Spaghetti, a word that evokes thoughts of delicious Italian cuisine and hearty meals, has taken on an entirely new meaning in the realm of science.



Imagine strands so impossibly thin they are 200 times slimmer than a human hair -- not destined for marinara sauce but poised to revolutionize fields as diverse as medicine and advanced materials science.



Recently, a team of scientists from University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>) has crafted the world’s thinnest strands of material, daintily dubbed "spaghetti" in an attempt to blend the familiar with the extraordinary.



Beatrice Britton, the study's lead author, carried out the work as part of her master’s degree in chemistry at UCL.



“To make spaghetti, you push a mixture of water and flour through metal holes. In our study, we did the same except we pulled our flour mixture through with an electrical charge. It’s literally spaghetti but much smaller,” explained co-author Dr. Adam Clancy from the UCL Department of Chemistry.



However, this remarkable creation isn’t for your dinner plate. Its potential lies in novel applications for wound healing, tissue <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-killifish-regeneration-may-help-us-heal-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regeneration</a>, and drug delivery, thereby setting a new benchmark in nanotechnology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-power-of-spaghetti-nanopasta">Healing power of "spaghetti" nanopasta</h2>



The secret lies in its base material - starch. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-refined-carbs-can-make-you-less-attractive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbohydrate</a>, accumulated in abundance by green plants, provides us with fascinating prospects for creating nanofibers.



The microscopic mats of nanofibers are permeable enough to permit the passage of water and moisture, while acting as a protective barrier against harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-form-memories-and-pass-them-on-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>. 



“Nanofibers, such as those made of starch, show potential for use in wound dressings as they are very porous,” said Professor Gareth Williams from UCL School of Pharmacy. 



“In addition, nanofibers are being explored for use as a scaffold to regrow tissue, as they mimic the extra-cellular matrix – a network of proteins and other molecules that cells build to support themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-spaghetti-nanopasta">Making spaghetti nanopasta</h2>



Nanofibers made from starch offer remarkable potential for applications in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-extinction-threatens-the-future-of-medicine-and-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicine</a> and industry. 



However, traditional methods for producing these materials rely on extracting and purifying starch from plant cells - a process that demands significant energy and water and raises environmental concerns.



The UCL team has devised an innovative alternative: creating nanofibers directly from starch-rich flour, a widely available and sustainable resource.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/spaghetti_worlds-thinnest_nanopasta_single-strand_credit-UCL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/spaghetti_worlds-thinnest_nanopasta_single-strand_credit-UCL_1s.webp" alt="Each individual strand is too narrow to be clearly captured by any form of visible light camera or microscope, so the team used a scanning electron microscope, scanning the mat with a focused beam of electrons and creating an image based on the pattern of electrons that are deflected or knocked-off. Credit: Beatrice Britton / Adam Clancy" class="wp-image-1951309"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Each individual strand is too narrow to be clearly captured by any form of visible light camera or microscope, so the team used a scanning electron microscope, scanning the mat with a focused beam of electrons and creating an image based on the pattern of electrons that are deflected or knocked-off. Credit: Beatrice Britton / Adam Clancy</figcaption></figure>



Bypassing the need for intensive purification, this approach not only reduces resource consumption but also leverages a common food ingredient in an unexpected and transformative way.



This method represents a shift towards greener nanotechnology, aligning material science innovation with environmental responsibility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-spaghetti-nanopasta">Future of spaghetti nanopasta</h2>



The researchers are optimistic about the future of these ultra-thin nanofibers, especially when they are made using starch-rich flour as a starting material.



“Starch is a promising material to use as it is abundant and renewable -- it is the second largest source of biomass on Earth, behind cellulose -- and it is biodegradable, meaning it can be broken down in the body,” said Dr. Clancy.



However, the process of creating nanofibers from flour is not without challenges. Impurities such as proteins and cellulose increase the mixture’s viscosity, making fiber formation more difficult.



The study highlights how using formic acid instead of water effectively breaks down the giant starch helices, allowing the creation of nanofibers. 



The researchers also carefully controlled the mixture’s temperature during preparation to achieve the right consistency. 



This novel approach not only simplifies the process but also opens the door to sustainable and scalable production methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



While the team has made significant progress, much work remains to fully explore the potential of this "healing spaghetti." 



“We’ve shown that a simpler way to make nanofibers using flour is possible. The next step would be to investigate the properties of this product. We would want to know, for instance, how quickly it disintegrates, how it interacts with cells, and if you could produce it at scale,” explained Dr. Clancy.



The versatility of these nanofibers opens the door to applications beyond medicine, potentially transforming areas such as environmental engineering and biodegradable materials.



Despite the promise of starch-based nanofibers in medicine and industry, their culinary applications remain out of reach. 



