossil">Visual evidence in the lizard fossil</h2>



The fossil’s remarkable preservation has provided invaluable data. Detailed CT scans allowed the team to analyze internal structures and confirm its classification. 



One image, created by Dr. Chambi-Trowell, shows the inside of the skull and lower jaw on the right, juxtaposed with an exterior CT scan of the same bones on the left. These images reveal a level of detail crucial for accurate classification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While this lizard fossil discovery is remarkable, it opens new questions about the early evolution of reptiles. What other fossils might remain hidden in similar Triassic rocks? 



Could they reveal even older ancestors of Squamata? The Bristol team’s work underscores the value of re-examining existing specimens and using advanced technologies like CT scanning to unlock hidden details.



"The little Bristol reptile is a remarkable window into the past. It helps us understand the origins of one of the most successful vertebrate groups on Earth," said Dr. Whiteside.



"We look forward to more discoveries that will continue to illuminate the fascinating history of life on our planet."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231874" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Fossil discovery shifts the origin of lizards back 35 million years

A recent discovery in a quarry near Bristol has sparked...

Quantum states, such as quantum superposition "cat states," are notorious for their fragility, often disappearing in the blink of an eye. But imagine keeping such a delicate state stable not just for seconds, but for nearly half an hour. 



That's exactly what a team of scientists has achieved, maintaining a quantum superposition -- known as a "cat state" -- for an astonishing 23 minutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-cat-states-and-superposition">Quantum "cat states" and superposition</h2>



Quantum superposition is the idea that tiny particles can be in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multiple states at the same time</a>. A great way to understand this is through Schrödinger's cat, a famous thought experiment.



Imagine you have a cat in a closed box with a device that has a 50% chance of releasing poison based on something random happening at the quantum level, like an atom decaying. 



According to superposition, until you open the box to check, the cat is both alive and dead at the same time. 



This strange scenario shows just how weird and mind-bending quantum mechanics can be, challenging our everyday ideas about how things work.



The "cat state" takes this superposition idea and applies it to something bigger and more familiar, like a cat, to highlight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how bizarre quantum theory really is</a>. 



By imagining the cat being both alive and dead, we can better understand the tricky parts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-speed-measured-for-first-time-too-fast-to-comprehend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a> and why simply observing something can change its state. 



This example is still a key part of conversations about what reality is really like and the mysterious behaviors of the quantum world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-cat-state-stability">Maintaining cat state stability</h2>



Leading the charge is Zheng-Tian Lu, a researcher at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Science and Technology</a> of China. 



His team's record-shattering achievement completely disrupts our understanding of quantum mechanics and opens up exciting possibilities for future technologies.



Creating such states isn't new, but keeping them stable has been a monumental challenge. 



Usually, these superpositions collapse into a single state almost as soon as they form. Lu and his colleagues decided to tackle this problem head-on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-they-pull-this-off">How did they pull this off?</h2>



They took about 10,000 atoms of ytterbium -- a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-coal-ash-holds-tons-of-rare-earth-elements-worth-8-4-billion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare earth element</a> -- and cooled them down to a few thousandths of a degree above absolute zero. 



Then, they used lasers to trap the atoms with electromagnetic forces. 



Under these ultra-cold conditions, they could control the atoms' quantum states with incredible precision. Each atom was placed into a superposition of two states with very different spins.



Now, you'd expect environmental disturbances to ruin the party pretty quickly, causing the atoms to settle into a single spin state in milliseconds or seconds. But here's where the magic happens. 



The researchers fine-tuned their lasers just right, allowing the cat states to last an unprecedented 1,400 seconds -- that's 23 minutes, or about the time it takes to watch your favorite sitcom without commercials.



Barry Sanders from the <a href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a> was impressed by the feat. He told New Scientist, “It's a big deal because they're making this beautiful cat state in an atomic system and it's stable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-quantum-cat-states-matter">Why quantum cat states matter</h2>



Why should you care about this? For starters, these long-lasting cat states are incredibly sensitive to their environment. 



Think of them like ultra-sensitive probes that can detect the slightest changes around them. 



Sanders explained, “A probe gets jiggled and pushed and nudged and prodded, and then by seeing what happens, you learn about the things that interact with it.”



