Spaghetti, a word that evokes thoughts of delicious Italian cuisine and hearty meals, has taken on an entirely new meaning in the realm of science.



Imagine strands so impossibly thin they are 200 times slimmer than a human hair -- not destined for marinara sauce but poised to revolutionize fields as diverse as medicine and advanced materials science.



Recently, a team of scientists from University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>) has crafted the world’s thinnest strands of material, daintily dubbed "spaghetti" in an attempt to blend the familiar with the extraordinary.



Beatrice Britton, the study's lead author, carried out the work as part of her master’s degree in chemistry at UCL.



“To make spaghetti, you push a mixture of water and flour through metal holes. In our study, we did the same except we pulled our flour mixture through with an electrical charge. It’s literally spaghetti but much smaller,” explained co-author Dr. Adam Clancy from the UCL Department of Chemistry.



However, this remarkable creation isn’t for your dinner plate. Its potential lies in novel applications for wound healing, tissue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-killifish-regeneration-may-help-us-heal-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regeneration</a>, and drug delivery, thereby setting a new benchmark in nanotechnology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-power-of-spaghetti-nanopasta">Healing power of "spaghetti" nanopasta</h2>



The secret lies in its base material - starch. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-refined-carbs-can-make-you-less-attractive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbohydrate</a>, accumulated in abundance by green plants, provides us with fascinating prospects for creating nanofibers.



The microscopic mats of nanofibers are permeable enough to permit the passage of water and moisture, while acting as a protective barrier against harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-form-memories-and-pass-them-on-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>. 



“Nanofibers, such as those made of starch, show potential for use in wound dressings as they are very porous,” said Professor Gareth Williams from UCL School of Pharmacy. 



“In addition, nanofibers are being explored for use as a scaffold to regrow tissue, as they mimic the extra-cellular matrix – a network of proteins and other molecules that cells build to support themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-spaghetti-nanopasta">Making spaghetti nanopasta</h2>



Nanofibers made from starch offer remarkable potential for applications in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-extinction-threatens-the-future-of-medicine-and-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicine</a> and industry. 



However, traditional methods for producing these materials rely on extracting and purifying starch from plant cells - a process that demands significant energy and water and raises environmental concerns.



The UCL team has devised an innovative alternative: creating nanofibers directly from starch-rich flour, a widely available and sustainable resource.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/spaghetti_worlds-thinnest_nanopasta_single-strand_credit-UCL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/spaghetti_worlds-thinnest_nanopasta_single-strand_credit-UCL_1s.webp" alt="Each individual strand is too narrow to be clearly captured by any form of visible light camera or microscope, so the team used a scanning electron microscope, scanning the mat with a focused beam of electrons and creating an image based on the pattern of electrons that are deflected or knocked-off. Credit: Beatrice Britton / Adam Clancy" class="wp-image-1951309"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Each individual strand is too narrow to be clearly captured by any form of visible light camera or microscope, so the team used a scanning electron microscope, scanning the mat with a focused beam of electrons and creating an image based on the pattern of electrons that are deflected or knocked-off. Credit: Beatrice Britton / Adam Clancy</figcaption></figure>



Bypassing the need for intensive purification, this approach not only reduces resource consumption but also leverages a common food ingredient in an unexpected and transformative way.



This method represents a shift towards greener nanotechnology, aligning material science innovation with environmental responsibility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-spaghetti-nanopasta">Future of spaghetti nanopasta</h2>



The researchers are optimistic about the future of these ultra-thin nanofibers, especially when they are made using starch-rich flour as a starting material.



“Starch is a promising material to use as it is abundant and renewable -- it is the second largest source of biomass on Earth, behind cellulose -- and it is biodegradable, meaning it can be broken down in the body,” said Dr. Clancy.



However, the process of creating nanofibers from flour is not without challenges. Impurities such as proteins and cellulose increase the mixture’s viscosity, making fiber formation more difficult.



The study highlights how using formic acid instead of water effectively breaks down the giant starch helices, allowing the creation of nanofibers. 



The researchers also carefully controlled the mixture’s temperature during preparation to achieve the right consistency. 



This novel approach not only simplifies the process but also opens the door to sustainable and scalable production methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



While the team has made significant progress, much work remains to fully explore the potential of this "healing spaghetti." 



“We’ve shown that a simpler way to make nanofibers using flour is possible. The next step would be to investigate the properties of this product. We would want to know, for instance, how quickly it disintegrates, how it interacts with cells, and if you could produce it at scale,” explained Dr. Clancy.



The versatility of these nanofibers opens the door to applications beyond medicine, potentially transforming areas such as environmental engineering and biodegradable materials.



Despite the promise of starch-based nanofibers in medicine and industry, their culinary applications remain out of reach. 