“I don’t think it’s useful as pasta, sadly, as it would overcook in less than a second, before you could take it out of the pan,” Professor Williams stated humorously.



The researchers plan to continue refining the electrospinning process and exploring the properties of their nanofibers to determine their viability for practical applications. 



For now, the world's thinnest "spaghetti" stands as a remarkable example of the creativity and ingenuity of modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/astronauts-are-studying-materials-science-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials science</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/na/d4na00601a">Nanoscale Advances</a>.



Image Credit: Beatrice Britton / Adam Clancy



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World’s thinnest spaghetti 'nanopasta' could heal wounds and regrow tissues

Spaghetti, a word that evokes thoughts of delicious Italian cuisine and hearty meals, has taken on an entirely new meaning in the realm of science. Imagine strands so impossibly thin they are 200 times slimmer than a human hair -- not destined for marinara sauce but poised to revolutionize fields as diverse as medicine and advanced materials science. Recently, a team of scientists from University College London (UCL) has crafted the world’s thinnest strands of material, daintily dubbed "spaghetti" in an attempt to blend the familiar with...

While it is well-known that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-future-of-caribbean-hurricanes-depends-on-the-extent-of-global-warming/">global warming</a> promotes the spread of disease-carrying mosquitoes, a new study suggests that human activities are also making a major contribution to the issue. Researchers at <a href="http://oregonstate.edu">Oregon State University</a> report that mosquitoes are more abundant in areas that have been altered by human activities compared to undisturbed areas.

The team surveyed Kruger National Park in South Africa and discovered that there were substantially lower numbers of mosquitoes inside the park compared to the densely populated areas around it. One particularly concerning finding was that mosquito species which are known to spread diseases such as malaria and Zika virus were found more commonly in the human-impacted areas outside the park.

Study co-author Dr. Brianna Beechler, a disease ecologist and assistant professor of research in Oregon State's Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine.

"People care a lot about what environment a lion needs to succeed in; we've researched that extensively. But people don't do that with mosquitoes. We don't understand them as a group of species and how their ecology differs between species." 

Dr. Beechler said that finding disease mitigation strategies for vector-borne diseases is an obvious target, but scientists do not yet understand mosquitoes well enough to specifically target the species that cause disease. "All we can do is reduce mosquitoes overall, but what may be more effective is to reduce certain species by modifying their habitats."

To investigate the presence of mosquitoes in disturbed areas, the researchers focused on five pressures associated with human activities including pesticide abundance, the over-mineralization of water that leads to widespread algae growth, population density the presence of domestic and wild animals, and vegetation loss.

The influence of humans on the presence of mosquitoes occurs in a series of cascading effects. For example, pesticide use kills fish and removes the natural predators that would otherwise eat mosquito larvae and help control the population.

During South Africa's wet season in 2016, the experts trapped nearly 4,000 female mosquitoes, representing 39 different species,  from both inside and outside the national park. Mosquito abundance was found to be nearly three times higher outside the park in areas dominated by humans.

The species composition was extremely different as well, with the species known to spread dengue, West Nile virus,  yellow fever, Zika virus, and other diseases residing in larger numbers in human-impacted areas.

"It seems to suggest that disease-carrying mosquito species certainly did better in human-altered environments," said Dr. Beechler. As of now, further research is needed to understand why this is the case.

"With climate change, mosquito distributions are likely to change, and disease distributions are likely to change," said Dr. Beechler. "So it'd be nice to know how to target those species before that happens."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports </a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disease-spreading mosquitoes are thriving near humans

While it is well-known that global warming promotes the spread...

What gives some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/animals-have-a-biological-switch-that-prepares-them-for-seasonal-changes/">animals</a> a "sixth sense" that allows them to detect the Earth's magnetic field? According to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ucf.edu/">University of Central Florida</a>, the answer may be much more simple than what was expected. 

Some animals sense the invisible lines of the magnetic field for navigation. For example, sea turtles can make long migrations over hundreds to thousands of miles to return to the beach where they were born. 

Additional animals that sense Earth's magnetic field include birds, fish, and lobsters. Despite 50 years of research, scientists have yet to define the mechanism which underlies this ability. 

"The search for a mechanism has been proposed as one of the last major frontiers in sensory biology and described as if we are 'searching for a needle in a haystack,'" said study co-author UCF Professor Robert Fitak. 

In collaboration with experts in the United Kingdom and Israel, Professor Fitak has proposed a new theory that a symbiotic relationship with magnetotactic bacteria is what gives animals a magnetic sixth sense. These bacteria orient themselves along the lines of Earth's magnetic field using organelles called magnetosomes that contain magnetic crystals.

