The ESA-led Solar Orbiter mission is currently observing and studying the Sun with six different imaging instruments, allowing the spacecraft to peel away the Sun's many layers and reveal its diverse faces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-resolution-views-of-the-sun">High-resolution views of the Sun</h2>



Recently, the mission released the highest-resolution full views to date of the Sun's visible surface, known as the photosphere.&nbsp;



The images were assembled from data captured by the spacecraft's Polarimetric and Helioseismic Imager (PHI).&nbsp;



This instrument not only photographs the Sun in visible light but also measures the direction of the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Forigin-of-the-suns-magnetic-field-discovered-after-400-years%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a> and maps the speed and direction in which different parts of the surface are moving.



PHI's measurements of the photosphere can be directly compared to a new image of the Sun's outer atmosphere, the corona.&nbsp;



This image is essentially a mosaic assembled from high-resolution images taken by the Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (EUI) instrument on the same day in March 2023. The EUI captures images of the Sun in ultraviolet light.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="wWscNjX6hZ-4055472-12187" type="single"]</div>



Daniel Müller, Solar Orbiter's Project Scientist, noted that the Sun's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-dynamo-sun-magnetic-field-origin-generated-near-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a> is key to understanding the dynamic nature of our home star from the smallest to the largest scales.&nbsp;



“These new high-resolution maps from Solar Orbiter's PHI instrument show the beauty of the Sun's surface magnetic field and flows in great detail,” said Miller.



“At the same time, they are crucial for inferring the magnetic field in the Sun's hot corona, which our EUI instrument is imaging.”&nbsp;



The image release builds upon one from two years ago when the mission shared full images of the Sun taken by the spacecraft's EUI and Spectral Imaging of the Coronal Environment (SPICE) instruments on March 7, 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunspots-and-a-chaotic-magnetic-field">Sunspots and a chaotic magnetic field</h2>



Zooming into PHI's detailed visible light images reveals the Sun's “surface” for what it truly is: a constantly moving layer of glowing, hot plasma (charged gas). 



This layer emits almost all the Sun's radiation and has a temperature between 4,500 and 6,000°C. 



Beneath it lies the convection zone, where hot, dense plasma churns similarly to magma in Earth's mantle. This turbulent movement gives the Sun's surface its grainy appearance.



The most striking features in the images are the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-solar-cycle-25-highest-number-sunspots-activity-seen-since-2001/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspots</a>. In the visible light images, these appear as dark spots or holes on the otherwise smooth surface. Sunspots are cooler than their surroundings, emitting less light as a result.



PHI's magnetic map, or “magnetogram," shows that the Sun's magnetic field is concentrated in the sunspot regions, pointing either outward (red) or inward (blue) where the sunspots lie.&nbsp;



The strong magnetic field explains why plasma inside sunspots is cooler. Normally, convection moves heat from inside the Sun to its surface, but this process is disrupted as charged particles are forced to follow the dense magnetic field lines in and around the sunspots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-movement-on-the-surface">Mapping movement on the surface</h2>



The speed and direction of material movement on the Sun's surface are displayed in PHI's velocity map, also known as a “tachogram.”&nbsp;



In this map, blue indicates movement toward the spacecraft, while red signifies movement away. The map reveals that while the plasma on the Sun's surface generally rotates with the Sun's overall spin around its axis, it is pushed outward around the sunspots.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Solar-Orbiter_3-views-of-Sun_lenses_ESA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Solar-Orbiter_3-views-of-Sun_lenses_ESA_1s.webp" alt="The three views of the Sun's surface shown here are based on measurements taken on March 22, 2023 by the ESA-led Solar Orbiter mission. From left to right, you see the Sun in visible light, a magnetic map of the Sun, and a map of the line-of-sight speed and direction of movement of material at the Sun's visible surface. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1951400"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The three views of the Sun's surface shown here are based on measurements taken on March 22, 2023 by the ESA-led Solar Orbiter mission. From left to right, you see the Sun in visible light, a magnetic map of the Sun, and a map of the line-of-sight speed and direction of movement of material at the Sun's visible surface. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



Finally, EUI's image of the Sun's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-the-suns-corona-hotter-than-its-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corona</a> shows what happens above the photosphere. Above the active sunspot regions, glowing plasma protrudes outward. 



