A new study has found that more than 3,600 chemicals that leach into food during manufacturing, processing, packaging, and storage end up in the human body - and some are linked to serious health issues.



Martin Wagner is a professor of biology at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a> in Trondheim who was not involved in the research.&nbsp;



“This is a staggering number and shows that food contact materials are a significant source of chemicals in humans,” Wagner told CNN.&nbsp;



“The study is the first to systematically link the chemicals we use in materials to package and process foods to human exposure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-food-chemicals-nbsp">Cancer-causing food chemicals&nbsp;</h2>



Published in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41370-024-00718-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Exposure Science &amp; Environmental Epidemiology</a>, the study identified 79 food-processing chemicals found in the body that are known to cause cancer, genetic mutations, endocrine and reproductive issues, and other health concerns.



Senior study author Jane Muncke, managing director and chief scientific officer at the <a href="https://www.foodpackagingforum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Packaging Forum</a> - a nonprofit foundation based in Zurich, Switzerland - emphasized that many more chemicals may be harmful in ways science has yet to determine.&nbsp;



“We’re measuring not only the chemicals that were known to be used in the food manufacturing process, but all the gunk as well - the byproducts and impurities that we call non-intentionally added substances,” said Muncke.&nbsp;



“Those substances are always present in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/4200-harmful-plastic-chemicals-hidden-in-everyday-objects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a>, in can and package coatings, in printing inks and so on. They may not have a technical function in the food processing, but they are there regardless and migrating into people, and we measure them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-regulation-and-food-safety">Chemical regulation and food safety</h2>



The <a href="https://www.americanchemistry.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemistry Council</a>, an industry association, responded by stating that its members are dedicated to food safety.&nbsp;



“It is essential, however, when assessing potential risks to consider a broader context, including existing regulatory frameworks, scientific evidence, and the actual levels and degree of exposure that may exist,” said a council spokesperson.&nbsp;



“Any proposed actions lacking this context, particularly when causality has not been definitively established, is inconsistent with risk-based U.S. chemical regulation laws.”



Muncke pointed out that while food contact materials may comply with current government regulations, the study highlights that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/9936-chemicals-found-in-plastic-products-used-for-food-packaging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a> may not be fully safe.&nbsp;



“We don’t know exactly what the amount is that’s been used in food packaging or other food contact materials versus the amount that’s being used for cosmetics, personal care products, textiles, and so on and so forth, right? I would like to have that information,” said Muncke.&nbsp;



“I think it would be fantastic to make it a regulatory requirement for companies to declare how much and what type of chemicals they are putting into my food or plastic water bottle.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bisphenol-a-exposure">Bisphenol A exposure</h2>



One chemical detected in both food and the human body is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bpa-replaced-bad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bisphenol A</a>, or BPA, which was used to create baby bottles, sippy cups, and infant formula containers until concerned parents boycotted those products more than a decade ago.&nbsp;



BPA is an endocrine disruptor linked to fetal abnormalities, low birth weight, and brain and behavior disorders in infants and children. In adults, it has been associated with diabetes, heart disease, erectile dysfunction, cancer, and a 49% higher risk of early death within 10 years.



Bisphenol A can leach into food from the linings of canned foods, polycarbonate tableware, food storage containers, and water bottles, according to the <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forever-chemicals-in-food-materials-nbsp">Forever chemicals in food materials&nbsp;</h2>



“The study also shows that food contact materials can contain mutagenic chemicals that harm our DNA, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heavy-metals-in-food-pose-a-threat-to-childrens-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heavy metals</a>,” Wagner said. 



“There is strong evidence that humans are exposed to PFAS, so-called forever chemicals, from food packaging that are very persistent, bioaccumulate, and cause organ toxicity.”



Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-microbes-discovered-destroys-pfas-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PFAS</a>, are present in the blood of an estimated 98% of Americans, according to the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.&nbsp;



These hormone-disrupting chemicals are so concerning that in July 2022, the Academies set “nanogram” levels of concern and called for testing of high-risk individuals, including infants and older adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-chemicals-in-food-packaging-nbsp">Additional chemicals in food packaging&nbsp;</h2>



Another chemical group in food packaging that has migrated into people is phthalates, the research revealed.&nbsp;



Found in shampoo, makeup, perfume, children's toys, and food containers, phthalates have been linked to genital malformations and undescended testes in baby boys, as well as lower sperm counts and testosterone levels in adult males.&nbsp;



Previous studies have also associated phthalates with childhood obesity, asthma, cardiovascular issues, cancer, and premature death in people aged 55 to 64.



In the new study, researchers compared 14,000 chemicals known to come into contact with food during the packaging process with worldwide databases that monitor human exposure to potential chemical toxins. All the research data has been uploaded to an open database for scientific use.



“We’ve got, say, 60 years of research into the migration of chemicals into food from food processing and packaging equipment. It’s been studied very extensively,” Muncke said.&nbsp;



“And at the same time, there’s increasingly good, powerful studies coming out on Bisphenol A, on phthalates, on PFAS, brominated flame retardants and so forth that are associated with diseases in people.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-chemicals-in-the-human-body">Tracking chemicals in the human body</h2>



What was lacking in the literature was a comparison between what was found in people and the chemicals known to migrate into food during processing.&nbsp;



To connect the dots, Muncke and her colleagues looked at national and regional biomonitoring databases that track chemicals in human blood, urine, breast milk, tissue samples, and other biomarkers.



For the study, researchers used data from the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</a> (NHANES), which gathers yearly health and nutrition data on Americans, as well as other databases.&nbsp;



Of the 14,000 chemicals known to migrate into food during processing and packaging, only a few hundred are measured in people by these programs.&nbsp;



For example, only 172 chemicals detected in food contact materials are monitored in the United States by NHANES - 144 of these chemicals have been detected in some populations, Muncke said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tens-of-thousands-of-food-contact-chemicals-nbsp">Tens of thousands of food contact chemicals&nbsp;</h2>



“Given that there are (tens) of thousands of food contact chemicals, biomonitoring programs do not have the capacity to test for all chemicals we are potentially exposed to,” Wagner said. 



“This creates biases towards very well-studied substances and leaves a big gap in our knowledge on all the other chemicals we potentially have in our bodies.”



Having a chemical in the body does not necessarily mean it is harmful, said Melanie Benesh, vice president of government affairs for the <a href="https://www.ewg.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Working Group</a> (EWG), a consumer organization that monitors exposure to PFAS and other dangerous chemicals.&nbsp;



“Yet you’re not supposed to be born with any chemical inside of you,” said Benesh. “The bigger question is, do we really need these chemicals to process our food? When there are chemicals in our bodies that we know have the potential to cause us harm, we should be eliminating every route of exposure that we can.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fda-loophole-for-food-contact-substances-nbsp">FDA loophole for food contact substances&nbsp;</h2>



Since 2000, nearly 99% of any new food contact chemicals were approved for use by the food and chemical industry, not the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA), according to a 2022 analysis by EWG. 



In that 22-year period, food manufacturers asked the FDA's permission to introduce a chemical only 10 times, the analysis said. 



Instead, "companies have exploited a loophole for substances that are ‘generally recognized as safe,’ or GRAS. The loophole lets food manufacturers - not the FDA - decide a substance is safe,” the EWG report stated.



Created by an amendment in the 1950s to the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, GRAS was intended to be applied narrowly to common ingredients such as sugar, vinegar, and baking soda.