The researchers not only present evidence from past studies to support their theory, but also introduce some new evidence of their own. Professor Fitak mined one of the largest genetic databases of microbes, known as the Metagenomic Rapid Annotations using Subsystems Technology database, to examine cases where magnetotactic bacteria were found to be present in animal samples.

According to Professor Fitak, previous microbial diversity studies have often focused on large patterns of the presence or absence of bacteria phyla in animals rather than specific species.

"The presence of these magnetotactic bacteria had been largely overlooked, or 'lost in the mud' amongst the massive scale of these datasets."

For the first time, Professor Fitak determined that magnetotactic bacteria are associated with many animals, including penguins, loggerhead sea turtles, bats, and Atlantic right whales. While the researchers are not sure where the magnetotactic bacteria are present within the animals, they said that it could be associated with specific nervous tissue in the eye or brain.

"I'm working with the co-authors and local UCF researchers to develop a genetic test for these bacteria, and we plan to subsequently screen various animals and specific tissues, such as in sea turtles, fish, spiny lobsters and birds," said Professor Fitak.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Bacteria may give sea turtles their magnetic "sixth sense"

What gives some animals a "sixth sense" that allows them...

A toxic gas that is almost exclusively associated with life here on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/more-than-90-percent-of-earths-protected-areas-isolated/">Earth</a> has been detected in the clouds surrounding Venus. The gas, known as phosphine, is very rare and is made by bacteria that do not require oxygen for growth. 

Regardless of why it is lingering in the clouds on Venus, it comes as a major surprise to scientists. Phosphine is only produced naturally by some types of anaerobic bacteria that are found in marshes, landfills, and in animal intestines. Phosphine is also a byproduct of industrial activities.

The discovery of phosphine molecules in the clouds of Venus was announced today by an international team of astronomers led by Professor Jane Greaves of Cardiff University.

The experts first noticed signs of phosphine in observations from the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT), operated by the East Asian Observatory in Hawaii. The team partnered with the <a href="https://www.eso.org/">European Southern Observatory</a> (ESO) to confirm their discovery using 45 antennas of an even more powerful telescope - the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile.

"To our great relief, the conditions were good at ALMA for follow-up observations while Venus was at a suitable angle to Earth. Processing the data was tricky, though, as ALMA isn't usually looking for very subtle effects in very bright objects like Venus," said study co-author Anita Richards of the UK ALMA Regional Centre and the University of Manchester. 

"In the end, we found that both observatories had seen the same thing -- faint absorption at the right wavelength to be phosphine gas, where the molecules are backlit by the warmer clouds below," added Professor Greaves.

Astronomers have long speculated that Venus could host microbes in its high clouds where they can exist free from the planet's scorching hot surface. This "aerial" life is now a real possibility with the presence of phosphine molecules, which consist of hydrogen and phosphorus.

"This was an experiment made out of pure curiosity, really - taking advantage of JCMT's powerful technology, and thinking about future instruments," said Professor Greaves. "I thought we'd just be able to rule out extreme scenarios, like the clouds being stuffed full of organisms. When we got the first hints of phosphine in Venus' spectrum, it was a shock!"

The international team includes researchers from the UK, U.S. and Japan. The experts estimate that the concentration of phosphine present in the clouds is about twenty molecules per billion. 

Upon analyzing whether the phosphine in Venus's atmosphere may have non-biological sources such as volcanic activity or lightning, the researchers determined that these other planetary processes could only produce one ten thousandth of the amount of phosphine that they observed.

"The non-biological production of phosphine on Venus is excluded by our current understanding of phosphine chemistry in rocky planets' atmospheres. Confirming the existence of life on Venus's atmosphere would be a major breakthrough for astrobiology; thus, it is essential to follow-up on this exciting result with theoretical and observational studies to exclude the possibility that phosphine on rocky planets may also have a chemical origin different than on Earth," said ESO astronomer Leonardo Testi.

On Earth, bacteria produce phosphine after taking up phosphate from minerals or biological material and adding hydrogen. Any terrestrial organisms on Venus would look very different from those on our planet, but nonetheless could be the source of phosphine in the atmosphere.

While the researchers are confident that it is phosphine they have detected in Venus's clouds, they acknowledge that confirming the presence of life needs a lot more work. The high clouds of Venus are mostly made up of sulfuric acid, and it is unclear how microbes could survive this extreme level of acidity.

Further observations of Venus, including those with the ESO's upcoming Extremely Large Telescope, will help solve the mystery of how phosphine is produced on Venus.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natastron">Nature Astronomy</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Signs of life found in the clouds surrounding Venus

A toxic gas that is almost exclusively associated with life...

The introduction of invasive <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/several-endangered-species-may-be-vulnerable-to-covid-19/">species</a> through commercial transport is becoming increasingly common, and a new study has identified a potential source of nonnative plant invasions. Experts from the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/">USDA Forest Service</a> found that large numbers of plant seeds are arriving in ports across the United States in the air-intake grilles of refrigerated shipping containers.