This million-degree plasma follows magnetic field lines extending from the Sun, often connecting neighboring sunspots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-the-sun-s-mosaic">Piecing together the Sun's mosaic</h2>



The images were captured when the Solar Orbiter was less than 74 million kilometers from the Sun.&nbsp;



Being so close meant that each high-resolution image taken by PHI and EUI covered only a small portion of the Sun. To image the entire face, the spacecraft had to be tilted and rotated after each individual image was taken.



To create the full-disc images presented, all individual images were stitched together like a mosaic. Both the PHI and EUI mosaics consist of 25 images each, captured over more than four hours.&nbsp;



The resulting mosaics have a diameter of nearly 8,000 pixels, revealing an astonishing amount of detail.



The image processing required to produce the PHI mosaics was new and challenging. 



Now that it has been accomplished once, future data processing and mosaic assembly will be faster. The PHI team expects to provide such high-resolution mosaics twice a year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-our-understanding-of-the-sun">Advancing our understanding of the Sun</h2>



The new images not only showcase the beauty of our star but also enhance our understanding of its complex magnetic fields and dynamic processes.&nbsp;



By comparing data from different instruments, scientists can gain deeper insights into how the Sun's magnetic field influences phenomena from the smallest to the largest scales.



With continued efforts from missions like Solar Orbiter, we are peeling back the layers of the Sun to better comprehend its impact on our Solar System.



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Solar Orbiter spacecraft sees the Sun through three different lenses

The ESA-led Solar Orbiter mission is currently observing and studying the Sun with six different imaging instruments, allowing the spacecraft to peel away the Sun's many layers and reveal its diverse faces. High-resolution views of the Sun Recently, the mission released the highest-resolution full views to date of the Sun's visible surface, known as the photosphere.&nbsp; The images were assembled from data captured by the spacecraft's Polarimetric and Helioseismic Imager (PHI).&nbsp; This instrument not only photographs the Sun in visible light but also measures the direction of...

New model can predict paths of particles emitted after geological disasters. Researchers working with the <a href="https://www.aip.org/">American Institute of Physics</a> have constructed a model drawing on chaos theory to help predict how particles move through the atmosphere after being emitted from a large geological event like a volcanic eruption or industrial accident. The hope is that by understanding how these particles travel, the model could be used to combat <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/solar-geoengineering-climate-change/">climate change</a>.

Researcher Tímea Haszpra used available wind data to develop the model, which follows air particles as they move around the globe. She was then able to generate maps using this information to predict how particles from specific events could be dispersed within the atmosphere. New model can predict paths of particles emitted after geological disasters

"One of the most surprising parts of the research is the wide range of individual lifetimes," she said. "Lifetimes ranged from about two to 150 days for typical volcanic ash particles. More than 10% of smaller particles survive in the atmosphere as much as one year, and more than 1% survive two years."

When moving about the atmosphere, a chaotic particle’s motion is fractal, and is governed by a “chaotic saddle.” When mapped out, the paths of each particle show properties that are united by the changes in atmospheric flow, like sitting on the saddle, before they fall off the saddle and touch down on Earth.

[caption id="attachment_1875270" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/map.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875270" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/map.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="534" /></a> Geographical distribution of the lifetime tau of particles, Image Credit: Tímea Haszpra[/caption]

Particles usually stay in the air for about a month before falling. However, Haszpra found that some particles in one area of a map could stay in the atmosphere up to 10 times longer as nearby particles. The lifetimes depend on seasons.

Haszpra also found that particles coming from locations around the equator remain in the atmosphere for the longest period of time. In fact, particles smaller than one micron could stay within the atmosphere for years before falling.