The <a href="https://www.gao.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Government Accountability Office</a> (GAO) released a <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/d23104434.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> in November 2022 highlighting FDA limitations in monitoring the nation’s food safety, including the agency’s lack of legal authority over food manufacturers.&nbsp;



“In addition, FDA does not track the date of the last pre- or post market review for all food contact substances in a way that allows FDA to readily identify substances that may warrant a postmarket review because new safety information may have emerged,” the GAO report stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plans-to-improve-food-chemical-safety">Plans to improve food chemical safety </h2>



FDA's deputy commissioner for human foods, Jim Jones, told the <a href="https://energycommerce.house.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. House Committee on Energy and Commerce</a>'s subcommittee on health last week that the FDA has made food chemical safety a top priority.&nbsp;



“However, there are also important gaps that need to be addressed as we undertake the work to strengthen our food chemical safety activities,” said Jones.&nbsp;



“Ready access to safety information and consumer exposure data on chemicals in need of review would help us conduct faster and more robust safety evaluations and reassessments." 



"Access to this data would allow FDA to take any necessary regulatory actions in a timely manner to protect consumers and help ensure food safety.”



For the first time, the FDA will hold a public hearing, slated for September 25, on enhancing its assessment of chemicals found in food, including food and color additives, food contact substances, potential contaminants and pesticides, and ingredients considered generally recognized as safe.



“This is unprecedented. This is the first time the FDA is talking about standing up a rigorous review program that puts human health first, that puts chemical safety first, and that restores some of the trust consumers have lost in the agency,” Benesh concluded.



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Toxic chemicals from food production pass into the human body

A new study has found that more than 3,600 chemicals that leach into food during manufacturing, processing, packaging, and storage end up in the human body - and some are linked to serious health issues. Martin Wagner is a professor of biology at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim who was not involved in the research.&nbsp; “This is a staggering number and shows that food contact materials are a significant source of chemicals in humans,” Wagner told CNN.&nbsp; “The study is the first to...

Ever wondered why your morning cup is non-negotiable,&nbsp;while others can easily skip it?&nbsp;Or maybe you've pondered the endless debate:&nbsp;is coffee a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecule-in-coffee-trigonelline-keeps-muscles-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health hero</a> or villain?&nbsp;Recent research suggests the answer to both questions might be entwined with your genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-in-daily-lives">Coffee in daily lives</h2>



Coffee,&nbsp;a beloved beverage enjoyed worldwide,&nbsp;is made from the roasted seeds of the Coffea plant.&nbsp;Originating in Ethiopia,&nbsp;coffee beans are now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-fight-climate-change-with-a-genetic-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultivated</a> in various regions across the globe,&nbsp;with popular varieties like Arabica and Robusta offering distinct flavors and aromas.



Coffee plays a significant role in many people's lives,&nbsp;serving as a morning ritual,&nbsp;a social catalyst,&nbsp;and a source of energy due to its caffeine content.



Whether enjoyed black,&nbsp;with cream and sugar,&nbsp;or in elaborate specialty <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dedicated-coffee-drinkers-have-lower-blood-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinks</a>,&nbsp;coffee holds a special place in cultures around the world,&nbsp;fostering connection and providing a much-needed boost to start the day or overcome afternoon slumps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-craving-genes">Coffee craving genes</h2>



The factors influencing an individual's coffee consumption extend beyond personal taste preferences or a desire for caffeine.&nbsp;Emerging research suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-genome-adapted-to-climate-changes-over-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic predispositions</a> play a significant role in shaping coffee habits.&nbsp;



This means that an individual's inclination towards specific types of coffee,&nbsp;such as a double espresso or black coffee,&nbsp;could be partly influenced by their inherited genetic traits.&nbsp;



These findings challenge the conventional understanding of coffee consumption as solely a matter of choice,&nbsp;suggesting a deeper biological basis for this widespread habit.



This fascinating revelation comes from a recent study published in&nbsp;Neuropsychopharmacology,&nbsp;where researchers delved into massive databases from 23andMe and the UK Biobank.&nbsp;They sought to unravel the link between our genes and our caffeine cravings.



"We had good reason to suspect from earlier papers that there were genes that influence how much coffee someone consumes," noted Dr. Abraham Palmer,&nbsp;a professor at <a href="https://medschool.ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Diego School of Medicine</a> and a lead researcher on the study.