The researchers vacuumed seeds from air-intake grilles over two seasons at the Port of Savannah, Georgia. The viability of these seeds is of particular interest to environmental and federal enforcement agencies, and the project was supervised by both. 

Overall, seeds from 30 plant taxa were collected from the air-intake grilles, including seeds of wild sugarcane, which is a grass listed on the USDA Federal Noxious Weed List.

Wild sugarcane is useful in its native environment, but this and other federal noxious weeds pose immediate and significant threats to agriculture, nursery, and forestry industries in places where they are invasive plants. 

"During the two shipping seasons, we estimate that over 40,000 seeds from this species entered the Garden City Terminal at the Port of Savannah," said study lead author Rima Lucardi. "This quantity of incoming seeds is more than sufficient to cause introduction and establishment of this nonnative invader, even if the escape rate from the shipping containers is limited."

By modeling and analyzing viable seeds from four plant taxa, the team was able to estimate which seeds may be able to survive and become established in the United States. They found that all of the groups are prolific seed producers that are wind-pollinated and wind-dispersed, with the ability to persist in a wide range of environmental conditions and climates.

Preventing nonnative plant invasions is much more cost-effective than trying to manage them once they have become widely established, and the researchers propose several possible strategies for reducing the risk of establishment. For example, a liquid herbicide could potentially be applied to containers while in port. 

"Investment in the prevention and early detection of nonnative plant species with known negative impacts results in nearly a 100-fold increase in economic return when compared to managing widespread nonnatives that can no longer be contained," said Lucardi.

The Department of Homeland Security is in charge of inspecting imported refrigerated shipping containers, and the researchers worked closely with agents of the U.S. Customs &amp; Border Protection, Agriculture Program; the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service; and the Georgia Ports Authority for the study.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive plant seeds are traveling to the U.S. in shipping containers

The introduction of invasive species through commercial transport is becoming...

Climate change is ramping up the competition for Arctic plants to attract <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-is-wiping-out-bees-and-other-wild-pollinators/">pollinators</a>, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a>. Warmer temperatures are extending the flowering periods of more plant species, as well as their need for insect pollination.

The researchers report that the most attractive plant species steal the majority of pollinators, and other flowering plants are suffering as a result.

"Most flowering plants are dependent on the pollination services provided by insects. Thus, plants need to time their flowering to periods of maximal pollinator abundances. On the other hand, plant species compete with each other for pollination. Thus, plant species flowering at the same time can affect each other's pollination success," said study lead author Mikko Tiusanen.

"Temperature is one of the most important environmental determinants of the onset of flowering. As the climate warms, plant species change their flowering periods, thereby changing their competition for pollinators."

Tiusanen explained that his team has been studying the relationship between Arctic plants and pollinators in North East Greenland, where the climate is warming twice as fast as the global average. 

"The most common flowering plant in this region is Avens, a widespread and abundant flowering species. The shape of an Avens' flower is an open, white cup of nectar, irresistibly attractive to any pollinators around. In our comparisons, Avens was found to attract many more visitors than other plant species. When in bloom, it thus monopolizes insect pollination services at the expense of other plants in flower," said Tiusanen.

The researchers analyzed the timing of flowering among various Arctic plant species under different environmental conditions, and found that higher temperatures cause flowering periods of flowering to expand significantly.

Compared to the flowering of Avens, the flowering of Moss Campion was found to advance, affecting the competition between the two species. The study revealed that with Avens in bloom at the same time, fewer insects carried the pollen of the Campion.

The findings indicate that global warming is altering competition between plant species for pollination services, and subsequently changing interactions between species. 

When a plant is flowering alongside a more attractive competitor species, the chances of pollination and ultimately the long-term survival of the plant are at risk. Rare plant species, as well as those that are less attractive to pollinators, will likely suffer the most as a consequence.

"To me, the Arctic represents a planetary research laboratory for studies of climate change," said study co-author Tomas Roslin. "The climate of this region is now changing twice as fast as the global average. What this means is that what happens in the Arctic today may later occur in the rest of the world. At the same time, relatively low species richness in the Arctic allows us to resolve their interactions in great detail." 

"But scientific reasons are only half the Arctic appeal. Northeast Greenland is one of the most beautiful areas in the world, and at the same time one of the largest uninhabited areas in the world. When studying insects here, you may even run into a polar bear. Such a combination keeps the researchers alert and awake."

The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Arctic plants face more competition for pollinators as temperatures rise

Climate change is ramping up the competition for Arctic plants...