These findings, <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/1.5110385">published in Chaos</a>, could potentially inform future efforts that have been priorly suggested to use sun-reflecting air particles to counteract climate change. Haszpra plans to expand on these findings to incorporate historical meteorological data and climate models to better understand how particle dispersion could change depending on the changing climate.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/LukaKikina

New model can predict paths of particles emitted after geological disasters

New model can predict paths of particles emitted after geological...

A team of researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>, <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Lab</a>, and the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a> believe silica aerogel may be the key material that could make the surface of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mars-support-life-earth/">Mars</a> habitable for Earthlings. 

Because silica aerogel mimics Earth’s greenhouse gas effect, which could therefore increase Mars’ atmospheric pressure to Earth-like levels, the researchers believe this one material could make life on Mars possible.

In fact, through modelling and experiments, the team found that a two- to three-centimeter-thick shield of silica aerogel could filter enough visible light photosynthesis while blocking harmful ultraviolet radiation. This shield would also raise temperatures above the melting point of water without the need for an internal heat source.

These findings are published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/natastron/">Nature Astronomy</a>.

"This regional approach to making Mars habitable is much more achievable than global atmospheric modification," said Robin Wordsworth, Assistant Professor of Environmental Science and Engineering at the <a href="https://www.seas.harvard.edu/">Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences</a> (SEAS) and the <a href="https://eps.harvard.edu/">Department of Earth and Planetary Science</a>. "Unlike the previous ideas to make Mars habitable, this is something that can be developed and tested systematically with materials and technology we already have."

"Mars is the most habitable planet in our Solar System besides Earth," added Laura Kerber, Research Scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "But it remains a hostile world for many kinds of life. A system for creating small islands of habitability would allow us to transform Mars in a controlled and scalable way."

The research team decided to draw inspiration from a phenomenon that already occurs on the surface of Mars. The planet’s polar ice caps are a mix of frozen water and CO2. Even when frozen, CO2 allows sunlight to penetrate and traps its heat under the surface. Then, in the summer, the greenhouse effect causes pockets of warming under the icy surface.

"We started thinking about this solid-state greenhouse effect and how it could be invoked for creating habitable environments on Mars in the future," said Wordsworth. "We started thinking about what kind of materials could minimize thermal conductivity but still transmit as much light as possible." They decided to test out silica aerogel, which is 97% porous, meaning light can penetrate the material, but heat is trapped underneath.

"Silica aerogel is a promising material because its effect is passive," said Kerber. "It wouldn't require large amounts of energy or maintenance of moving parts to keep an area warm over long periods of time."

"Spread across a large enough area, you wouldn't need any other technology or physics, you would just need a layer of this stuff on the surface and underneath you would have permanent liquid water," said Wordsworth.

The researchers posit that the material could be used to build habitation domes or self-contained biospheres on the surface of Mars. They plan to test silica aerogel in Mars-like climates on Earth, like in Antarctica or Chile.

Even with this discovery, the ethics surrounding the colonization of Mars raises philosophical and ethical questions about planetary protection, Wordsworth said.

"If you're going to enable life on the Martian surface, are you sure that there's not life there already? If there is, how do we navigate that," asked Wordsworth. "The moment we decide to commit to having humans on Mars, these questions are inevitable."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Harvard SEAS

How silica aerogel could help make Mars habitable

A team of researchers from Harvard University, NASA’s Jet Propulsion...

A stone quarry in Brazil unearthed a breathtaking find: a fossilized lily that grew about 115 million years ago, complete with roots and a flower.

The fossil is so well-preserved it still has individual cells. Researchers believe it grew alongside a freshwater lake near the area that is now Crato, Brazil. 

Plants first evolved around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-first-covering-earth/">520 million years ago</a>, with angiosperms – flowering plants – first cropping up 140 million years ago. That means the fossilized lily would have been from one of the first species of flowers to evolve – dubbed Cratolirion bognerianum by researchers. 

