The nature of dark matter has puzzled astronomers for 90 years since discovering that 85% of the universe's matter is invisible through our telescopes.&nbsp;



Currently, the most promising candidate for dark matter is the axion, a lightweight particle that scientists worldwide are fervently trying to detect.



Astrophysicists at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, now suggest that axions could be discovered within seconds of detecting gamma rays from a nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosion</a>.&nbsp;



If axions exist, they would be produced in large quantities during the first 10 seconds after a massive star collapses into a neutron star. These axions would escape and transform into high-energy gamma rays within the star's intense magnetic field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-gamma-rays-from-supernova-explosions">Detecting gamma rays from supernova explosions </h2>



Detecting these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brightest-gamma-ray-burst-ever-recorded-had-a-rare-energy-peak/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gamma rays</a> today is possible only if the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope - the sole gamma-ray telescope currently in orbit - is pointing in the direction of the supernova at the time it explodes. Given the telescope's field of view, there's about a one-in-ten chance of this happening.



Yet, a single detection of gamma rays would pinpoint the mass of the axion, particularly the so-called QCD axion, across a vast range of theoretical masses, including those currently being investigated in Earth-based experiments.&nbsp;



Conversely, the lack of a detection would eliminate a large range of potential masses for the axion, rendering many current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a> searches irrelevant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-in-our-cosmic-neighborhood">Searching in our cosmic neighborhood </h2>



The issue is that, for the gamma rays to be bright enough to detect, the supernova must be nearby - within our Milky Way galaxy or one of its satellite galaxies.&nbsp;



Nearby stars explode, on average, only every few decades. The last nearby supernova was in 1987 in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite of the Milky Way.&nbsp;



At that time, a now-defunct gamma-ray telescope, the Solar Maximum Mission, was pointing in the supernova's direction but wasn't sensitive enough to detect the predicted intensity of gamma rays, according to the UC Berkeley team's analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-the-true-nature-of-dark-matter">Seeking the true nature of dark matter </h2>



Benjamin Safdi is an associate professor of physics at UC Berkeley and senior author of the study.



“If we were to see a supernova, like supernova 1987A, with a modern gamma-ray telescope, we would be able to detect or rule out this QCD axion, this most interesting axion, across much of its parameter space - essentially the entire parameter space that cannot be probed in the laboratory, and much of the parameter space that can be probed in the laboratory, too. And it would all happen within 10 seconds," explained Professor Safdi.



The researchers are concerned that when the long-overdue supernova occurs in the nearby universe, we won't have the necessary instruments to observe the gamma rays produced by axions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fleet-of-gamma-ray-telescopes">A fleet of gamma-ray telescopes</h2>



In discussions with colleagues who build gamma-ray telescopes, the experts are exploring the feasibility of launching one - or a fleet - of such telescopes to cover 100% of the sky 24/7, ensuring any gamma-ray burst would be detected.



The researchers have even proposed a name for their full-sky gamma-ray satellite constellation: the GALactic AXion Instrument for Supernova, or GALAXIS.



“I think all of us on this paper are stressed about there being a next supernova before we have the right instrumentation,” noted Safdi. “It would be a real shame if a supernova went off tomorrow and we missed an opportunity to detect the axion - it might not come back for another 50 years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-dark-matter">The search for dark matter</h2>



Initial searches for dark matter focused on faint, massive compact halo objects (MACHOs) theorized to be sprinkled throughout our galaxy and the cosmos.&nbsp;



When these didn't materialize, physicists shifted their attention to elementary particles that should be detectable in Earth-bound labs. Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) also failed to show up.&nbsp;



In the quest to find the true nature of dark matter, the best candidate is the axion - a particle that fits well within the standard model of physics and solves several outstanding puzzles in particle physics.



“It seems almost impossible to have a consistent theory of gravity combined with quantum mechanics that does not have particles like the axion,” Safdi said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strongest-candidate-for-an-axion">Strongest candidate for an axion </h2>



Axions also naturally emerge from string theory - a hypothesis about the universe's underlying geometry - and might help unify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a>, which explains interactions on cosmic scales, with quantum mechanics, which describes the infinitesimal.&nbsp;



The strongest candidate for an axion is the QCD axion, named after quantum chromodynamics, the prevailing theory of the strong force.&nbsp;



Theoretically, QCD axions interact weakly with all matter through the four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, the strong force, and the weak force.&nbsp;



One consequence is that, in a strong magnetic field, an axion should occasionally transform into an electromagnetic wave, or photon. This distinguishes axions from neutrinos, which only interact through gravity and the weak force and ignore electromagnetism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neutron-stars-and-axion-detection">Neutron stars and axion detection</h2>



Laboratory experiments - such as the ALPHA Consortium (Axion Longitudinal Plasma Haloscope), DMradio, and ABRACADABRA, all involving UC Berkeley researchers - use compact cavities that resonate with and amplify the faint electromagnetic field or photon produced when a low-mass axion transforms in the presence of a strong magnetic field.