“I don’t think it’s useful as pasta, sadly, as it would overcook in less than a second, before you could take it out of the pan,” Professor Williams stated humorously.



The researchers plan to continue refining the electrospinning process and exploring the properties of their nanofibers to determine their viability for practical applications. 



For now, the world's thinnest "spaghetti" stands as a remarkable example of the creativity and ingenuity of modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/astronauts-are-studying-materials-science-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials science</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/na/d4na00601a">Nanoscale Advances</a>.



Image Credit: Beatrice Britton / Adam Clancy



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World’s thinnest spaghetti 'nanopasta' could heal wounds and regrow tissues

Spaghetti, a word that evokes thoughts of delicious Italian cuisine and hearty meals, has taken on an entirely new meaning in the realm of science. Imagine strands so impossibly thin they are 200 times slimmer than a human hair -- not destined for marinara sauce but poised to revolutionize fields as diverse as medicine and advanced materials science. Recently, a team of scientists from University College London (UCL) has crafted the world’s thinnest strands of material, daintily dubbed "spaghetti" in an attempt to blend the familiar with...

The distribution of American lobsters and sea scallops may shift substantially as water <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/arctic-temperatures-rise-when-plants-stop-breathing/">temperatures</a> rise, according to a new study. The experts used a variety of models to estimate how species on the Northeast U.S. continental shelf will respond to warming waters. 

The results of the study indicate that lobsters will move further offshore and sea scallops will shift to the north in the coming decades. 

The research suggests that changes will also take place within managed fisheries. Some species are expected to increase, while others will decline or show no significant effects. 

Study co-author Vincent Saba is a fishery biologist in the Ecosystems Dynamics and Assessment Branch of the <a href="https://nefsc.noaa.gov/">NOAA Northeast Fisheries Science Center</a>.

"Changes in stock distribution affect where fish and shellfish can be caught and who has access to them over time," said Saba. 

"American lobster and sea scallop are two of the most economically valuable single-species fisheries in the entire United States. They are also important to the economic and cultural well-being of coastal communities in the Northeast. Any changes to their distribution and abundance will have major impacts."

For the investigation, the researchers used multiple species distribution models and a high-resolution global climate model. 

The team projected the possible impact of climate change on suitable habitat for lobsters and sea scallops in the Northeast U.S. continental shelf. This large marine ecosystem includes the Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, the Mid-Atlantic Bight, and Southern New England.

To improve the accuracy of the models, the team incorporated independent trawl survey data from nearshore and offshore fisheries. The surveys collected data from 1984 to 2016 over a wide geographic area.

Historical temperature and salinity changes were also integrated into the model, as well as future projections of salinity and temperature for the next 80 years under a high emissions scenario.

While American lobsters are larger and more mobile than sea scallops, both species are affected by fluctuations in ocean salinity and temperature. 

The projected warming over the next eight decades revealed that deeper regions in the Gulf of Maine will become increasingly suitable for lobsters. The western Long Island Sound and the area south of Rhode Island showed increased suitability in the spring, yet decreased suitability in the fall. In recent decades, warmer water in these regions has already caused notable declines in the presence of American lobsters. 

Projections of sea scallop distribution showed a clear shift northward, with declining habitat suitability in the Mid-Atlantic Bight and Southern New England. 

"This study suggests that ocean warming due to climate change will act as a likely stressor to the ecosystem's southern lobster and sea scallop fisheries and continues to drive further contraction of sea scallop and lobster habitats into the northern areas," said Saba. 

"Our study only looked at ocean temperature and salinity, but other factors such as ocean acidification and changes in predation can also impact these species."

"Ensemble modelling approaches like the one developed in this study can contribute to lobster and scallop assessments by improving the effectiveness of survey efforts and the precision of stock assessment models." 

"It also provides a critical step toward establishing long-term adaptive management plans for these two valuable species."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14724642">Diversity and Distributions</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

American lobsters and sea scallops may shift as temperatures rise 

The distribution of American lobsters and sea scallops may shift...

According to a new study from <a href="https://www.niu.edu/">Northern Illinois University</a>, about 31 million people live in coastal regions that are extremely vulnerable to the worsening impacts of climate change. As tropical storms intensify and sea levels rise, many coastal areas have defensive resources located just offshore that are often underestimated.  

The researchers found that among the 31 million people living in high-risk communities, 8.5 million directly benefit from the severe weather-protection of mangroves and coral reefs. These natural buffers could help mitigate an enormous amount of future damage from tropical storms and rising sea levels. 

Coral reefs and mangrove forests help shield the coast by absorbing some of the energy in powerful waves. Mangroves also help to stabilize the coastline by trapping sediments that serve as a barrier to erosion and storm damage.