The researchers showed that their cat state's sensitivity for measuring magnetic fields is already nearing the fundamental limits set by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-impossibility-made-possible-using-exotic-mathematics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a>. 



Because it sticks around for so long, the cat state isn't just a one-trick pony; it can gather data over extended periods, capturing both quick blips and slow changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-applications">Real world applications</h2>



This could have big implications for studying subtle magnetic forces or even uncovering exotic effects in fundamental physics. 



Imagine being able to detect minute changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plasma-can-bend-magnetic-fields-into-unique-shapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> that were previously beyond our reach.



Looking to the future, these cat states might find a home in quantum information processing. 



They could act as super-stable memory units, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/transmitting-quantum-information-using-electron-spin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storing extra information</a> and helping devices like quantum computers correct errors on the fly.



It's not every day that we see such a leap in quantum stability. This achievement <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pushes the boundaries of what's possible</a> and brings us closer to practical quantum technologies. It's like unlocking a new level in a game we thought we had figured out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



To sum it all up, this achievement by Zheng-Tian Lu and his team is a game-changer in quantum physics. 



By keeping a quantum "cat state" alive for 23 minutes, they've shattered previous records and opened up a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whole new world of possibilities</a>. 



Their clever use of ytterbium atoms and precise laser tuning demonstrates incredible control over quantum states.



It's exciting to think about where this could lead us. From super-sensitive probes that can detect the tiniest magnetic forces to more stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/code-breaking-encryption-quantum-computers-takes-big-step-closer-to-becoming-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum computers</a> that can fix their own errors, the implications are huge. 



While we might not see immediate changes in our daily lives, this kind of research pushes the boundaries of what's possible and gets us one step closer to the next big leap in technology



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.09331v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



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"Quantum cat" survives in superposition for a record-shattering 23 minutes

Quantum states, such as quantum superposition "cat states," are notorious...

Have you ever wondered where your banana peel goes after you casually toss it in the trash? Turns out, it might be missing out on an exciting second life as banana peel flour, which can be transformed into a scrumptious, nutritious snack.



In a recent study, scientists discovered an intriguing possibility. They showed that by blanching, drying, and grinding banana peels into a flour, the unused part of your banana could be reborn as a delicious addition to baked goods.



And it tastes just as good, if not better than wheat-based products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-snacks">Science behind the snacks</h2>



The results of the simple experiment were compelling. Sugar cookies made using the peel flour were taste-tested by consumers who reported that they enjoyed the products as much as they enjoyed peel-free sugar cookies.



The individual were also getting a package deal of flavors packed with a generous helping of minerals and cancer-fighting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-food-day-fighting-global-hunger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrients</a>.



When enriched with banana peels, the sugar cookies baked in the study showed higher levels of fiber, magnesium, potassium, and antioxidant compounds. 



On the flip side, too much banana peel flour did result in somewhat brown and hard cookies, probably due to the extra fiber present in the banana peels. 



However, a balance was found when flour containing 7.5 percent banana peel was used: this combination produced an appealing texture.



Plus, there's another benefit. The goods made with banana peel flour showed no signs of spoilage, even after being kept on the shelf at room temperature for three months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-banana-peel-flour-beyond-cookies">Banana peel flour beyond cookies</h2>



While this particular study focused on sugar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-snack-sizes-lead-to-quicker-eating-and-bigger-bites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cookies</a>, the findings hint at a broader potential. 



Using banana peel flour in breads, cakes, and even pasta, could be the next step. In fact, a study from last year revealed that banana peels can provide a natural food color to cakes while boosting their nutritional value.



Food writers have been using banana peels in curry dishes, while vegan bloggers have gotten creative with ideas like banana peel bacon and pulled peel "pork."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutritional-and-environmental-value">Nutritional and environmental value</h2>



Banana peel flour has more surprises in store. A <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82432213.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2016 study</a> found that substituting up to 10 percent of wheat flour with banana peel flour enriched baked bread with greater protein, carbohydrate, and fat content.



Furthermore, it may be important to note that 40 percent of a banana's weight is in its peel. Unfortunately, we discard most of this nutritional treasure.