People who endured the divorce of their parents in childhood have lower levels of the "love hormone" oxytocin in adulthood, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.baylor.edu/">Baylor University</a>. These individuals also have lower confidence levels and difficulty forming attachments compared to adults whose parents remained married. 

The researchers said the study is the first step to understanding how oxytocin levels during stressful events in childhood may affect their future. 

Oxytocin is secreted in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream as a result of bonding experiences such as giving birth or sexual intimacy. Previous studies have shown that this hormone is important for social behavior and emotional attachments in early life. The current research explores the link between early life experiences, oxytocin, and outcomes in adulthood.

Study lead author Dr. Maria Boccia is a professor of Child and Family Studies in the Robbins College of Health and Human Sciences at Baylor.

"Since the rates of divorce in our society began to increase, there has been concern about the effects of divorce on the children," said Dr. Boccia. "Most research has focused on short-term effects, like academic performance, or longer-term outcomes like the impact on relationships. How divorce causes these effects, however, is unknown."

"Oxytocin is a neurohormone that is important in regulating these behaviors and is also sensitive to the impact of stressful life events in early life," she said. "This is a first step towards understanding what mechanisms might be involved."

Researchers have previously linked parental divorce in childhood to mood disorders and substance abuse, which are behaviors related to oxytocin. In addition, childhood experiences such as divorce or death of a parent are associated with depression and anxiety in adolescents and adults, as well as with poorer parenting in adulthood.

The Baylor team examined the effect of parental divorce in childhood on later adult oxytocin levels. The participants also reported on their attachment style and other outcomes.

"What we found was that oxytocin was substantially lower in people who experienced parental divorce compared to those who did not and correlated with responses on several measures of attachment," said Dr. Boccia. "These results suggest that oxytocin levels are adversely affected by parental divorce and may be related to other effects that have been documented in people who experience parental divorce."

Individuals who had endured divorce as children rated their parents as less caring and more indifferent, and rated their fathers as more abusive. They were also found to be less confident, more uncomfortable with closeness and intimacy, and less secure in relationships. 

The results of animal studies indicate that the suppression of oxytocin activity contributes to the negative effects of early parental separation.

"One of the first questions I am asked when presenting this research to other scientists is 'does how old the child is when the divorce occurs matter?' That is the most pressing question that we need to explore," said Dr. Boccia.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/com">Journal of Comparative Psychology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Children of divorced parents have less of the "love hormone" oxytocin

People who endured the divorce of their parents in childhood...

Jupiter's moons are hotter than they should be, considering their distance from the sun, and scientists at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> are explaining why. In a process known as tidal <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cool-roofs-summer-heat-waves/">heating</a>, the gravitational push and pull that takes place among the moons seems to be heating them up more than what was expected.

The interiors of some of these icy moons are warmed up enough by tidal heating to contain oceans of liquid water. On one of Jupiter's largest moons, Io, opposing gravitational forces melt rock into magma.

It was previously assumed that Jupiter itself was responsible for most of the tidal heating, but the researchers determined that the gravitational interactions between the moons have a more powerful effect.

"It's surprising because the moons are so much smaller than Jupiter. You wouldn't expect them to be able to create such a large tidal response," said study lead author Hamish Hay.

By understanding how moons affect each other, experts can gain insight into the evolution of the moon system as a whole. Jupiter has nearly 80 moons, and the four largest are Europa, Ganymede, Io, and Callisto.

"Maintaining subsurface oceans against freezing over geological times requires a fine balance between internal heating and heat loss, and yet we have several pieces of evidence that Europa, Ganymede, Callisto and other moons should be ocean worlds," said study co-author Antony Trinh. 

"Io, the moon closest to Jupiter, shows widespread volcanic activity, another consequence of tidal heating, but at a higher intensity likely experienced by other terrestrial planets, like Earth, in their early history. Ultimately, we want to understand the source of all this heat, both for its influence on the evolution and habitability of the many worlds across the solar system and beyond."

According to Hay, tidal heating is driven by a phenomenon called tidal resonance.

"Resonance creates loads more heating. Basically, if you push any object or system and let go, it will wobble at its own natural frequency. If you keep on pushing the system at the right frequency, those oscillations get bigger and bigger, just like when you're pushing a swing. If you push the swing at the right time, it goes higher, but get the timing wrong and the swing's motion is dampened."

"These tidal resonances were known before this work, but only known for tides due to Jupiter, which can only create this resonance effect if the ocean is really thin (less than 300 meters or under 1,000 feet), which is unlikely," explained Hay. "When tidal forces act on a global ocean, it creates a tidal wave on the surface that ends up propagating around the equator with a certain frequency, or period."