Beyond protection, mangroves and coral reefs are critically important ecosystems that provide specialized habitats for a large number of species. 

The findings of the new study highlight the urgent need for worldwide conservation and restoration of mangrove forests and coral reef systems. The researchers said that action is particularly needed in the most vulnerable coastal regions that lack the resources for more expensive adaptation measures, such as levees or sea walls.

"Simply put, it's much cheaper to conserve a mangrove than to build a sea wall," said study lead author Holly Jones. 

"Coral reefs and mangroves serve as cost-efficient buffers against the adverse impacts of climate change, and they already play important roles in protecting human lives and livelihoods, while providing a multitude of biodiversity benefits."

Previous studies have shown that a 100-meter-wide stretch of mangroves can reduce wave heights by as much as two-thirds. Meanwhile, coral reefs buffer wave energy by up to 97 percent, depending on the conditions. 

The researchers wanted to identify highly vulnerable coastal regions that would benefit most from "ecosystem-based adaptation," or the sustainable management of existing ecosystems, to address climate impacts.

The analysis showed that 30.9 million people live in regions that are highly vulnerable to tropical storms and future sea-level rise.

"Our estimate is very conservative," said Jones. "This population lives in regions in the top 10th percentile for vulnerability. If we apply our model to coastal regions that scored in the top half for vulnerability, the population soars to over 700 million people."

According to the study, the vulnerable regions that could benefit the most from ecosystem-based adaptation are coastal areas in Central America, the Caribbean, Eastern Africa, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific region. In these regions, the team found that only 11 percent of reefs and 38 percent of mangroves are currently protected. 

Study co-author Will Turner is the senior vice president of global strategies at Conservation International.

"Protection of mangroves and coral reefs is critical," said Turner. "They have the potential to save lives, store carbon and support fisheries; the co-benefits they provide are great. At Conservation International, we're working with local communities, carbon finance, governments and the insurance industry to ensure that generations will benefit from the protection and restoration of these ecosystems."

The researchers noted that many of the world's coastal zones are already experiencing the brutal consequences of extreme weather. Hurricanes Dorian, Maria, Harvey and Irma killed thousands of people and caused hundreds of billions of dollars in damages. By the end of this century, hurricane damages are expected to double. 

The study authors pointed out that mangroves and coral reefs also create opportunities for recreation and tourism. Furthermore, in the most vulnerable coastal regions alone, mangroves store at least 896 million metric tons of carbon.

"Ensuring the resiliency of mangroves is a win-win-win for people, nature and the climate," said study co-author Dave Hole.

"Mangroves store more carbon than any other forest ecosystem on Earth, drawing CO2 down from the atmosphere and storing it for decades, and so helping slow global warming."

"As interest in ecosystem-based adaptation continues to grow, it's vital that its multiple co-benefits are part of the conversation."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS One</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Mangroves and coral reefs provide critical protection from storms 

According to a new study from Northern Illinois University, about...

Palaeontologists at <a href="https://english.spbu.ru/">St. Petersburg University</a> have taken a glimpse inside the mind of a 160-million-year-old dinosaur. The study reveals new details about the brain structure of the ankylosaur Bissektipelta archibaldi.

The researchers used a 3D model that was previously assembled in Russia to analyze the dinosaur's cranial vault. They discovered that Bissektipelta had an exceptional sense of smell and heard low-frequency sounds. The dinosaurs also had the unique ability to cool down their brains when necessary. 

Ankylosaurs were herbivorous dinosaurs that appeared in the middle of the Jurassic Age and persisted until the end of the dinosaur era 65 million years ago. They were covered with thick armor like modern day armadillos.

The palaeontologists analyzed three fragments of Bissektipelta fossil skulls from a well-preserved collection of bones recovered in Uzbekistan.

During a series of expeditions around 20 years ago, hundreds of thousands of bones were collected at the Uzbekistan site, including dozens of skull fragments. Advances in technology have created new opportunities for scientists to re-analyze the fossils with greater accuracy. 

'Thanks to the development of computed tomography (CT) over the past 15-20 years, palaeontologists are able to learn more and more about the dinosaur brain and its structure,' said study lead author Ivan Kuzmin. 

"We decided to re-describe Bissektipelta archibaldi, and we managed to clarify its place on the phylogenetic tree of ankylosaurs. A 3D reconstruction of the endocast of its brain cavity was made using CT."

"It is important to understand that the digital 'cast' of the braincase is not the brain itself. It is necessary to study it carefully to understand how big the actual brain was, where its parts were, how the vessels and nerves were housed."

The scientists worked with the skulls for three years to reconstruct the brain of Bissektipelta archibaldi. They found that the majority of the brain was made up of large olfactory bulbs. This gave Bissektipelta an extremely developed sense of smell, which would have helped in detecting food, mates, and predators.