"In other words, the particular gene variants that you inherit from your parents influence how much coffee you're likely to consume."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-consumption-beyond-genes">Coffee consumption beyond genes</h2>



The research expanded beyond the genetic influences on coffee consumption to explore the broader question of coffee's impact on health.&nbsp;This involved investigating whether coffee consumption is associated with positive or negative health outcomes.&nbsp;



This added layer of inquiry aimed to address the ongoing debate about the potential benefits and risks of coffee consumption,&nbsp;providing a more comprehensive understanding of its role in overall well-being.



“The second is something that coffee lovers are really keen on learning," said Dr. Sandra Sanchez-Roige. "Is drinking coffee good or bad? Is it associated with positive health outcomes or not?” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-genes-and-risks">Coffee genes and risks</h2>



The study's findings regarding coffee's impact on health were multifaceted and surprising.&nbsp;Initial analysis revealed consistent positive genetic associations between coffee and harmful health outcomes, such as obesity and substance use.&nbsp;



The research yielded potentially positive outcomes concerning psychiatric conditions like anxiety, depression,&nbsp;and bipolar disorder.&nbsp;However, the results were complex and varied across the different datasets used in the study. 



The findings suggest a more nuanced relationship between coffee consumption and mental health than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surveys-on-coffee-consumption">Surveys on coffee consumption</h2>



So,&nbsp;what explains these puzzling differences?&nbsp;The researchers suspect it might have to do with how the surveys about coffee consumption were conducted.&nbsp;The questions asked in the 23andMe and UK Biobank surveys differed,&nbsp;potentially influencing the results.



"We know that in the U.K., they have generally higher preference for instant coffee, whereas ground coffee is more preferred in the U.S," noted Dr. Hayley H.A. Thorpe,&nbsp;the lead author of the study.



Beyond just the type of coffee,&nbsp;the surveys didn't account for how coffee is prepared or consumed,&nbsp;leading to a potential mismatch in data.&nbsp;Plus,&nbsp;other caffeinated drinks like tea weren't considered,&nbsp;potentially skewing the results,&nbsp;especially for the UK population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-environment-and-a-cup-of-coffee">Genes, environment, and a cup of coffee</h2>



So,&nbsp;what's the final verdict?&nbsp;As with many things in science,&nbsp;it's not a simple answer.&nbsp;The research highlights a complex interplay between genetics and the environment when it comes to our coffee habits and their potential health impacts.



"Unlike height, where your behavior doesn't really have much to do with it, your behavior and the choices you're making in your environment play out in various ways. So the interaction between genotype and environment complicates the picture," said Dr. Sanchez-Roige.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-coffee-research">Future of coffee research</h2>



This study serves as a reminder that the relationship between our genes and our daily choices is a captivating puzzle.&nbsp;It also underscores the importance of considering cultural and environmental factors when studying health and behavior.



So,&nbsp;the next time you reach for your favorite mug,&nbsp;remember:&nbsp;your genes might be playing a part in that craving.&nbsp;



And whether coffee is a health boon or bane?&nbsp;The answer might be as unique as your genes and the way you take your coffee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-for-coffee-consumers">Tips for coffee consumers</h2>



Regular coffee consumers must keep the following in mind:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-don-t-fight-your-genes">Don't fight your genes</h3>



If you have a strong craving for coffee,&nbsp;it might be partly due to your genetic makeup.&nbsp;Don't feel guilty about enjoying your daily cup(s) in moderation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consider-your-mental-health">Consider your mental health</h3>



If you have a history of anxiety,&nbsp;depression,&nbsp;or bipolar disorder,&nbsp;it might be wise to monitor your coffee intake and observe how it affects you.&nbsp;



While the research is mixed,&nbsp;some studies suggest a potential link between coffee consumption and these conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-over-quantity-nbsp">Quality over quantity&nbsp;</h3>