Interestingly, turning banana peels into flour isn't just about health and taste. It also brings forth a sustainable solution to the ever-growing problem of food waste.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-in-the-peels-of-other-fruits">Potential in the peels of other fruits</h2>



The trend of converting peels to flour isn't limited to bananas. 



The study found similar potential in the skin of other fruits, such as mangoes and oranges. Using their skins can boost a cake's antioxidant properties and improve its flavor profile. 



Moreover, did you know that orange peels can be repurposed in various ways? From adding zest to recipes to making natural cleansers, orange peels are versatile and sustainable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-banana-peels">Benefits of banana peels</h2>



As discussed, banana peels are mighty health warriors in disguise. They are rich in vitamins like B6 and B12, which improve energy levels, brain health, and red blood cell production. 



Their high potassium and magnesium content is a boon for heart health, muscle function, and blood pressure.



The peels are also full of fiber, which aids digestion, promotes a healthy gut, and prevents constipation. Their exceptional antioxidant content combats oxidative stress, protecting cells from damage caused by free radicals.



Moreover, these antioxidants may also have anti-inflammatory effects and thus may reduce the risk of chronic diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Making the most of your banana</h2>



The study was led by researchers from Aligarh Muslim University (<a href="https://www.amu.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMU</a>). It teaches us to consider potential uses of what we would ordinarily just throw away. 



Turning a part of your fruit that's not eaten into something beneficial like banana peel flour is a brilliant idea.



This is not just a way to keep your meals flavorful; banana peel flour also adds a healthful spin to your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-snacking-quality-and-timing-make-all-the-difference/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a>. So the next time you peel a banana, think twice before you toss the skin away.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.2c00159">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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Using this banana peel ingredient in foods adds cancer-fighting nutrients

Have you ever wondered where your banana peel goes after...

Avocados have become a staple in many kitchens, showing up on toast, in smoothies, and as the star ingredient in guacamole at every gathering. In fact, many experts claim that eating one avocado each day can actually add years to your life by improving the overall quality of your diet.



Beyond their delicious taste and texture, avocados pack a punch when it comes to nutrition. They’re loaded with healthy fats, especially monounsaturated fat, which is great for your heart. 



You’ll also find plenty of vitamins like Vitamin K, Vitamin E, and several B vitamins, along with minerals such as potassium and magnesium. 



Avocados are also rich in fiber, which helps with digestion and keeps you feeling full longer.



So, what is the controversy, and how exactly can eating avocados improve your health and extend lifespan?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-avocado-diet">Investigating the avocado diet</h2>



Kristina Petersen, an associate professor of nutritional sciences, and Penny Kris-Etherton, a retired professor from Penn State University <a href="https://hhd.psu.edu/nutrition" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Nutritional Sciences</a>, set out to explore this question. 



They led a team to investigate the potential health benefits of daily avocado consumption. Their research was recently published in the journal Current Developments in Nutrition. 



The study aimed to see if adding one avocado to a person's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-fat-diets-linked-to-unexpected-health-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">daily diet</a> could make a significant difference in their overall diet quality.



"Avocados are a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-foods-with-these-key-nutrients-will-dramatically-slow-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient-dense food</a>, containing a lot of fiber and other important nutrients. We wanted to see if regular intake of this food would lead to an increase in diet quality," Petersen explained. 



She noted that previous observational studies suggested that people who eat avocados tend to have higher diet quality, but they wanted to find out if there was a direct cause-and-effect relationship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



Because only about 2% of American adults regularly eat avocados, the researchers were curious whether incorporating this fruit daily could boost diet quality across a broader population. 



They conducted phone interviews with participants before the study began and at various points throughout to assess their dietary intake over the previous 24 hours. 



They used the Healthy Eating Index to evaluate how well participants adhered to the <a href="https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dietary Guidelines for Americans</a>.



The study involved 1,008 participants divided into two groups. 



One group continued their usual diet and limited their avocado intake during the 26-week study. The other group added one avocado per day to their meals.



"We found that the participants who had an avocado per day significantly increased their adherence to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-meat-less-protein-lacks-certain-nutrients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary guidelines</a>," Petersen said. 



"This suggests that strategies, like eating one avocado per day, can help people follow dietary guidelines and improve the quality of their diets."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocado-diet-surprises">Avocado diet surprises</h2>



What surprised the researchers was how participants managed to improve their diet quality. 