Astrophysicists have also proposed looking for axions produced inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-star-collisions-push-the-limits-of-extreme-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron stars</a> immediately after a core-collapse supernova, like 1987A. Until now, they've primarily focused on detecting gamma rays from these axions' slow transformation into photons in the magnetic fields of galaxies. 



Safdi and his colleagues realized that this process is not very efficient at producing gamma rays detectable from Earth.



Instead, they explored the production of gamma rays by axions in the strong magnetic fields around the very star that generated the axions. Supercomputer simulations showed that this process very efficiently creates a burst of gamma rays dependent on the axion's mass.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burst-of-neutrinos-from-a-hot-star">Burst of neutrinos from a hot star </h2>



This burst should occur simultaneously with a burst of neutrinos from inside the hot neutron star. However, the burst of axions lasts a mere 10 seconds after the neutron star forms - after that, the production rate drops dramatically - though it happens hours before the outer layers of the star explode.



“This has really led us to thinking about neutron stars as optimal targets for searching for axions as axion laboratories,” Safdi said. "Neutron stars have a lot of things going for them. They are extremely hot objects. They also host very strong magnetic fields.” 



“The strongest magnetic fields in our universe are found around neutron stars, such as magnetars, which have magnetic fields tens of billions of times stronger than anything we can build in the laboratory. That helps convert these axions into observable signals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-the-search-for-axions">Advancing the search for axions</h2>



Two years ago, Safdi and his colleagues established the best upper limit on the mass of the QCD axion at about 16 million electron volts, or about 32 times less than the mass of the electron. This was based on the cooling rate of neutron stars, which would cool faster if axions were produced along with neutrinos inside these hot, dense objects.



In the current paper, the UC Berkeley team not only describes the production of gamma rays following a core collapse to a neutron star but also uses the non-detection of gamma rays from the 1987A supernova to set the best constraints yet on the mass of axion-like particles, which differ from QCD axions in that they do not interact via the strong force.



They predict that a gamma-ray detection would allow them to identify the QCD axion mass if it is above 50 microelectron volts (μeV), or about one ten-billionth the mass of the electron. A single detection could refocus existing experiments to confirm the mass of the axion, Safdi said.&nbsp;



While a fleet of dedicated gamma-ray telescopes is the best option for detecting gamma rays from a nearby supernova, a fortunate observation with Fermi would be even better.



“The best-case scenario for axions is Fermi catches a supernova. It's just that the chance of that is small,” Safdi said. “But if Fermi saw it, we'd be able to measure its mass. We'd be able to measure its interaction strength. We'd be able to determine everything we need to know about the axion, and we'd be incredibly confident in the signal because there's no ordinary matter which could create such an event.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-the-true-nature-of-dark-matter">Uncovering the true nature of dark matter </h2>



The researchers are anxious about missing a rare opportunity to detect axions due to inadequate instrumentation. They will continue to discuss the feasibility of launching new gamma-ray telescopes to ensure continuous sky coverage.



Safdi's team believes that capturing gamma rays from a nearby supernova could not only confirm the existence of axions but also provide detailed information about their properties. This could revolutionize our understanding of dark matter and the fundamental forces of nature.



The quest to uncover the true nature of dark matter continues to drive innovation in astrophysics. By focusing on gamma rays emitted during supernova explosions, scientists hope to finally detect axions and solve one of the most enduring mysteries in physics.&nbsp;



The stakes are high, and time is of the essence. With the potential for a nearby supernova to occur at any moment, researchers are eager to have the right tools in place to seize this fleeting opportunity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.211002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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The true nature of dark matter may be revealed in a supernova

The nature of dark matter has puzzled astronomers for 90 years since discovering that 85% of the universe's matter is invisible through our telescopes.&nbsp; Currently, the most promising candidate for dark matter is the axion, a lightweight particle that scientists worldwide are fervently trying to detect. Astrophysicists at the University of California, Berkeley, now suggest that axions could be discovered within seconds of detecting gamma rays from a nearby supernova explosion.&nbsp; If axions exist, they would be produced in large quantities during the first 10 seconds after...

Researchers at the <a href="http://www.aecom.yu.edu/">Albert Einstein College of Medicine</a> have assembled the first complete wiring diagram of the nervous system of an animal. The study was focused on the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, and reveals some significant differences between the male and female specimens.