"It is probable that flowering plants originated in the tropics, but only very few fossils have been described to date," said Dr. Clement Coiffard of the <a href="https://www.museumfuernaturkunde.berlin/en/">Museum für Naturkunde</a> in Berlin, who discovered the fossil in the museum’s research collections.

The fossilized lily is more than 15 inches long, and features narrow, parallel-veined leaves, triple flowers and fibrous roots. However, the stone that encases the fossil has iron oxides, making examining the ancient flower difficult.

Coiffard teamed up with Dr. Nikolay Kardjilov, an expert in 3-D analysis of X-ray imaging and neutrons. The pair ran numerous scans, including colorized CT scans, to analyze the fossil without disturbing it any more than necessary. 

Cratolirion bognerianum is not the first ancient plant recovered from the Crato area, though it’s among the oldest. The long-gone ancient lake was home to a diverse selection of plant life – plants that scientists don’t normally have much information about, due to poor preservation in the tropics.

“The Crato plattenkalk limestone offers a unique window into the Early Cretaceous vegetation of the tropics and has already yielded monocot fossils,” Coiffard, Kardjilov and their team wrote in a paper describing the fossilized lily. Their research has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-019-0468-y">Nature Plants</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: <a href="https://www.museumfuernaturkunde.berlin/en/">Museum für Naturkunde Berlin</a>

Fossilized lily grew 115 million years ago in Brazil

A stone quarry in Brazil unearthed a breathtaking find: a...

The Montana Supreme Court is currently <a href="https://www.eenews.net/greenwire/2019/07/08/stories/1060685731">deciding a lawsuit</a> that could leave the matter of ownership of many famous museum fossil collections up for debate. 

It all started with a goldmine of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-fossils/">dinosaur fossils</a>, the Hell Creek Formation, which spans parts of Montana, the Dakotas, and Wyoming. The Hell Creek Formation is rich with fossil deposits, and some of the greatest dinosaur discoveries in the world have been dug up there. 

In 2006, an amateur fossil hunter unearthed a “spike cluster” of fossils on a tract of land in Garfield County, Montana, and within that cluster were two intact fossils of a pair of dinosaurs that appeared to be locked in battle. 

This fossil is now known as the “Dueling Dinosaurs” and provides one of the most detailed looks at a predator-prey interaction between dinosaurs to date. 

But now, the matter of who owns one of the most important fossil finds of the century is being decided by the Supreme Court after a 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that fossils were minerals. 

Fossils were previously considered part of the surface rights, separate from the land’s mineral rights. But if the Supreme Court rules in favor the Circuit Court of Appeals, it could completely upend the how paleontologists conduct excavations and lead to more ownership lawsuits. 

The land in Garfield County was initially owned by George Severson who leased his land to Mary Ann and Lige Murray. The Murrays acquired ownership of the surface rights to the property in 2005, but the Seversons kept the mineral rights. 

It was the Murrays who owned to the surface rights when the Dueling Dinosaurs were discovered. Since then other remarkable finds have been found in the area including a complete T. rex which the Murrays wanted to sell to a Dutch Museum. 

The fossils are worth millions and the Seversons filed a lawsuit to declare ownership of all the fossils found on the property even though they didn’t have the surface rights. 

The Circuit Court ruled in favor of the Seversons after which the paleontological community was sent into a frenzy to appeal the decision. 

The Supreme Court will likely decide in favor of the Murrays, but there is still uncertainty about where the Court stands in this major lawsuit. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Tim Evanson/Flickr

Court to decide the fate of iconic dinosaur fossils in ownership dispute

The Montana Supreme Court is currently deciding a lawsuit that...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www1.chester.ac.uk/">University of Chester</a> have found a way to convert unrecyclable plastic waste like food packaging and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-waste-fuel-car/">beach litter</a> into electricity that could one-day power plants, homes, and entire power grids. 

The new method offers a potential solution to the world’s plastic crisis and could reduce the amount of plastic waste in the environment. Already, countries like Japan, China, and India have expressed interest in the technology, and there are plans to roll plants out across Asia soon. 