The model created by the researchers indicates that Jupiter's influence alone cannot cause tidal resonance within the moons because the moons' oceans are likely too deep. It was not until the scientists accounted for the gravitational influence of the other moons that the tidal forces started to approach the natural frequencies of the moons.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19448007">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Jupiter's moons are warming each other up

Jupiter's moons are hotter than they should be, considering their...

Scientists have reconstructed a record of the Earth's climate over the last 66 million years using sediment cores collected from the ocean floor. By analyzing the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bering-sea-past-climate-shift/">sediments</a> and the microfossils contained within them, the experts can identify past climate changes. 

"Our goal was to create a new reference of past climate over the last 66 million years, which not only incorporates the highest-resolution data but is also more accurately dated," said study first author Thomas Westerhold of the the <a href="https://www.marum.de/en/index.html">University of Bremen Center for Marine Environmental Sciences</a> (MARUM). "We now know more accurately when it was warmer or colder on the planet and we also have a better understanding of the underlying dynamics."

The sediment cores were obtained over more than five decades during ocean drilling expeditions launched by the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP). 

The unprecedented geological record derived from the sediments reveals four distinctive climate states, which the researchers refer to as hothouse, warmhouse, coolhouse, and icehouse.

The experts found that these major climate states persisted for millions of years. Within each state, the climate shows variations that correspond to changes in Earth's orbit around the sun. However, these variations are relatively small changes in global temperatures compared with the dramatic shifts between different climate states.

"We've known for a long time that the glacial-interglacial cycles are paced by changes in Earth's orbit, which alter the amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface, and astronomers have been computing these orbital variations back in time," explained study co-author Professor James Zachos of <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a>.

"As we reconstructed past climates, we could see long-term coarse changes quite well. We also knew there should be finer-scale rhythmic variability due to orbital variations, but for a long time it was considered impossible to recover that signal. Now that we have succeeded in capturing the natural climate variability, we can see that the projected anthropogenic warming will be much greater than that."

For the past three million years, Earth's climate has been in an icehouse state characterized by alternating glacial and interglacial periods. Human activities, including greenhouse gas emissions, are now driving the planet toward warmhouse and hothouse climate states, which have not occurred since the Eocene epoch about 34 million years ago. During the Eocene, polar ice was non-existent and average global temperatures were 9 to 14 degrees Celsius higher than today.

"The IPCC projections for 2300 in the 'business-as-usual' scenario will potentially bring global temperature to a level the planet has not seen in 50 million years," said Professor Zachos.

"In an extreme greenhouse world with no ice, there won't be any feedback involving the ice sheets, and that changes the dynamics of the climate."

Most of the major climate transitions in the past 66 million years have been associated with changes in greenhouse gas levels. For example, rapid global warming during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum - which drove the climate into a hothouse state - was associated with a massive release of carbon into the atmosphere. In the late Eocene, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped and the climate gradually transitioned to a coolhouse state.

"The climate can become unstable when it's nearing one of these transitions, and we see less predictable responses to orbital forcing, so that's something we would like to better understand," said Professor Zachos.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Scientists reconstruct 66-million-year record of Earth's climate

Scientists have reconstructed a record of the Earth's climate over...

Vapers, smokers, and non-smokers with chronic conditions such as high blood pressure or diabetes are all at higher risk for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-may-have-arrived-in-los-angeles-last-year/">COVID-19</a>. While the common thread is not entirely clear, researchers suspect that it can be explained by the number of ACE2 receptors that are available for the coronavirus to enter.

Evidence shows that people with chronic inflammatory illnesses, older adults, and individuals who smoke or vape have an abundance of ACE2 receptor proteins, according to researchers at the <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/">University of Rochester Medical Center</a>. 

Led by Dr. Irfan Rahman, the research team has published a series of studies during the pandemic focusing on the vital role of ACE2 receptors. Dr. Rahman has taken a special interest in the growing problem of young people who test positive and may be spreading COVID-19 at alarming rates. Despite their age, children and teens who have higher levels of the ACE2 receptor seem to be more vulnerable to the virus.

"Our next step is to investigate whether ACE2 is normally low in young people, hence their relatively low infection and mortality rates from COVID-19, but to find out if ACE2 is increased by smoking or vaping rendering them more susceptible to the virus," said Dr. Rahman. "This would be in contrast to older people with lung diseases such as COPD and pulmonary fibrosis, who we already know are at higher risk for severe viral illnesses and death."

Dr. Gangandeep Kaur, a postdoctoral scientist in Dr. Rahman's lab, previously investigated tuberculosis. His experience led the experts to examine the ties between vaping and the coronavirus. 

According to one of the team's studies, the combination of smoking and aging alters more than 20 genes involved in lung cell function. This results in a spike in ACE2 receptors and three other proteins associated with the coronavirus.

The findings confirm the observations of other experts that smokers and people with chronic lung diseases such as COPD are more prone to coronavirus infection.