The achievement marks a major milestone in the field of "connectomics," the production of comprehensive maps of the brain or nervous system to identify the specific <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/medical-marijuana-chronic-nerve-pain/">nerve connections</a> responsible for various behaviors.

Study lead author Dr. Scott Emmons is a professor of Genetics in the Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience.

"Structure is always central in biology," said Dr. Emmons. "The structure of DNA revealed how genes work, and the structure of proteins revealed how enzymes function. Now, the structure of the nervous system is revealing how animals behave and how neural connections go wrong to cause disease."

Experts theorize that some neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism, are problems caused by faulty connections. 

"This hypothesis is strengthened by the finding that several mental disorders are associated with mutations in genes that are thought to determine connectivity," said Dr. Emmons. "Connectomics has the potential to help us understand the basis of some mental illnesses, possibly suggesting avenues for therapy."

An adult C. elegans grows to just one millimeter in length and contains about 1,000 cells that make up a simple nervous system with a few hundred neurons. This makes the roundworm one of the best animal models for understanding the human brain, which is billions of times more complex.

The laboratory of the late British biologist Dr. Sydney Brenner published the first map of the C. elegans nervous system in 1986, after analyzing thousands of electron micrographs of the roundworm. 

Using specially developed software, Dr. Emmons' team combined new roundworm electron micrographs with the ones used by Dr. Brenner to create complete wiring diagrams of entire adult animals of both C. elegans sexes. The diagrams include all connections between individual neurons, connections from neurons to the worm's muscles and other tissues, and synapses between the muscle cells.

"While the synaptic pathways in the two sexes are substantially similar, a number of the synapses differ in strength, providing a basis for understanding sex-specific behaviors," explained Dr. Emmons. 

"These connected networks serve as starting points for deciphering the neural control of C. elegans behavior. Since the roundworm nervous system contains many of the same molecules as the human nervous system, what we learn about the former can help us understand the latter."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Giovanni Cancemi

Scientists assemble the first full diagram of an animal’s nervous system

Researchers at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine have assembled...

It’s a point of contention and a hotly debated topic as to whether or not <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-generate-electricity/">plants</a> feel pain or have a brain capable of consciousness like other living vertebrates. 

Researchers in the new field of plant neurobiology argue that plants can indeed think. 

But in a new opinion article published in the journal Trends in Plant Science, a team of experts in plant physiology attempt to put the topic of plant consciousness to rest once and for all, arguing that because plants lack neurons and a brain, they are incapable of consciousness. 

Instead, plants grow using electrical signals to distribute molecules across the plant’s membranes and send long-distance messages in case of danger like an insect bite. 

Plant neurobiologists use these signals to prove the plant’s ability to think, showing that the distribution of signals is similar to the electrical signaling in the nervous system of animals. 

In the new article, Lincoln Taiz from the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/">University of California</a> cites research from Todd Feinberg and Jon Mallatt who studied the evolution of consciousness to show why dumbing down consciousness to fit the basic chemical signaling of plants is a problem. 

“The biggest danger of anthropomorphizing plants in research is that it undermines the objectivity of the researcher,” said Taiz. “What we’ve seen is that plants and animals evolved very different life strategies. The brain is a very expensive organ, and there’s absolutely no advantage to the plant to have a highly developed nervous system.”

The Feinberg-Mallat model of consciousness determines what must be in place in the brain for a species to have awareness. 

It was Feinberg and Mallat who traced back the <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/ancient-origins-consciousness">origins of consciousness</a> to the Cambrian explosion 520 to 560 million years ago, much earlier than previously thought. 

“Feinberg and Mallatt concluded that only vertebrates, arthropods, and cephalopods possess the threshold brain structure for consciousness. And if there are animals that don’t have consciousness, then you can be pretty confident that plants, which don’t even have neurons--let alone brains-- don’t have it either,” said Taiz.

Taiz and his colleagues say that the chemical signaling in plants are genetically encoded responses that have been fine-tuned through natural selection. 

The researchers argue that sensory adaptation doesn’t involve learning and shouldn’t be linked to consciousness. 

But Taiz and his co-authors emphasize that these responses are genetically encoded and have been fine-tuned through generations of natural selection.

“I feel a special responsibility to take a public position because I’m a co-author of a plant physiology textbook,” said Taiz. “I know a lot of people in the plant neurobiology community would like to see their field in the textbooks, but so far, there are just too many unanswered questions.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Can plants think, feel, and possess consciousness?

It’s a point of contention and a hotly debated topic...

A new investigation from <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a> has found that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has been much less active since President Trump took office. The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/genetically-modified-salmon/">FDA</a> is responsible for protecting the health of Americans by monitoring the safety of food, medicines, and other products.