Ankylosaurs had heavy armor and did not move very gracefully, so the ability to detect approaching predators was crucial for survival. According to the experts, the olfaction of ankylosaurs can even be compared with the olfaction of Tyrannosaurus rex.

"Another interesting skill of the ankylosaur that we learned about is the ability to cool its brains in the literal sense," said Kuzmin. 

"The network of veins and arteries in its braincase turned out to be very complicated: they did not go in a single direction, but constantly communicated with each other, like a system of railway tracks. The blood could have flown in different directions and been redistributed, while maintaining the optimal brain temperature of the animal."

"For example, if the top of an ankylosaur's head became warm, the vessels diverted quickly the warm blood and created a screening effect - as if a dinosaur put a sun hat on." 

"Moreover, the endocranial vasculature of ankylosaurs turned out to be somewhat more like the vessels of present-day lizards than that of the closer extant relatives of dinosaurs - crocodiles or birds."

The analysis of Bissektipelta's inner ear produced evidence that the ankylosaur had a hearing range of about 300 to 3,000 hertz, which is the same low frequency range of modern-day crocodiles. 

The larger the animal, the lower the frequencies of sound they could hear. The palaeontologists propose that as ankylosaurs evolved to have bigger bodies, they gained the advantage of detecting sounds at even lower frequencies.

"Present-day animal species are characterized by a certain brain-body size relationship,' explained Kuzmin. "If you look at dinosaurs, then ankylosaurs and their closest relatives (stegosaurs) were almost outsiders. The mass of their brain turned out to be at least half less than what we would expect, based on a comparison with present-day animals. It was about 26.5 grams for a three-meter Bissektipelta. Its brain size can be compared with two walnuts."

"Nevertheless, ankylosaurs existed on the planet for 100 million years. They were quite successful in terms of evolution. However, judging by the size of their olfactory bulbs, they sniffed a little faster than they thought."

The team plans to analyze the fossil skulls of additional ankylosaur species to test the theories they have about the brain structure and function of Bissektipelta.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://biocomm.spbu.ru/">Biological Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists explore the brain of a 160-million-year-old dinosaur

Palaeontologists at St. Petersburg University have taken a glimpse inside...

A study from the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> is shedding new light on a group of invasive <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/glass-frogs-rely-on-a-previously-unknown-form-of-camouflage/">frogs</a> in southern Australia. The researchers are warning that the spotted-thighed frog has destructive feeding habits that pose a serious threat to native species.

The invasive frog, Litoria cyclorhyncha, has now become well-established in Streaky Bay, South Australia, with a population of at least 1,000 individuals. The frog hitchhiked its way into the region from Western Australia. 

Ecology experts Professor Gunnar Keppel and Christine Taylor said that the potential for the spotted-thighed frog to spread to other parts of Australia is very concerning because of its destructive eating patterns.

"This frog is an indiscriminate eating machine that will devour just about anything it can fit into its mouth," said Taylor. "We're talking about a relatively large, predatory tree frog that, as a species, is alien to South Australia, and it could have devastating impacts on invaded habitats."

"As it eats away at local species, it's impacting the natural ecosystem, which can displace or destroy local food webs, outcompete native birds, reptiles and mammals for resources, and potentially change natural biodiversity."

The researchers analyzed the stomach contents of 76 spotted-thighed frogs across three different habitats. Each frog had about six creatures in its stomach, including beetles, spiders, insects, native geckos, young frogs, and mice. Overall, the team estimated that the invasive frogs prey on 200 different species.

Professor Keppel said that it is important for people to understand how detrimental invasive species can be for ecosystems. 

He warned that if the spread of spotted-thighed frogs is not kept under control, they could soon dominate many ecosystems in southeast Australia at the expense of the local species.

"The spotted-thighed frog is obviously very mobile. Already it's managed to travel more than 2,000 kilometers and set up a colony in Streaky Bay. But its considerable tolerance of salinity and potential ability to withstand high temperatures could lead to further geographic spread, and if not controlled, it could extend further eastward into the Murray-Darling Basin," said Professor Keppel.

"It's vital that we continue to protect Australia's biodiversity. Preventing further dispersal of the spotted-thighed frog is a high conservation priority."

"The state government should consider managing the invasive population of spotted-thighed frogs at Streaky Bay. This should include education programs to inform people about what to do if they find a frog, as well as the feasibility of exterminating the population in South Australia."

"Importantly, if you do see one of these critters in your travels - leave it be. We don't want it hitchhiking any further."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/zo">Australian Journal of Zoology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Invasive frogs in Australia have a dangerous appetite

A study from the University of South Australia is shedding...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a> has revealed that patients with high blood pressure have an increased risk of dying from <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-may-be-a-seasonal-illness-that-thrives-in-low-humidity/">COVID-19</a>. The researchers also found that this risk is further elevated among patients who are not controlling their high blood pressure with medication. 