Using a mouse model, the scientists investigated the chronic effects of nicotine exposure on lung tissue while looking for links to known COVID-19 proteins. The team discovered other receptors with a direct relationship to ACE2 that have a significant role in regulating the inflammatory response in the lungs and cause a higher expression of ACE2. 

The researchers also found that COVID-19 patients in Wuhan, China had worse outcomes if they smoked or had more ACE2 receptors, and that ACE2 is linked to known nicotine receptors

Currently, the Rahman lab is examining blood and saliva samples of young people who have been infected with COVID-19 to evaluate ACE2 levels and see if the ACE2 protein can be a biomarker for a rapid coronavirus test.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/pharmacology">Frontiers in Pharmacology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Smoking increases the ACE2 receptors available for coronavirus infection

Vapers, smokers, and non-smokers with chronic conditions such as high...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en/research-education-and-cooperation">University of Helsinki</a> are describing how insect communities are transforming in the Arctic as a result of climate change. The researchers have investigated the presence of small yet important insect <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/australia-had-huge-predatory-dinosaurs-during-the-late-jurassic/">predators</a> known as parasitoids.

"Predators at the top of the food web give us a clue to what is happening to their prey species, too. These results increase our understanding of how global warming is changing nature. At the same time, they suggest new inroads for finding answers to big questions in the field of ecology," said study co-author Professor Tomas Roslin.

The experts collaborated with research teams in Greenland, Canada, Russia, Norway, Finland and Iceland to compare regions where the climate has changed at different rates and in different ways in recent decades. The team found clear evidence that the warming Arctic climate has already changed insect communities.

"The climate of the Arctic is currently changing about twice as fast as the global average. Therefore, the Arctic region provides an important laboratory when we try to understand the effects of climate change on nature," explained study lead author Tuomas Kankaanpää.

"To distinguish the key consequences of climate change, we have focused on some of the most important predators in the Arctic, parasitoid wasps and flies. These parasitoids are predators whose larvae develop on or within a single host individual and usually kill it in the process. And now we have found that climate change is dramatically affecting the relative dominance of different types of parasitoids."

The researchers discovered that climatic changes particularly affect the ratios between parasitoids adhering to different lifestyles. However, parasitoid species do not use the same hosts. 

Lepidoptera, such as butterflies and moths, and Diptera, such as flies and gnats, are the largest host groups of parasitoids in the Arctic. Diptera were found to be more dominant toward the north, while Lepidoptera were found to increase in diversity toward the south.

"We have found that the proportion of parasitoids preying on warmth-loving butterflies is especially in areas where summer temperatures in particular have risen in recent decades. By contrast, winter-time warming is reflected in a large representation of parasitoid species feeding on Diptera," said Kankaanpää.

"Beyond their host species, parasitoids can also be classified into two other groups based on how they use their host. Koinobionts are the true masters of the parasitic lifestyle and manipulate their host with surgical precision. Females lay their eggs in the host's egg or larva, where the parasitoid larva then waits patiently until the host has grown larger. To do this, the koinobiont must skillfully manipulate the host's immune defense to survive." 

"The second group, idiobionts, are more reminiscent of classic predators. The larvae of idiobionts start eating the host as soon as they hatch."

"These different strategies are directly reflected in the sensitivity of the two groups to climatic conditions. Koinobionts can wait until the host has retreated to sheltered conditions to hibernate before killing it. Thus, they get protection from the worst frosts. Idiobionts lack this advantage, and often paralyze the host where found, having to then live in it at the mercy of the weather."

Through their research, the experts have narrowed the ratio between parasitoids of Lepidoptera and Diptera, and between koinobionts and idiobionts, into a sensitive barometer of the effects of climate change on insects, said Kankaanpää.

"To this end, we have adopted a number of effective solutions. A common approach to predicting the effects of climate change is to compare contemporary communities of organisms in different climates. We then assume that communities in cold areas will eventually begin to resemble their current counterparts in warmer regions as the climate warms. The time dimension of change is thus replaced by distance, in what is called a space for time substitution. Now, however, we can already compare areas where the climate has changed in different ways. This is especially true in the Arctic, where change, and at the same time regional disparities, are large."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Global warming is changing insect communities in the Arctic

Experts at the University of Helsinki are describing how insect...

A new study from <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">AAAS</a> reveals that in the Brazilian Amazon, degradation has become more destructive than <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/columbia-holds-valuable-insights-for-slowing-deforestation-worldwide/">deforestation</a>. The researchers found that the total area where the biological function of the forest is degraded, and has not been converted to another use, is now greater than the amount of forest that has been completely cleared. 

A team of researchers led by Eraldo Matricardi surveyed the forest between 1992 and 2014, and found that the total area of degraded forest was 337,427 square kilometers compared to 308,311 square kilometers of forest that was cleared. 