"We determined that participants were using avocados as a substitute for some foods higher in refined grains and sodium," Petersen noted. 



While avocados counted toward increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetable consumption</a>, people were also swapping out less healthy options in favor of this nutrient-rich fruit.



Poor diet quality is a significant risk factor for conditions like heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and kidney disease. 



"By improving people’s adherence to dietary guidelines, we can help to reduce their risk of developing these chronic conditions and prolong healthy life expectancy," Petersen said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Petersen has explored other food-based interventions, such as the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-pistachios-daily-proven-to-boost-eyes-vision-and-overall-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pistachios and diet quality</a>. 



She believes more research is needed to discover additional food strategies that can help people stick to dietary guidelines. 



"In studies like this one, we are able to determine food-based ways to improve diet quality, but behavioral strategies are also needed to help people adhere to dietary guidelines and reduce their risk of chronic disease," she emphasized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-diet-avocado-s-global-impact">Beyond diet: Avocado's global impact</h2>



But there's more to the avocado story than just personal health benefits, and it's not what you might expect. 



Enter Honor May Eldridge, a food policy expert who works to promote sustainable agriculture around the world. 



In her book, The Avocado Debate, Eldridge delves into the complexities of our modern food system through the lens of the avocado.



"The avocado has come to represent so much more than just a fruit. It’s wrapped up with ideas of generational conflict, environmental chaos, and social injustice," Eldridge explained.



"Over the last century, through careful marketing, it has evolved into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-adopt-regenerative-agriculture-better-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">commodity crop</a> with a huge social media following."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dark-side-of-avocado-diets">The dark side of avocado diets</h2>



However, the book doesn't aim to vilify the avocado or its fans. Instead, it seeks to educate consumers about the often-unseen ramifications of their choices. 



"Everything we eat has an impact -- good and bad. We all just need to be more knowledgeable about those consequences so we can make more informed choices. We shouldn’t demonize the avocado," she stated.



Particularly in the last three decades, avocados have gone from being a regional crop to a global phenomenon embraced by cafes, restaurants, homes, and social media platforms everywhere. 



Eldridge traces the avocado's journey from a staple in indigenous communities to its current status, examining how colonialism and modern marketing have turned this humble fruit into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-avocado-debate-understanding-the-impacts-of-our-food-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sought-after commodity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-and-social-challenges">Environmental and social challenges</h2>



She explores the environmental and social challenges tied to avocado production today. Issues like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trillions-of-cubic-meters-of-water-is-used-to-grow-crops-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">excessive water use</a>, fertilizers, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-increases-the-risk-of-parkinsons-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pesticides</a> have significant impacts on ecosystems and local communities. 



One pressing concern is the expanding need for land, leading to widespread clearances that endanger crucial habitats and biodiversity.



Eldridge also tackles questions of equity and sustainability, highlighting connections between avocado production, land grabs, structural inequalities, and the influence of the Global North on the Global South. 



She raises important points about how large-scale export agriculture affects local communities, especially in regions grappling with climate change.



"My goal is to encourage readers to recognize the complexity of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food system</a> and understand that no food is inherently 'good' or 'bad'," Eldridge said. "The debate needs to move beyond simplistic portrayals and embrace the intricate reality of our choices."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocado-diet-and-environmental-balance">Avocado, diet, and environmental balance</h2>



So, where does that leave us with our beloved avocados? 



On one hand, they can boost our diet quality and help us meet nutritional guidelines. 



On the other, their production can have significant environmental and social impacts. 



Perhaps the key is balance and awareness. By knowing more about where our food comes from and how it's produced, we can make choices that are good for us while being mindful of the bigger picture.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2475299124000052" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Developments in Nutrition</a> and <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003371915/avocado-debate-honor-may-eldridge" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Avocado Debate</a>.



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Eating avocado every day can add years to your life, but this fruit has enemies

Avocados have become a staple in many kitchens, showing up...

We often associate wealth with a higher level of biodiversity. This notion, referred to as the "luxury effect," seems to suggest that only affluent communities can enjoy diverse ecosystems.