One of the responsibilities of the agency is to issue warning letters to keep dangerous drugs or foods from becoming available to consumers. According to the study, these letters have now dropped by a third compared to FDA activity under former President Obama. Warnings from the FDA Center for Devices and Radiological Health have dropped even further, by more than two-thirds. 

Peter Lurie was an FDA executive under both Obama and Trump and is now executive director of the <a href="https://cspinet.org/">Center for Science in the Public Interest</a>.

“Those who think the Trump administration has not succeeded in its deregulatory efforts ought to look at these data,” said Lurie. "Industry may well take the message from this that the cop is not on the beat as often."

Similar declines were discovered among several other FDA activities as well, including the distribution of inspection reports labeled "official action indicated," which have fallen by almost half.

"FDA’s power to enforce its requirements is an important part of how it achieves its public health mission," said Patricia Zettler, who is a former FDA attorney. "If FDA is not using that power, it sends a signal that violations will be tolerated."

Scott Gottlieb was President Trump’s first FDA commissioner. After reviewing the data obtained by Science, he responded in an email. “We were pretty aggressive,” he wrote. “I don’t think you can paint us with a political narrative - that just because we were a Republican administration, somehow we must have ratcheted down enforcement activity. We didn’t.”

The researchers did find one exception to the declining number of warning letters issued. The FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), which approves new drugs and monitors existing drugs, has issued 188 warnings during Trump's presidency compared with 116 in the most recent period under Obama. 

Joshua Sharfstein is a health policy researcher at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> who worked for the FDA under Obama. He said that he hopes this report from Science will lead to further investigation into what has caused recent declines in enforcement by the agency. "The FDA’s enforcement role is extremely important," said Sharfstein. “If the FDA isn’t doing enforcement, nobody’s doing enforcement."

The report was supported by the <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/investigative-journalism-fund">Science Fund for Investigative Reporting</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Hurst Photo

FDA enforcement has declined under Trump, report confirms

A new investigation from Science has found that the Food...

Experts in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> have developed a technique to significantly increase the toughness of glass. The research, led by Professor François Barthelat, was inspired by mollusk shells and the impact-resistant material that is found in their inner layer.

"Mollusk shells are made up of about 95 percent chalk, which is very brittle in its pure form," said Professor Barthelat. "But nacre, or mother-of-pearl, which coats the inner shells, is made up of microscopic tablets that are a bit like miniature Lego building blocks, is known to be extremely strong and tough, which is why people have been studying its structure for the past twenty years."

Professor Barthelat noted that whether glass is used in a car or a smartphone, its components are "always the weakest links and the most fragile in the entire system." 

To imitate the "building blocks" of nacre, the researchers used an ultraviolet laser beam to carve square or hexagonal patterns onto tiny borosilicate glass sheets. The plates were then covered with thin layers of plastic and separated into individual tiles about one to four millimeters wide.

"Any glass scientist will tell you that shooting a powerful laser into a piece of glass is a bad idea because it will create defects and decrease strength," said Professor Barthelat. "However, our glass is a nice example where material removal and seemingly weakening processes actually makes the material much better!"

The modified glass was found to be two to three times stronger than tempered or laminated glass and 15 to 24 times stronger than plain <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/discarded-glass-concrete/">glass</a>. 

"The fabrication method we developed is relatively easy and scalable - one could make industrial volumes of this material very easily and at a reasonable cost," explained Professor Barthelat. 

The research team plans to experiment with a variety of designs using the new glass, such as thin sheets for touch screens. "We also want to develop versions of our nacre-glass that are bendable - a thin plate of this glass would flex to large deformations, and then recover without damage," said Professor Barthelat.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/otravva

A new type of glass was inspired by mollusk shells

Experts in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at McGill University...

When a wind farm’s turbines all face directly into the wind, it reduces efficiency and slows the energy generated from turbines.

The wind turbines act like a speed boat navigating through choppy waters, and the wake created from oncoming wind slows down turbines further back.

Researchers from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> have now discovered a better way to maximize wind farm efficiency and energy output without sacrificing turbines in the process. 

The team found that pointing turbines in a different direction and not having them face the wind, a method called wake-steering, it prevents interference and ensures that all turbines are operating at their maximum speeds.

A turbine wake can reduce downwind generators by more than 40 percent.  

“To meet global targets for renewable energy generation, we need to find ways to generate a lot more energy from existing wind farms,” said John Dabiri, the senior author of the paper. “The traditional focus has been on the performance of individual turbines in a wind farm, but we need to instead start thinking about the farm as a whole, and not just as the sum of its parts.”

The researchers developed a way to calculate and test misalignment of wind turbines and tried out these methods on a wind farm in Alberta for ten days. 

By using wake steering, the power output of the wind farm increased by 47 percent when wind speeds were low and by up to 14 percent when wind speeds were average. 