"Soon after we started to treat COVID-19 patients in early February in Wuhan, we noticed that nearly half of the patients who died had high blood pressure, which was a much higher percentage compared to those with only mild COVID-19 symptoms," said Professor Ling Tao of Xijing Hospital.

"At the same time, some researchers were raising concerns that RAAS inhibitors might be facilitating the entry of the coronavirus into cells and making people more susceptible to the disease."

"We were quite surprised that these results did not support our initial hypothesis; in fact, the results were in the opposite direction, with a trend in favour of ACE inhibitors and ARBs. We think this is exactly why practice based on clinical evidence is more vital than ever."

The study was focused on data from 2,866 patients who were treated for COVID-19 at Huo Shen Shan hospital in Wuhan, China. Overall, 850 of the patients had a medical history of high blood pressure, or hypertension.

The investigation showed that 34 out of 850 hypertensive COVID-19 patients died compared to 22 out of 2,027 patients without high blood pressure. 

After adjusting for factors that could have affected the outcome, such as additional medical conditions, the researchers estimated that hypertensive patients are 2.12 times more likely to develop a deadly COVID-19 infection. 

The team also estimated that patients with hypertension who were not taking the proper medication are 2.17 times more likely to die from coronavirus.

"It is important that patients with high blood pressure realize that they are at increased risk of dying from COVID-19. They should take good care of themselves during this pandemic and they need more attention if they are infected with the coronavirus," said Professor Fei Li of Xijing Hospital.

"In addition, there were 140 patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19 who had discontinued their anti-hypertensive treatment due to various reasons. We found that this was associated with a greater risk of dying from the coronavirus."

"In contrast to our initial hypothesis, we found that RAAS inhibitors, such as ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers, were not linked to an increased risk of dying from COVID-19 and, in fact, may be protective. Therefore, we suggest that patients should not discontinue or change their usual antihypertensive treatment unless instructed by a physician."

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj">European Heart Journal</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

High blood pressure doubles risk of death from COVID-19

A new study from the European Society of Cardiology has...

Scientists led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> have developed a new method for tracking a disease that causes major damage to plants. Preventing the spread of the disease-causing bacteria Agrobacterium could save commercial nurseries billions of dollars every year.

Agrobacterium causes crown-gall disease in more than 140 plant species worldwide, including fruit trees, roses, grape vines, and nursery plants.

The destructive bacteria enters the plant through wounds in the roots or stems and interferes with plant tissue growth, producing swollen galls. Plants with multiple galls often lose the ability to transport nutrients and become stunted and unproductive. 

The current study was focused on self-replicating DNA molecules called plasmids. Agrobacterium contains plasmids that have the ability to transfer a segment of their DNA into susceptible plant cells. 

Agrobacterium can also transfer the entire plasmid horizontally, which then transforms a benign strain into a new pathogen. This genetic activity makes it difficult to control the disease and track an outbreak.

In collaboration with researchers at the USDA Agricultural Research Service, the Oregon State team set out to investigate the evolution of plasmids and develop a way they can be traced.

The team analyzed two classes of plasmids, tumor inducing and root inducing, both of which cause crown-gall disease.

Genetic analysis of 140 strains of Agrobacterium revealed that the plasmids all descended from just nine lineages.

"Armed with this extensive genetic sequencing information about how to classify plasmids and Agrobacterium, we could infer both how bacteria move among nurseries and how the plasmids move among bacteria," said study lead author Alexandra Weisberg.

By sequencing the entire genomes of Agrobacterium strains, the researchers managed to link nurseries that had bacteria with the same genetic characteristics. 

The study pinpointed at least seven cases where the global distribution of plants contributed to the widespread transmission of a single Agrobacterium lineage. 

In one such case, a nursery that produces plants for wholesalers may have served as the sole source of many outbreaks. 

The ability to separately analyze the bacteria from the plasmid helped to identify many cases in which plasmid transmission perpetuated the spread of the disease. 

For example, one strain-plasmid combination that was collected in 1964 was recognized in strains collected 30 to 40 years later in different parts of the world.

The methods developed for the study can potentially be applied to track diseases in humans and animals, including foodborne disease outbreaks. 

"Understanding the genetic basis for how pathogens emerge and diversify in agricultural ecosystems is foundational for determining their spread and assessing risks," said study co-author Professor Jeff Chang.

"These are critical to informing policies for improving plant health and preparing against disease outbreaks to increase global food security."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

&nbsp;

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

New technique tracks the spread of major plant disease

Scientists led by Oregon State University have developed a new...