However, a new study offers a more nuanced view, suggesting that all communities can work towards cultivating biodiversity, regardless of their financial status.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-between-biodiversity-and-wealth">Connection between biodiversity and wealth</h2>



"A positive correlation between wealth and biodiversity within cities is a commonly documented phenomenon in urban ecology that has come to be labeled as the 'luxury effect,'" wrote the study authors.



"We contend that both this language and this framing restrict our understanding of how sociopolitical power dynamics influence biodiversity within and across cities."



The researchers explained that the connection between biodiversity and wealth extends beyond just their correlation.



Madhusudan Katti, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> (NC State), noted that biodiversity in cities is not a luxury - it is something we can work to nurture.



"Rather than just rely on the correlation of wealth and biodiversity, we wanted to understand the many ways that biodiversity intersects with different social pressures and systems," explained Professor Katti.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-role-of-cities">Understanding the role of cities</h2>



To unravel this relationship, the researchers started with a meticulous analysis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiverse landscapes</a>. The goal was to identify the common characteristics of these areas and decipher the social structures that enable them.



The team utilized a unique approach called the social-ecological framework, outlining how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human actions shape nature</a> within a social context.



This framework acknowledges that societal actors play a significant role in land use and management decisions. 



"Someone decides how land will be used, whether it’s a city deciding where a park is going to go or zoning for industry," explained Professor Katti.



"Then you also have individuals in their backyards deciding what they want to do with it, whether they want a lawn, a pollinator-friendly garden, or something else.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-biodiversity-and-the-luxury-effect">Urban biodiversity and the "luxury effect"</h2>



As part of their research, the scientists introduced a new framework, the POSE approach. This model focuses on four factors - power, objectives, social/ecological context, and effort (POSE) - which together shape what is termed the "luxury effect."



For instance, homeowners with higher income may have greater control over landscape use compared to apartment dwellers. 



However, the POSE framework empowers communities with fewer resources to prioritize things within their control, such as collective organizing to boost effort.



Professor Katti is optimistic about the impact of the POSE framework. He believes that it will inspire collective action towards healthier landscapes.



The insightful research is a reminder that everyone has a part to play in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-for-biological-diversity-from-agreement-to-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nurturing biodiversity</a>.



“We want people to understand that they can influence the landscape around them even without a lot of money. This is what community groups have been doing for a long time: they organize to overcome the handicap of wealth through effort," said Professor Katti.



"Our paper is a call to action. Biodiversity is achievable, and people have the power to create it together.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empowering-communities-with-collective-action">Empowering communities with collective action</h2>



The study reveals that biodiversity can thrive in any community when collective action and creative solutions are prioritized.



Individuals and neighborhoods can take small but impactful steps, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forests-benefit-from-diverse-native-tree-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planting native species</a>, reducing pesticide use, or advocating for shared green spaces.



These actions, when coordinated, create a ripple effect that enhances biodiversity on a larger scale.



Collaboration within communities amplifies these efforts, demonstrating that collective action can overcome economic limitations.



By working together, people can reclaim urban spaces for nature, transforming vacant lots, rooftops, and backyards into thriving habitats that support local wildlife and enrich the quality of life for residents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-in-urban-landscapes">Biodiversity in urban landscapes</h2>



Urban planning&nbsp;has&nbsp;a critical role in&nbsp;the&nbsp;shaping&nbsp;of&nbsp;ecosystems&nbsp;and provides&nbsp;an opportunity to&nbsp;bring biodiversity into the fabric of cities.



Simple yet effective design strategies, such as green walls, urban forests, and pollinator pathways, can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-wildlife-habitats-may-prevent-the-next-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restore habitats</a> and reconnect fragmented ecosystems.



The POSE framework provides&nbsp;a practical approach for&nbsp;city planners and policymakers to&nbsp;evaluate&nbsp;the impact of their decisions&nbsp;on&nbsp;biodiversity.



This&nbsp;vision&nbsp;is one of&nbsp;aligning land use policies with ecological goals and engaging community stakeholders, which will help&nbsp;cities&nbsp;to&nbsp;balance development with conservation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.70049" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosystems</a>.



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Urban biodiversity is not a luxury - it is attainable for everyone

We often associate wealth with a higher level of biodiversity....

Climate change is no longer a future threat -- it is the reality we are now living in. The hustle and bustle of human activities has caused carbon dioxide (CO2) levels to surge in our atmosphere, triggering a notable increase in the global average surface temperature.