“Through wake steering, the front turbine produced less power as we expected,” said Michael Howland, lead author on the study. “But we found that because of decreased wake effects, the downstream turbines generated significantly more power.

The new method also decreased variability for the wind farm, meaning it reduced the farm’s dependence on other energy sources when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happens-to-wind-power-when-theres-no-wind/">wind speeds were too low</a> for the turbines to operate. 

One of the struggles faced by wind farms is the need to match the amount of electricity supplied to a region to keep the grid reliable. If turbine wake suddenly decreases energy output for a short period, it may not be enough time to fire up a generator to match output and energy is lost. 

With wake steering, the variability of power sources was cut by 72 percent. 

The researchers also found that their method decreased operating costs by eliminating the need for frequent and costly repairs. 

While the researchers were able to test their strategy in a field setting for ten days, the model they developed can be used by farms in different locations to see if misalignment might help improve efficiency and lower variability. 

“Our model is essentially plug-and-play because it can use the site-specific data on wind farm performance,” said Howland. “Different farm locations will be able to use the model and continuously adjust their turbine angles based on wind conditions.” 

The researchers published their findings in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/chaiviewfinder

New method helps improve wind farm efficiency

When a wind farm’s turbines all face directly into the...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/">University of Rochester</a> are shedding new light on the brain process which allows us to visually detect and separate moving objects from moving backgrounds. 

The team found that when the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-brain-learning/">brain</a> becomes desensitized to the motion in the larger background, it is easier to distinguish smaller objects moving in the foreground. On the other hand, the brain is less receptive to these smaller objects when it is more sensitive to background motion.

"The human brain cannot possibly process all of the information around us," said study lead author Professor Duje Tadin. "Being less sensitive to things that are less important makes the brain more efficient and faster at accomplishing the more important tasks."

According to the study, the brain can enhance the objects that are the most important, such as pedestrians moving on a busy street, or it can suppress the background to produce the same results. 

Professor Tadin explained that the latter is the more efficient option. 

"Think about trying to have a conversation in a room with high background noise. It is more effective to find a way to turn off the noise than it is to just try speaking more loudly."

When study participants were tested using moving textured patterns, the researchers found that younger adults were better at seeing smaller moving objects in the foreground and worse at seeing background motion. The participants aged 65 and above, however, were found to have a heightened awareness of the backdrop and were not as good at seeing the smaller objects.

The younger adults took an average of 20 milliseconds to pick out the moving objects, while older adults took about 30 milliseconds. 

"Those extra milliseconds could make a big difference," said study co-author Woon Ju Park. "Think about things that matter for your survival." 

Park explained that for an animal in the wild, a split second could mean life or death. 

"If it sees a moving object, that could either be lunch for the animal or something that could eat that animal for lunch. Animals are really good at camouflage, but even the best camouflage pulls apart with motion."

The researchers found that the brains of older adults can be trained to process motion more like young adults by practicing visual segmentation of moving objects. With training, the older participants became less sensitive to the background motion.

"Most of the time when you train something in the brain, things get better," said Professor Tadin. "This is a case where, with training, you get better at seeing objects, while at the same time get worse at seeing the background. This showed us that these two things are really integrally connected, because when we affected one, the other one also changed."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock

How we’re able to discern moving objects against moving backgrounds

Researchers at the University of Rochester are shedding new light...

A team of researchers have identified mechanisms within the human brain that may explain the “Uncanny Valley,” the phenomenon that causes some more than others to feel unsettled by <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/robots-autonomous-vehicles-blame-wrongdoing/">robots</a> and virtual agents that are too human-like. This discovery is published in the <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.

"Resembling the human shape or behavior can be both an advantage and a drawback," explained Professor Astrid Rosenthal-von der Pütten, Chair for Individual and Technology at <a href="http://www.rwth-aachen.de/cms/~a/root/?lidx=1">RWTH Aachen University</a>. "The likability of an artificial agent increases the more human-like it becomes, but only up to a point: sometimes people seem not to like it when the robot or computer graphic becomes too human-like."

The Uncanny Valley phenomenon was translated from a Japanese expression coined by robotics professor Masahiro Mori in 1978. Although the phenomenon is well known and documented, the mechanisms behind it were a mystery until now.

"For a neuroscientist, the Uncanny Valley is an interesting phenomenon," said Dr. Fabian Grabenhorst, a Sir Henry Dale Fellow and Lecturer in the Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>. "It implies a neural mechanism that first judges how close a given sensory input, such as the image of a robot, lies to the boundary of what we perceive as a human or non-human agent. This information would then be used by a separate valuation system to determine the agent's likability."