Forest degradation is more difficult to monitor than deforestation, primarily because degrading activities such as burning, selective logging, and fragmentation can be hard to spot under an existing forest canopy. 

"This analysis considered the density, dominance, direction, and duration of five types of forest degradation over almost three decades. Edge effects and isolated forest fragments have been substantial contributors to the current degraded state of forest over the record, but the fragmentation contribution is declining while overt degradation from logging, and to a lesser degree fire, is becoming more prominent," wrote the study authors.

"We observed that there has been a transition from a deforestation-mediated fragmentation regime to one with an elevated importance of new logging and fire, which is geographically shifting to a new western 'degradation frontier.'"

To understand these dynamics, the researchers used a simple framework that accounted for two types of forest degradation activities: those that are dependent on, or tied to deforestation, and those that are more independent of deforestation, like logging.

Based on satellite imagery, the experts could pinpoint where degradation persisted and reoccurred across the Brazilian Amazon during the 25-year study period. They noted that during this particular timeframe, national policies contributed to a decline in deforestation, where forest is converted to an entirely new use such as for grazing.

Regardless, from 2006 to 2010, the average annual rate of forest degradation by logging and burning was nearly equal to the rate of deforestation. Then, by 2014, degradation rates officially exceeded deforestation rates.

"Selective logging has always been one of the first entryways into undisturbed forests, as it occurs within close proximity of existing settlement and clearing. Now, logging is demonstrating the potential to leap further distances into remote areas," wrote the study authors.

"The overall conclusion from this work is that forest degradation is a significant form of landscape and ecosystem disturbance. Degradation in the Brazilian Amazon is a persistent form of disturbance, not simply one that is eventually replaced by deforestation. Focusing attention on deforestation alone ignores an additional area of forest degraded by selective logging, understory fire, edge effects, and isolation of fragments that is equal in areal extent to cleared forest."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Forest degradation is more destructive than deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon

A new study from AAAS reveals that in the Brazilian...

The absence of sea otters is accelerating the impacts of climate change on Alaskan reefs, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a>. Explosive numbers of sea urchins are devastating Alaskan kelp forests along with the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ocean-acidification-could-cause-coral-reefs-to-fall-apart/">reefs</a> that have supported them for centuries.

After the Aleutian sea otter became functionally extinct in the 1990's, the local sea urchins have run rampant with no natural predators in this region of the North Pacific. 

The researchers discovered that these sea urchins, who have already leveled dense kelp forests, are now busy grinding down coral-like reefs that are built by the red alga Clathromorphum nereostratum.

"We discovered that massive limestone reefs built by algae underpin the Aleutian Islands' kelp forest ecosystem," said study lead author Douglas Rasher. "However, these long-lived reefs are now disappearing before our eyes, and we're looking at a collapse likely on the order of decades rather than centuries."

Clathromorphum produces a limestone skeleton that gradually forms a complex reef over hundreds of years which supports many diverse marine species. Now that urchins have devoured the kelp forests, they are scraping through the reef and consuming the alga. Boring their way through the alga's protective layer is much easier than it should be as a result of climate change.

"Ocean warming and acidification are making it difficult for calcifying organisms to produce their shells, or in this case, the alga's protective skeleton," said Rasher. "This critical species has now become highly vulnerable to urchin grazing - right as urchin abundance is peaking. It's a devastating combination."

Like tree rings, the calcified alga reef contains bands of annual growth. By examining these marks under a microscope, the researchers were able to track urchin grazing in the past. They found that this destructive activity had coincided with the past recovery and recent collapse of sea otter populations. The analysis also revealed that grazing rates have recently accelerated in correlation with rising ocean temperatures.

"It's well documented that humans are changing Earth's ecosystems by altering the climate and by removing large predators, but scientists rarely study those processes together," said Rasher. "If we had only studied the effects of climate change on Clathromorphum in the laboratory, we would have arrived at very different conclusions about the vulnerability and future of this species. Our study shows that we must view climate change through an ecological lens, or we're likely to face many surprises in the coming years."

Despite the fact that the findings are grim, they offer important insights for addressing the growing issues associated with predator loss and climate change. For example, restoring sea otters could potentially control the urchins and allow the reef to recover. 

"This is exciting because it suggests that resource managers have opportunities to manage large predators in ways that can help slow the rate with which climate change is deteriorating our natural ecosystems," said Rasher. "In the case of Aleutian kelp forests, restoring sea otter populations would bring many ecological benefits, and would also buy us time to get our act together on curbing carbon emissions, before this foundational reef builder is lost."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Loss of sea otters is devastating Alaskan kelp forests

The absence of sea otters is accelerating the impacts of...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...