This isn't just an issue for scientists and environmentalists to address - climate change is something everyone needs to understand because it directly threatens our crops and food security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crop-yields-and-climate-change">Crop yields and climate change</h2>



A recent study was carried out by a group of researchers at Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in India. Driven by concerns about the impact of environmental factors on global food security, the team set out to investigate this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defy-climate-change-through-acclimation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex problem</a>.



The goal was to predict how climate variables influence the crop yields that feed our expanding population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-model-to-capture-nonlinear-relationships">Model to capture nonlinear relationships </h2>



The researchers didn't just base their work on assumptions or approximations. 



Instead, they meticulously crafted a mathematical model to capture the nonlinear relationships between CO2, temperature, human population, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-diversity-can-help-combat-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop growth</a>.



Why the emphasis on "nonlinear" relationships? Because our natural world doesn't play by straight-line rules. 



Complex and often chaotic, ecological systems dance in a pattern that's more of a spiral than a straight line - another factor the researchers took into account when designing their model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-limits-crop-growth">Climate change limits crop growth</h2>



"We've considered how the rising CO2 levels will initially boost crop growth through the 'CO2 fertilization effect,’ but once temperatures exceed a critical threshold, the heat stress will reduce yields," said A.K. Misra, one of the scientists on the project from <a href="https://www.bhu.ac.in/Site/Home/1_2_16_Main-Site" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BHU</a>.



"A non-autonomous system with seasonal variations reveals complex behaviors like periodic oscillations and chaos - and highlights the unpredictability of crop responses to rising temperatures."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-double-edged-sword-of-rising-co-2-levels">Double-edged sword of rising CO2 levels</h2>



While it's true that an abundance of CO2 can initially boost crop growth, the broader picture isn't as optimistic.



As Misra mentioned, the challenge lies in the rising temperatures that accompany the elevation in atmospheric CO2 levels.



So, while we might see a short-term win for crops, the long-term outlook is decidedly more concerning. The takeaway? We need to understand when to say "when" in terms of CO2 emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarm-bells-for-crop-survival">Alarm bells for crop survival</h2>



It turns out that individual crop varieties <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-happening-too-fast-for-some-species-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">react differently</a> to these changing climatic conditions.



"Our findings reveal a critical threshold for anthropogenic CO2 emission, beyond which crop yield starts to decrease significantly. It depends on the cultivated crop varieties - different varieties exhibit varying responses, so the results may not apply uniformly across all crops," Misra explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-tolerant-crops-to-tackle-climate-change">Heat-tolerant crops to tackle climate change</h2>



However, it's not all doom and gloom. The researchers also unveiled a promising strategy to combat these climate-change-induced crop losses - the development of crop varieties with higher temperature tolerance.



By creating crops that can withstand warmer temperatures, farmers can better adapt to changing environmental conditions, thus protecting the crop yield and ensuring food security.



Perhaps the most shocking revelation from the study was how minute increases in temperature could have sweeping impacts on crop yields. It’s a stark reminder that the issue of climate change cannot be taken lightly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chaotic-behavior-of-crop-systems">Chaotic behavior of crop systems</h2>



"By identifying critical temperature thresholds, we get insights into when crop yields may begin to decline, which will guide policymakers in making more beneficial strategies," Misra noted. 



He further suggested that breeding or using crops with increased temperature tolerance should be considered as a strategy to maintain productivity under elevated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-destabilizing-ant-plant-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2 levels</a>.



Misra and his team believe that understanding the chaotic behavior of crop systems will help improve yield predictions and inform adaptive farming practices. This knowledge will be pivotal in managing seasonal and climatic variability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The team plans to refine their model to include more variables like insect population sizes, water availability, soil quality, and nutrient levels, which also impact crop yields under climate change.



"Further experimental validation with real-world data will help calibrate our model more accurately, while the development of region-specific models will enable localized predictions and strategies," concluded Misra.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/cha/article-abstract/34/11/113134/3322281/Impact-of-elevated-carbon-dioxide-and-temperature?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chaos: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science</a>.



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Predicting the response of crops to climate change is crucial, but can we do it?

Climate change is no longer a future threat -- it...

species in Echinodiaceae