To see which mechanisms are responsible for the Uncanny Valley phenomenon, the team studied brain patterns in 21 healthy individuals during two separate tests, each of which used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which measures blood flow changes within the brain as a proxy for how active different regions are.

During the first test, the participants were asked to rate images of humans, artificial humans, android robots, humanoid robots and mechanoid robots, in terms of likability and human-likeness. And during the second test, participants were then asked which of these agents they would trust to purchase a personal gift for them. The research team found that participants generally preferred gifts from humans or from the more human-like artificial agents, but not those that were closest to the human/non-human boundary.

Having measured the participants’ brain activity during these two tests, the researchers could identify which areas of the brain caused the Uncanny Valley phenomenon and connected it to brain circuits that are crucial in processing and evaluating social cues, like facial expressions. They noted that some of the brain areas near the visual cortex deciphered how human-like the images were, and was able to create a spectrum of “human-likeness” based on the activity of the artificial agents. 

The team also found that the medial prefrontal cortex, the wall of neural tissue sandwiched between the left and right brain hemispheres, was also important in the Uncanny Valley phenomenon. The medial prefrontal cortex contains a generic valuation system that judges all kinds of stimuli, such as reward values and social stimulus like pleasant touch.

In this study, the medial prefrontal cortex worked in two separate parts to stimulate the Uncanny Valley — one area converted the human-likeness signal into a ”human detection” signal, which over-emphasized the line between human and non-human stimuli and reacted most strongly to human agents compared to artificial agents.

And the second part, called the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), meshed this signal with a likability evaluation to produce an activity pattern similar to the Uncanny Valley response.

"We were surprised to see that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex responded to artificial agents precisely in the manner predicted by the Uncanny Valley hypothesis, with stronger responses to more human-like agents but then showing a dip in activity close to the human/non-human boundary — the characteristic 'valley,’" Dr. Grabenhorst said.

Furthermore, the same areas in the brain signaled evaluations when participants decided whether or not to accept a gift from a robot. When participants rejected gifts from human-like artificial agents, the amygdala, a region of the brain responsible for emotional responses, was activated.

"We know that valuation signals in these brain regions can be changed through social experience,” Dr. Grabenhorst continued. “So, if you experience that an artificial agent makes the right choices for you — such as choosing the best gift — then your ventromedial prefrontal cortex might respond more favorably to this new social partner." This could have implications for how artificial intelligence is designed in the future.

"This is the first study to show individual differences in the strength of the Uncanny Valley effect, meaning that some individuals react overly and others less sensitively to human-like artificial agents," Professor Rosenthal-von der Pütten said. "This means there is no one robot design that fits — or scares — all users. In my view, smart robot behavior is of great importance, because users will abandon robots that do not prove to be smart and useful."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Phonlamai Photo

Uncanny Valley: Why some people feel so unsettled by robots

A team of researchers have identified mechanisms within the human...

On October 19, 2017, the first-ever interstellar object to pass through our solar system was spotted by the Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System 1 (PanSTARRS1) telescope, which is located at the University of Hawaii's Haleakala Observatory. 

The object, named Oumuamua, was particularly intriguing to experts because it exhibited features of both <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/americans-asteroid-protection-lunar-base/">asteroids</a> and comets. Telescopes on Earth had only a few short weeks to follow and capture images of the mysterious object.

The unusual characteristics of Oumuamua led some scientists to speculate that it was an alien spacecraft that was sent from a distant civilization to study our solar system. 

However, a new study co-led by Matthew Knight, a researcher in the Department of Astronomy at the <a href="https://www.umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a>, has concluded that Oumuamua was a naturally occurring object and not a spacecraft.

"We have never seen anything like Oumuamua in our solar system. It's really a mystery still," said Knight. "But our preference is to stick with analogs we know, unless or until we find something unique. The alien spacecraft hypothesis is a fun idea, but our analysis suggests there is a whole host of natural phenomena that could explain it."

Oumuamua was red in color with an elongated shape and moved in an odd spinning pattern. According to Knight, its motion through our solar system is especially puzzling. The object appeared to accelerate along its trajectory, yet astronomers could find no evidence of the gaseous emissions that are known to enable this acceleration.

"The motion of Oumuamua didn't simply follow gravity along a parabolic orbit as we would expect from an asteroid," said Knight. "But visually, it hasn't ever displayed any of the cometlike characteristics we'd expect. There is no discernable coma - the cloud of ice, dust and gas that surrounds active comets - nor a dust tail or gas jets."

The researchers considered a number of ways that Oumuamua could have escaped from its home system. For example, the object could have been ejected by a gas giant planet orbiting another star. The team believes that Oumuamua is the first of many interstellar visitors. 