What’s especially innovative about the Waste2Tricity process is that it doesn’t require cleaning or sorting and can convert mixed plastic waste into electricity and hydrogen.

The method was developed by researchers from the University of Chester in collaboration with <a href="https://www.powerhouseenergy.net/">PowerHouse Energy</a>. The ultimate goal is to leave no plastic behind and take the world’s unrecyclable plastic and convert it into green fuel and power. 

First, the plastic waste is cut into two-inch strips and melted together in a kiln. As the plastics are melted, the gases produced during this process are converted into energy. 

“The technology converts all plastic waste into high quality, low carbon hydrogen syngas which can then be used to power gas engines,” said Professor Joe Howe, Executive Director of the Thornton Energy Research Institute at the University of Chester. “A by-product of this process is electricity, meaning waste plastic can not only fuel cars but can also keep the lights on at home. Surely the world must wake up to this technology.” 

[caption id="attachment_1875132" align="aligncenter" width="634"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/method.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1875132" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/method.jpg" alt="" width="634" height="406" /></a> Image Credit: James Speakman/Mercury Press[/caption]

The researchers have been testing out the method for two years, and the next step is to try and power a 54-acre plant, 7,000 houses in a single day, and 7,000 hydrogen cars. 

Once proven successful, the technology will be used in Asia. <a href="http://www.waste2tricity.com/">Waste2Tricity</a> has the exclusive license to develop its plastic-electricity process in the UK, Japan, and China among other countries. 

As more countries follow suit, the innovative technology could aid in reducing the world’s plastic pollution and bring an end to the plastic pollution crisis while offering fuel and power in its stead. 

“The team at the University of Chester has helped us develop this technology, which will soon be ready for a large scale roll-out to eliminate the bulk of ocean plastics and make low cost and low carbon dioxide hydrogen the go-to fuel for the future,” said Howard White, the deputy chairman of Waste2Tricity.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: James Speakman/Mercury Press

New method turns unrecyclable plastic into electricity

Researchers from the University of Chester have found a way...

Plants that diverged 400 million of years ago share the same pathogen defense. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> have discovered that two plants which have not shared a common ancestor in 400 million years still use the same defense against Phytophthora palmivora, an aggressive <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/human-linked-pathogens-antarctica/">pathogen</a> that causes serious disease.

The comparative analysis was focused on the common liverwort Marchantia polymorpha and the flowering plant Nicotiana benthamiana, or wild tobacco. 

By studying how these plants respond to pathogen infections, the researchers have identified a group of microbe-responsive gene families that date back to the early evolution of terrestrial plants. The identification of these long-conserved genes will give experts a better understanding of the strategies that facilitated the movement of plants onto land.

"We have shown that molecular responses to pathogen infection typical of modern flowering plants are common to very distantly-related land plants and may therefore be more ancient than we previously thought," said study co-author Dr.  Sebastian Schornack. "Despite fluctuating environmental pressures over a broad evolutionary timescale, these conserved genes have retained their capacity to confer pathogen protection in plants, including in important agricultural crops." Plants that diverged 400 million of years ago share the same pathogen defense

Bioinformatics expert Dr. Anna Gogleva identified a subset of one-to-one corresponding genes in the liverwort and wild tobacco and analyzed their response to infection. While a number of different genes were activated in both plants, one particular set of metabolic genes was found to be highly activated.

These genes have been previously linked to stress-response in flowering plants, but this was the first time that they were functionally linked to pathogen defense in liverworts.

"Pathogen zoospores germinate on the surface of liverworts and eventually colonise the liverwort tissues, but in some areas we saw an accumulation of a purple/red pigment in the liverwort tissues where the pathogen was rarely detected," said lead author Dr. Philip Carella.

"We produced liverwort plants with mosaic pigment patterns - resembling military camouflage fatigues - that allowed us to compare pathogen resistance in pigmented and non-pigmented areas of the same plant and found the pigment provided some resistance to pathogen infection."