Greenhouse gas emissions will determine the fate of mangrove trees, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>. The experts determined that mangrove trees will struggle to survive sea-level rise beyond the year 2050 if harmful greenhouse gas emissions are not reduced. 

Mangroves can be found in warm tropical waters along the coastline of Africa and on the Atlantic coast from Florida all the way down to Argentina. 

Mangrove forests are valuable ecosystems that store large amounts of carbon, support many species of fish and wildlife, and provide coastal protection. 

The dense root systems of mangrove forests help to stabilize the coastline by trapping sediments that serve as a buffer from erosion and storm damage. Coastal areas where mangroves have been cleared suffer more intense impacts from typhoons and hurricanes.

In the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary alone, mangrove trees protect more than 1,800 miles of shoreline.

An international research team led by Macquarie University investigated the extent to which mangroves will be able to endure sea-level rise. The study was focused on sediment data from the last 10,000 years.

The researchers identified a tipping point of six millimeters per year. When sea-level rise exceeds this rate, mangroves have a very slim chance of survival.  

"Under high-emissions scenarios, rates of sea-level rise on many tropical coastlines will exceed 7 millimeters per year, the rate at which we concluded there's a 3.5 percent probability mangroves can sustain growth," said study co-author Erica Ashe.

"The loss of these mangrove ecosystems could result in increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and fewer vital buffers against storm surges in the long run."

The study showed that mangroves are more likely to withstand sea-level rise at a rate of less than 5 millimeters per year, which could be achieved with lower greenhouse gas emissions.

The researchers examined how mangroves in 78 locations responded to various rates of sea-level rise in the past.

The sediment record showed that 4,000 years ago, climate conditions stabilized and the rate of sea-level rise declined. As a result, expanding mangrove forests were able to store more carbon and further stabilize the climate. 

Mangroves naturally move inland as water levels rise, but coastal developments along many coastlines will inhibit this movement. 

The findings confirm the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate sea-level rise. In addition, coastal adaptation measures must be identified to allow mangroves to expand.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mangrove trees could vanish by 2050 without reduced emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions will determine the fate of mangrove trees,...

Loneliness and social isolation during the pandemic may have long-term mental health impacts on young people, according to a new meta-analysis from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a>. The experts report that a high rate of children and adolescents will likely experience <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/work-stress-linked-to-depression-and-death/">depression</a> and anxiety years after social restrictions are lifted. 

The research was focused on 60 published studies that examined the effects of isolation and loneliness in young people between the ages of four and 21.

The study revealed that children and teenagers who feel lonely or isolated are three times more likely to develop depression in the future. The findings also suggest that the depressive symptoms associated with loneliness can persist for nine years or longer.

Overall, the studies indicate that there is a strong correlation between loneliness and an increased risk of mental health issues among young people. 

The study authors said the findings should serve as a warning to policymakers to anticipate a rise in demand for mental health services among children and teens in the years to come, both in the UK and around the world.

Study lead author Dr. Maria Loades is a clinical psychologist at the University of Bath.

"From our analysis, it is clear there are strong associations between loneliness and depression in young people, both in the immediate and the longer-term," said Dr. Loades.

"We know this effect can sometimes be lagged, meaning it can take up to 10 years to really understand the scale of the mental health impact the covid-19 crisis has created."

Dr. Loades said the research could also have important implications for how teachers and policymakers manage the phased reopening of schools, scheduled to begin this week in the UK.

"There is evidence that it's the duration of loneliness as opposed to the intensity which seems to have the biggest impact on depression rates in young people." 

"This means that returning to some degree of normality as soon as possible is of course important. However, how this process is managed matters when it comes to shaping young people's feelings and experiences about this period."

"For our youngest and their return to school this week, we need to prioritize the importance of play in helping them to reconnect with friends and adjust following this intense period of isolation."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jaacap.org/">Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Isolation may lead to years of depression among children 

Loneliness and social isolation during the pandemic may have long-term...

Humans could wipe out billions of years of evolution among vertebrates. For the first time, researchers have mapped the evolutionary history of terrestrial <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/land-vertebrates-are-vanishing-at-an-unprecedented-rate/">vertebrates</a>, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. 

The study was designed to pinpoint regions where the world's evolutionarily distinct species are the most threatened by human activities. 

Study co-author Shai Meiri is a professor in the School of Zoology at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a>.

"Being 'evolutionarily distinct' means that you have no close living relatives," said Professor Meiri. "In other words, you are alone on your branch of the evolutionary tree of life."

"Aardvarks, crocodiles, and kiwis were all separated from their closest evolutionary relatives tens of millions of years ago and bear a unique evolutionary history.