"In the next 10 years, we expect to begin seeing more objects like Oumuamua," said Knight. "We may start seeing a new object every year. That's when we'll start to know whether Oumuamua is weird, or common. If we find 10-20 of these things and Oumuamua still looks unusual, we'll have to reexamine our explanations."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natastron/">Nature Astronomy</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser

Oumuamua was a natural object, not an alien spacecraft

On October 19, 2017, the first-ever interstellar object to pass...

Holocaust survivors lived through years of terror, loss, grief, starvation, illness and physical, mental and emotional pain under the Nazi regime.

A new study shows that the stress of surviving such deep trauma left permanent biological and psychological marks on survivors’ brain structure – changes that could even potentially be passed down to their children and grandchildren, researchers said.

"After more than 70 years the impact of surviving the Holocaust on brain function is significant. We revealed substantial differences in the brain structures involved in the processing of emotion, memory and social cognition, in higher level of stress but also of post-traumatic growth between Holocaust survivors and controls,” Dr. Ivan Rektor of <a href="https://www.muni.cz/en">Masaryk University</a> said in a press release. “Early results show this is also the case in children of survivors, too."

The study looked at the brain function of 56 people with an average age of 79 to 80 years old. Twenty-eight of the group were Holocaust survivors, while the other half served as controls. The Holocaust survivors had significantly less gray matter on average, with those who were under 12 at the time of the Holocaust showing the worst effects. This is despite the fact that many participants reported being satisfied with their personal and professional lives after tthe end of World War II.

Previous research has also shown that post-traumatic stress disorder – both in combat veterans and survivors of childhood trauma – can be linked to reduction of gray matter, the researchers noted.

The team is now looking at the brain function of the children and grandchildren of Holocaust survivors. Early results point toward reduced connectivity in areas of the brain that deal with emotions and processing memories. Researchers are moving ahead with further research to determine whether the brain function changes are the result of nature – a change in Holocaust survivors’ DNA that was passed down to their descendants – or nurture due to growing up in the home of a parent who had undergone significant trauma.

The study isn’t the first to find that the effects of trauma may be passed down through the generations. Research on soldiers in the U.S. Civil War found that the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/10/trauma-inherited-generations/573055/">sons of prisoners of war</a> – children born after the war ended and their fathers returned home – were much more likely to die young than sons of soldiers who had not been prisoners. The effect was more widespread among children of men who had been prisoners in 1863 and 1864, when conditions in prisons on both sides became drastically worse.

Another study found that children born during the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/31/science/dutch-famine-genes.html?module=inline">Dutch Hunger Winter</a> suffered physical effects that may have been passed down to their descendants.

"Our hope is that these findings and our ongoing research will allow us to understand more about the effect of these experiences in order to focus therapy to support survivors' and their descendants' resilience and growth,” Rektor said. “We may also reveal strategies that Holocaust survivors used to cope with trauma during their later lives and to pass on their experience to further generations.”

The study will be presented today at the <a href="https://www.ean.org/oslo2019/5th-Congress-of-the-European-Academy-of-Neurology-Oslo-2019.3649.0.html">5th European Academy of Neurology Congress</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Praszkiewicz / <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com">Shutterstock.com</a>

Trauma left biological mark on brains of Holocaust survivors

Holocaust survivors lived through years of terror, loss, grief, starvation,...

The good, the bad, and the memories: How the brain makes decisions. It was long theorized that the frontal cortex of the brain was the region where decisions are made. The orbital frontal cortex of the brain sits above the eye sockets and is considered the seat of higher-order thinking because of its role in the development of higher cognition processes. 

Calculations made in the frontal cortex were believed to influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-addiction-drugs/">decision making</a>. 

But now, researchers from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale</a> have identified not one but three distinct circuits that connect to different brain regions and which are responsible for good and bad decision-making. 

The study was published in the journal Neuron. 

Having a better understanding of how decisions are processed and stored in the brain could help researchers tackle addiction, which is characterized by flawed decision-making. 

“Specific decision-making computations are altered in individuals with mental illness,” said Jane Taylor, the senior author of the study. “Our results suggest that these impairments may be linked to dysfunction within distinct neural circuits.”

Although the researchers studied decision making in rats, the results apply to human decision-making. 

“Because we used a test that is equivalent to those used in studies of human decision- making, our findings have direct relevance to humans and could aid in the search for novel treatments for substance abuse in humans,” said Stephanie Groman, a lead author of the study. 

The researchers conducted tests with rats who were given a choice between performing an action and receiving a reward or not getting a reward. During these actions, the researchers manipulated the brain circuits of the rats and found that decision making was not isolated to the orbital frontal cortex. 

Instead, the researchers identified three brain circuits that connected the orbital frontal cortex to other regions in the brain. 