After millions of years of evolution, modern plants and animals have inherited a remarkable amount of diverse traits which enable them to survive in dynamic environments all over the world. 

"The conflict between organisms can be a very powerful selective pressure that guides their evolutionary trajectory," said Dr. Schornack. "Genes involved in fighting specific pathogens can evolve rapidly - both in plants and animals. But we have also now found these broadly-conserved genes responding to pathogen infection in very distantly-related plants, which suggests that land plants have retained a likely ancient pathogen deterrence strategy that is much too useful to lose.

"Fossil evidence shows that plants have engaged in close-interactions with microbial life forms throughout their evolutionary history. Our research has uncovered a common set of pathogen-responsive genes shared in early-divergent land plants and more evolutionarily young flowering plants, which are all likely to have been critical for the expansion of plants onto land. Further comparative studies focusing on other distantly related land plants and their aquatic algal predecessors should reveal even more information about the evolution and role of these vital gene families."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants that diverged 400 million of years ago share the same pathogen defense

Plants that diverged 400 million of years ago share the...

Area of the brain that controls spatial awareness is also linked to decisions. Neuroscientists from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a> have found that the area of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-brain-learning/">brain</a> responsible for planning movements and spatial awareness, known as the posterior parietal cortex (PPC), also plays a major role in decision making, specifically deciding what images should be in the field of view. Their findings are published in <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/jrnls/sci/">Science</a>.

"Traditionally this part of the brain has been thought to be involved in controlling spatial attention and planning actions. There has been less attention paid to how much of a role this brain area plays in processing the visual stimuli themselves," said senior author David Freedman, PhD, professor of neuroscience at UChicago. "Here we were able to show that it plays an important role in making sense of the things we see, perhaps even more so than its role in planning your next action or directing your attention."

Freedman and his colleague Yang Zhou, PhD, a postdoctoral researcher, made this discovery after training monkeys to play a computer game and report their decisions about different images displayed on the monitor. They would do so by moving their eyes to a designated target near the monitors. So, if the monkeys were shown a pattern of dots moving upwards and to the left, they would move their eyes toward a green spot. If the dots moved in the opposite direction, the monkeys would direct their eyes to a red spot.

Freedman and Zhou wanted to see if the lateral intraparietal area (LIP), a specific area of the PPC, was involved in making these decisions. To do so, they gave the monkeys a drug that halted neural activity in the LIP and then had them play the computer game. The researchers saw that their decision-making about visual patterns was impaired while on the drug.

"All the neuronal data we examined in our past experiments gave us the impression that this area of the brain was involved in processing the meaning of visual images during decision making," Freedman said. "Now we find that indeed, when we temporarily shut the activity down in that part of the brain it really does affect the sensory parts of decisions."

Knowing what they do now, Freedman believes their findings could help neuroscientists rethink the brain mechanisms involved in decision-making, visual categorization, and sensory and motor processing, as well as lead to a better understanding of how the brain interprets visuals in order to make decisions. 

"These results show that the brain's parietal cortex is an important hub for guiding decisions, so now we're even more motivated to move ahead and try to work out the details of neural circuits in this part of the brain that actually carry out these cognitive functions," Freedman said.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Andrus Ciprian

Area of the brain that controls spatial awareness is also linked to decisions

Area of the brain that controls spatial awareness is also...

AI can beat top poker professionals in a six-player game. Supercomputers and artificial intelligence (AI) programs have helped crack codes, identify a lost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-previously-unknown-human-ancestor/">ancestor of humans</a>, and beat chess grandmasters. 

Games have often served as a way to test, challenge, or measure progress for artificial intelligence, but most of the games used in research involve two players. 

In a historic first, researchers from <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/">Carnegie Mellon University</a> have developed an AI capable of beating six players in a game of Texas hold’em. 

A study detailing the new milestone was published in the journal <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2019/07/10/science.aay2400">Science.</a> 

Texas hold’em is one of the most popular poker games played today, but with so many players and so many different potential actions in the game, the researchers had their work cut out for them. 