"The new research will provide a clear understanding of how best to protect nature given the current threats to specific locations and endangered species."

The researchers developed two new metrics to investigate the extent of human pressure across the spatial distribution of species. For reptiles, in particular, the team found that regions under the most pressure contain the highest diversity. 

"Our analyses reveal the incomprehensible scale of the losses we face if we don't work harder to save global biodiversity," said study lead author Dr. Rikki Gumbs of the Zoological Society of London.

"To put some of the numbers into perspective, reptiles alone stand to lose at least 13 billion years of unique evolutionary history, roughly the same number of years as have passed since the beginning of the entire universe."

After analyzing the extinction threats for around 25,000 species, the researchers found that at least 50 billion years of evolutionary heritage are at risk of being erased by human activities. 

The areas that host the most unique evolutionary history, such as the Caribbean and large parts of Southeast Asia, are facing intense human pressure.

"This new study highlights which species should be prioritized for conservation, based on their evolutionary uniqueness and the intense human impact on environments where they are thought to dwell," said Professor Meiri.

According to the study authors, the greatest losses of evolutionary history will result from the extinction of entire groups of closely-related species, such as pangolins and tapirs, and by the disappearance of highly evolutionarily distinct species, such as the ancient Chinese crocodile lizard, the Shoebill, and the Aye-aye - a nocturnal lemur with big yellow eyes and long fingers.

The study identified several unique species that require urgent attention, including the punk-haired Mary River turtle, the Purple frog, and the Numbat. 

For more than half of the priority lizards and snakes identified in the study, extinction risk data was found to be insufficient.

"These are some of the most incredible and overlooked animals on Planet Earth," said Dr. Gumbs. "From legless lizards and tiny blind snakes to pink worm-like amphibians called caecilians, we know precious little about these fascinating creatures, many of which may be sliding silently toward extinction."

Across the Amazon rainforest, the highlands of Borneo, and parts of southern Africa, the experts discovered some areas where unique species are essentially unaffected by human pressure.

"Our findings highlight the importance of acting urgently to conserve these extraordinary species and the remaining habitat that they occupy - in the face of intense human pressures," said study co-author Dr. James Rosindell.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Humans could wipe out billions of years of evolution among vertebrates

Humans could wipe out billions of years of evolution among...

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hurricanes-are-getting-stronger-as-earth-gets-warmer/">hurricane</a> season is barely underway in the Atlantic Ocean and the third named storm of the year has already developed. After a destructive hurricane season in 2019, experts predict the 2020 hurricane season will be just as active. 

According to NOAA's Climate Prediction Center, we can expect between 13 and 19 named storms - including up to six major hurricanes - in the coming months. 

The most damaging aspect of tropical storms is usually flooding, which can cause serious water quality issues. 

In a new study published by the <a href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en.html">American Chemical Society</a>, researchers set out to investigate the potential water quality impacts of major hurricanes.

Wastewater treatment plants, sewers, and other sites can overflow in rising floodwaters. As a result, pollutants are dumped into the surrounding waterways. 

Flood hazard maps are designed to establish floodplain boundaries and raise community awareness about the areas most prone to flooding, but the maps are not always reliable. 

Danica Schaffer-Smith, an expert in Environmental Science at The Nature Conservancy, wanted to investigate the accuracy of flood hazard maps in predicting the water levels after two recent hurricanes in North Carolina. 

"Hurricanes that damage lives and property can also impact pollutant sources and trigger poor water quality. Yet, these water quality impacts that affect both human and natural communities are difficult to quantify," wrote the study authors. 

"We developed an operational remote sensing-based hurricane flood extent mapping method, examined potential water quality implications of two '500-year' hurricanes in 2016 and 2018, and identified options to increase social-ecological resilience in North Carolina."

The study revealed that hurricane flooding occurred beyond the established hazard zones during both storms. 

The team identified many potential sources of water pollution within the flooded areas including hazardous waste sites, industrial plants, wastewater treatment plants, and swine and poultry farms. 

The researchers also found that the biggest flooding impacts were in communities that had higher proportions of older adults, people with disabilities, unemployment, and mobile homes. 

According to the researchers, interventions such as government land buyouts, forest restoration, or wetland conservation could help lessen the flooding and water quality risks of future hurricanes.

The study is published in the ACS journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Hurricane flooding poses a dangerous threat to water quality 

The hurricane season is barely underway in the Atlantic Ocean...

Two previously unknown super-eruptions occurred in Yellowstone. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.geosociety.org/">Geological Society of America</a>, experts are describing two previously unknown super-eruptions associated with the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/reintroduction-of-wolves-helped-yellowstone-willows-recover/">Yellowstone</a> volcanic hotspot. The researchers found evidence that one of these eruptions was the most catastrophic event in the supervolcano's history. 