This complex circuitry was activated during decision making and was responsible for either good decisions, bad decisions, or deciding which past choices should be committed to memory. 

“There are at least three individual processes that combine in unique ways to help us to make good decisions,” said Groman. 

If the rats made the right decision, one that ended in a reward, one of the brain circuits were activated, but another was activated if the rat made the wrong choice and received no reward. The third circuit stored past experiences and decisions to help the rat with future choices. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit:Shutterstock/PopTika

The good, the bad, and the memories: How the brain makes decisions

The good, the bad, and the memories: How the brain...

In collaboration with researchers at <a href="https://in.bgu.ac.il/en/Pages/default.aspx">Ben-Gurion University</a> in Israel, experts at <a href="http://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a> have developed a tool to predict how the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbiome-promotes-healthier-aging/">gut microbiome</a> will change over time. 

The new computational modeling method uses snapshots of the microbial community found in an individual's gut to identify the various types of microbes present, which are indicative of future transformation.

The combination and amount of microbes in the gut is a strong indicator and contributor to a person's health. A better understanding of how this microbial community composition changes over time could provide key insights into health and disease. It is not yet clear, however, to what extent microbial composition at any given time influences future composition.

To investigate, the research team developed the Microbial community Temporal Variability Linear Mixed Model (MTV-LMM), which made it possible to observe temporal changes in the microbial composition of the gut. Testing revealed that MTV-LMM can predict such changes with more accuracy than existing models used for the same purpose.

Using MTV-LMM, the researchers were able to confirm that gut microbiome community composition can be accurately predicted based on earlier observations of the community in both infants and adults. Furthermore, when the model was applied to data from 39 infants, the team identified a key shift around the age of 9 months in how the gut microbiome changes over time.

"Our approach provides multiple methodological advancements, but this is still just the tip of the iceberg," said study co-author Liat Shenhav. "Modeling the temporal behavior of the microbiome is a fundamental scientific question, with potential applications in medicine and beyond."

The team will continue their work to further improve the prediction accuracy of the model and to explore additional applications. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Alpha Tauri 3D Graphics

New tool can predict changes in the composition of the gut microbiome

In collaboration with researchers at Ben-Gurion University in Israel, experts...

Mars may have been able to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-experiment-life-mars/">support life</a> far earlier than Earth, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-019-0380-0.epdf?referrer_access_token=jtLxYGtdiiEwMpp-v8eLgtRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0NqE6DHi19HY4jS6O-4qsom5JxVG2QDZPwe5u5RokWbYIU_xtd1E5KIAgVKG0MM2SnG0l8VOjcj46QnTvoExFMR-9NZ7iDf96PNE08wZZ_Fkqd9SBNIliQDbXXdcQh6vHU3Jt5mTUbu5srCafjSjFek-y1RDh40MF9r3uZJYlZHjUzzQCCmQm9GcK-H38rKPsLt4Ok8eNnvgl2FpDxIgl1BsqX1rEIP1tAGxnhotVo_ww%3D%3D&amp;tracking_referrer=www.dailymail.co.uk">Nature Geoscience</a>. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uwo.ca/">University of Western Ontario</a> discovered that a period known as the Late Heavy Bombardment, when the inner solar system was inundated with meteorite and asteroid impacts, ended earlier for Mars than previously realized. 

It was long thought that Mars was impacted by the Late Heavy Bombardment until 3.8 billion years ago. 

However, after analyzing meteorites from Mars’ southern Highlands that were knocked into space and crashed into Earth, the researchers found that Mars stopped being hit by comets and asteroids 4.48 billion years ago. 

This would have made it possible for life to develop between 4.2 and 3.5 billion years ago, 500 million years before life began to flourish on Earth. 

The researchers analyzed zircon and baddeleyite grains in the meteorites. Only 120 known specimens from Mars’s crust that fell to Earth are known to exist. 

By dating the zircon, the researchers were able to more accurately estimate when the Late Heavy Bombardment ceased for Mars as zircon contains decaying radioactive uranium. 

The meteorites can also show signs of exposure to high pressure indicative of a major impact, but the researchers found that the samples were formed after the Late Heavy Bombardment. 

“We found none of these bombardment signatures in the Mars zircon and baddeleyite grains,” Desmond Moser, the lead author of the study, told <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2207355-mars-meteorite-assault-stopped-500-million-years-earlier-than-thought/">New Scientist</a>. “We know there was a giant impact on Mars, but it has to be older than 4.48 billion years ago.“The implication is that there could have been platform hosting life as much as half a billion years earlier than previously thought it was possible in the inner solar system.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Dotted Yeti

Mars may have been able to support life long before Earth

Mars may have been able to support life far earlier...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...