To help reduce the number of different decisions the AI could make, the researchers created a program called Pluribus that first learned the ins and outs of the game by playing against copies of itself. 

This self-play strategy made up the blueprint or core of the program, and Pluribus learned to excel at the game without any prior data input from humans. 

The researchers used an approach called information abstraction and action abstraction to help reduce the number of actions Pluribus could take, and after mastering the game against itself, Pluribus was pitted against five top professional poker players. 

In 10,000 hands of poker, Pluribus outperformed both its copies and the human players, which is a considerable milestone in AI technology. 

“Pluribus’s success shows that despite the lack of known strong theoretical guarantees on performance in multiplayer games, there are large-scale, complex multiplayer imperfect-information settings in which a carefully constructed self-play-with-search algorithm can produce superhuman strategies,” the researchers conclude in their study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Syda Productions

AI can beat top poker professionals in a six-player game

AI can beat top poker professionals in a six-player game....

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> have found a way to coil contrasting materials together to create a lightweight and durable fiber that pulls and contracts like muscles. 

This mechanism could be used to replace artificial muscles made of heavy, slow-responding hydraulic systems and motors in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wearable-color-changing-electronic-skin/">prosthetic limbs</a> and robots.

By coiling together two materials with different rates of thermal expansion, a stretchy cyclic copolymer elastomer and a stiffer thermoplastic polyethylene, the researchers created a single fiber that contracted and coiled after being stretched. 

The coiling and pulling action was possible because one of the fibers had a faster expansion rate, meaning that when the material was heated up, it expanded more quickly. 

Where one of the polymers wants to expand, it’s held back by the other material causing it to coil up tightly like the tendrils of a cucumber that help pull the plant up out of the ground. 

When the newly-created coil was picked up by one of the researchers, the warmth of their hands caused the fibers to curl up even more. 

A slight increase, even one degree Celsius in temperature, caused the coil to tighten. When the temperature decreased, the coil resumed its original length. 

Even after 10,000 tries, the coil kept its shape and was able to contract and relax without any problems. 

The new fiber mechanism has many exciting implications and can range from a few micrometers in width to a few millimeters. The fibers could measure hundreds of meters long, and a single fiber is able to lift 650 times its own weight. 

Some prosthetic limbs weigh as much as 30 pounds, but having a lightweight and fast responding alternative to those cumbersome systems could revolutionize prosthetics and robotics. 

The findings were published in the journal Science. 

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Minerva Studio

Tightly coiled fibers could be used as artificial muscles in prosthetic limbs

Researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have found a...

A team of scientists led by Pietro Milillo of the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> has developed a new method which utilizes <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/total-eclipse-over-south-america/">satellite data</a> to detect structural changes that indicate when bridges are becoming unsafe. According to the experts, the changes are so subtle that they are not visible to the human eye. 

The number of bridges that are aging can exceed the resources that are available for their repair. But now, the new technique from NASA may soon give infrastructure managers a way to prioritize reconstruction efforts by quickly identifying the structures that are at the highest risk of failure.

In August of 2018, the collapse of the Morandi Bridge near Genoa, Italy, killed dozens of people. Experts from NASA, the University of Bath, and the Italian Space Agency used synthetic aperture radar (SAR) measurements from satellites to map structural changes to the bridge from 2003 up until the time of its collapse. 

[caption id="attachment_1875075" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/bridge.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875075" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/bridge.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="377" /></a> Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Google[/caption]

This strategy allowed the team to detect millimeter-size changes over time that would not have been detected using current methods. The researchers pinpointed small signs of damage in the deck next to the bridge's collapsed pier as early as 2015. The team also noted signs that several parts of the bridge had become structurally unsound between March 2017 and August 2018.

"This is about developing a new technique that can assist in the characterization of the health of bridges and other infrastructure," said Millilo. "We couldn't have forecasted this particular collapse because standard assessment techniques available at the time couldn't detect what we can see now. But going forward, this technique, combined with techniques already in use, has the potential to do a lot of good."