Yellowstone National Park sits on top of a massive hotspot that fuels the activity of geysers and hot springs. The most recent super-eruption, the Lava Creek eruption, occurred 640,000 years ago. 

Volcanic super-eruptions are much more explosive than the eruptions seen in more recent years. For example, if the Yellowstone supervolcano erupted again, it would have between 1,000 and 2,000 times the force of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.

Despite the enormously destructive nature of super-eruptions, as well as their potential to impact the entire planet, relatively few of these events have been documented in the geologic record.

For the current study, the researchers used a combination of techniques including bulk chemistry and magnetic data to connect volcanic deposits scattered across tens of thousands of square kilometers. 

"We discovered that deposits previously believed to belong to multiple, smaller eruptions were in fact colossal sheets of volcanic material from two previously unknown super-eruptions at about 9.0 and 8.7 million years ago," said study lead author Thomas Knott, a volcanologist at the University of Leicester.

"The younger of the two, the Grey's Landing super-eruption, is now the largest recorded event of the entire Snake River-Yellowstone volcanic province." 

Based on the current knowledge of super-eruptions, the Grey's Landing event is one of the top five eruptions in the history of the Earth. The Grey's Landing explosion was 30 percent larger than the previous record-holder in Yellowstone, the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, according to the study authors. 

"The Grey's Landing eruption enamelled an area the size of New Jersey in searing-hot volcanic glass that instantly sterilized the land surface," said Knott. Anything within this region, he added, would have been buried and most likely vaporized during the eruption. 

"Particulates would have choked the stratosphere, raining fine ash over the entire United States and gradually encompassing the globe."

The newly identified super-eruptions both occurred during the Miocene, which refers to the timespan between 23 and 5.3 million years ago. 

"These two new eruptions bring the total number of recorded Miocene super-eruptions at the Yellowstone-Snake River volcanic province to six," said Knott. 

The experts now estimate that Yellowstone experienced hotspot super-eruptions during the Miocene about once every 500,000 years. In the past three million years, the hotspot seems to be slowing down, with only two super-eruptions so far. 

"It therefore seems that the Yellowstone hotspot has experienced a three-fold decrease in its capacity to produce super-eruption events. This is a very significant decline."

Knott said the findings have little bearing on assessing the risk of another super-eruption occurring today in Yellowstone. 

"We have demonstrated that the recurrence rate of Yellowstone super-eruptions appears to be once every 1.5 million years. The last super-eruption there was 630,000 years ago, suggesting we may have up to 900,000 years before another eruption of this scale occurs." 

Knott emphasized that this prediction is far from exact and noted that the continuous monitoring in the region, conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey, is extremely important. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology">Geology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Two previously unknown super-eruptions occurred in Yellowstone

Two previously unknown super-eruptions occurred in Yellowstone. In a new...

A team of leading nutrition researchers and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-smart-agricultural-practices-will-boost-global-food-security/">food</a> policy experts are calling for urgent action and coordinated efforts to confront the ongoing nutrition crisis in America. 

The team presented a case for strengthening federal nutrition research at Nutrition 2020 live online, a virtual conference hosted by the <a href="https://nutrition.org/">American Society for Nutrition</a> (ASN).

The experts want to raise awareness about the alarming state of American health, even before the COVID-19 pandemic, and to share their vision for advancing nutrition policy.

"The time has come for a national 'moonshot' on nutrition research," said Dr. Dariush Mozaffarian of Tufts University. 

"A strengthening of federal nutrition research has significant potential to generate new discoveries to improve and sustain the health of all Americans, reduce healthcare costs, improve health disparities, create new businesses and jobs, reinvigorate farms and rural communities, strengthen military readiness and optimize use of our natural resources."

Tens of millions of Americans are food insecure, and around 40,000 die from diseases related to poor diets every month. 

Sick people outnumber healthy people in America, with half of adults suffering from diabetes or prediabetes and more than half of adults facing excessive weight and obesity. 

According to the experts, nearly three-quarters of young Americans cannot qualify for military service, and obesity is the leading medical reason.

"COVID-19 pulled back the curtain on so many food and nutrition issues," said Mozaffarian. "Food is the number one cause of poor health in America, with hundreds of billions of dollars spent each year on preventable, diet-related illnesses."

The session highlights research that will soon be published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 

The study authors examined the current state of nutrition research and identified strategies to promote further studies and improve food policy across federal organizations such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

"We hope this session, and the forthcoming white paper, will spark a broad national conversation around the critical importance of national nutrition research and the very real opportunities before us," said Mozaffarian. "We don't have time to wait."

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn">American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Nutrition research is urgently needed in America

A team of leading nutrition researchers and food policy experts...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...