"We can't solve the entire problem of structural safety, but we can add a new tool to the standard procedures to better support maintenance considerations."

The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) will be launched in early 2022.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: maudanros / Shutterstock

NASA satellites can detect structural changes in bridges before it’s too late

A team of scientists led by Pietro Milillo of the...

A team of paleontologists led by Professor Jingmai O'Connor of the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> has discovered a nearly complete lizard preserved in the stomach of a microraptor. The specimen is unlike any other lizard observed from the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-millipede-species-cretaceous-period/">Cretaceous Period</a> and represents a previously unknown species that is now called Indrasaurus wangi.

The name Indrasaurus was inspired by a Vedic legend in which the god Indra was swallowed by a dragon during a great battle. The lizard was also named after Professor Yuan Wang, who is the director of the Paleozoological Museum of China.

The study was based on the most extensive phylogenetic analysis of Cretaceous lizards ever conducted. The results showed that all known species from this time were more closely related to each other than to any modern lineage. 

I. wangi was found to have teeth that were different from other lizards of the Cretaceous, which indicates that it had a unique diet.

[caption id="attachment_1875061" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/lizard.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875061" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/lizard.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="516" /></a> New lizard species, Image Credit: Jingmai O'Connor[/caption]

This is the fourth time a Microraptor has been uncovered with its stomach contents preserved. Collectively, these contents confirm the idea that the dinosaur was an opportunistic predator, feeding on mammals, birds, fish, and lizards. 

The research also provides evidence that Microraptors fed on their prey like carnivorous birds and lizards do today, as seen in the nearly complete lizard that was swallowed whole and head first.

The Jurassic troodontid Anchiornis has been recently demonstrated to have secreted pellets similar to modern birds like owls. The fact that Microrapter did not have this ability supports the theory that the evolutionary transition from dinosaur to bird was characterized by homoplasy, which is when numerous traits independently evolve multiple times within closely related groups.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Doyle Trankina

Lizard found almost fully preserved in the stomach of a microraptor

A team of paleontologists led by Professor Jingmai O'Connor of...

Neuroscience researchers from the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/">University of Southern California</a> have identified a new purpose for ghrelin, the “hunger hormone.” It’s understood that ghrelin, which is produced in the stomach and secreted in anticipation of eating, sends hunger signals from the gut to the brain, but now researchers believe that it may also help with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-mouse-blood-improved-memory-learning/">memory</a> control.

As lead author Dr. Elizabeth Davis explained at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.ssib.org/web/">Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior</a>, ghrelin levels are usually high when a person knows they’re going to eat something soon. After it’s secreted, ghrelin binds to receptors on the vagus nerve, which communicates different signals from the gut to the brain.

"We recently discovered that in addition to influencing the amount of food consumed during a meal, the vagus nerve also influences memory function," said senior author Dr. Scott Kanoski. 

The research team hypothesized that ghrelin is a key molecule that aids the vagus nerve’s promotion of memory.

To test this theory, the team used a technique called RNA interference to block ghrelin signaling in lab rats. These rats were then given a series of memory tasks, including tests of episodic memory — that being a type of memory that involves remembering what, when, and where something happened. For the rats, this test meant remembering a specific object in a specific location. The rats with reduced vagal ghrelin signaling where greatly impaired during this test.

Furthermore, the team found that the lack of ghrelin signal to the vagus nerve meant that the animals ate more frequently, yet consumed less at each feeding, which could be linked to episodic memory issues.

"Deciding to eat or not to eat is influenced by the memory of the previous meal," Dr. Davis said. "Ghrelin signaling to the vagus nerve may be a shared molecular link between remembering a past meal and the hunger signals that are generated in anticipation of the next meal."

These findings could help researchers develop methods for improving memory ability in humans via the manipulation of ghrelin signaling from the gut to the brain.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Yurchanka Siarhei

This hunger hormone is also linked to memory control

Neuroscience researchers from the University of Southern California have identified...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...