Focus on enjoying high-quality coffee rather than consuming large amounts.&nbsp;The study didn't distinguish between different types of coffee,&nbsp;but opting for freshly ground beans and avoiding sugary additives might be a healthier choice.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listen-to-your-body">Listen to your body</h3>



Pay attention to how coffee makes you feel.&nbsp;If you experience negative side effects like jitters, anxiety,&nbsp;or sleep disturbances,&nbsp;it might be a sign to cut back.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variety-is-key">Variety is key</h3>



Explore different types of coffee, preparation methods, and even other caffeinated beverages like tea. This can help you discover what works best for your body and preferences.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-024-01870-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuropsychopharmacology</a>.



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Is coffee good for you? It may depend on your genes

Ever wondered why your morning cup is non-negotiable,&nbsp;while others can...

Colliding,Of,Two,Quasars,Galaxies,With,Black,Hole,In,Centrum

Let us transport ourselves back in time to an era when the universe was a mere 900 million years old, a period known as the "Cosmic Dawn."



Amidst this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of our universe, astronomers have made an extraordinary discovery: a pair of merging quasars, each powered by a supermassive black hole, locked in a gravitational dance of immense scale and energy.



This observation offers a rare glimpse into the dynamic processes that shaped the early universe and its structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supermassive-hearts-of-merging-quasars">Supermassive hearts of merging quasars</h2>



Before delving into this celestial phenomenon, it's essential to understand the key players. Quasars are exceedingly luminous astronomical objects that often outshine entire galaxies. 



This immense energy output is generated by a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-black-holes-and-quasars-grew-faster-than-their-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> residing at the core of the quasar.



These black holes, millions or even billions of times more massive than our Sun, exert a gravitational pull so powerful that it draws in surrounding matter.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_NOIRlab_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_NOIRlab_1s.jpg" alt="Merging quasars from the 'Cosmic Dawn' reveal how the universe was formed. Credit: NOIRlab/NSF" class="wp-image-1936883"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Merging quasars from the 'Cosmic Dawn' reveal how the universe was formed. Credit: NOIRlab/NSF</figcaption></figure>



As this matter spirals towards the black hole, it forms an accretion disk, a swirling vortex of gas and dust. 



Within this disk, intense frictional and gravitational forces generate extreme temperatures, causing the matter to emit vast amounts of radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum.



This radiant energy is what makes quasars some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quasar-j0529-4351-brightest-object-ever-seen-eats-one-star-per-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brightest objects</a> in the observable universe. The study of quasars provides valuable insights into the evolution of galaxies and the behavior of matter under extreme gravitational conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-dawn">Cosmic dawn</h2>



The early universe, a period known as the Cosmic Dawn, was a time of immense change. Roughly 50 million years after the Big Bang, the first stars and galaxies began to form, marking a pivotal shift from darkness to light. 



This emergence of luminous objects initiated the Epoch of Reionization, a transformative phase in cosmic history.



During the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-what-powered-the-reionization-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Epoch of Reionization</a>, the universe's abundant neutral hydrogen gas was bombarded with intense ultraviolet radiation emitted by these nascent stars and galaxies. 



This radiation had enough energy to strip electrons from the hydrogen atoms, a process known as ionization.



The ionization of hydrogen fundamentally altered the properties of the universe, making it transparent to certain wavelengths of light and paving the way for the formation of the complex structures, such as galaxies and galaxy clusters, that we observe in the universe today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-merging-quasars-discovered">Merging quasars discovered</h2>



Enter Yoshiki Matsuoka, an astronomer at <a href="https://www.ehime-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ehime University</a> in Japan, and his astute team. While meticulously examining images captured by the <a href="https://www.naoj.org/Projects/HSC/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hyper Suprime-Cam</a> on the <a href="https://subarutelescope.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subaru Telescope</a>, they noticed a curious pair of red dots nestled closely together. 



"The discovery was purely serendipitous," Matsuoka remarked, unaware of the remarkable implications this chance observation held.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_Subaru-telescope_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_Subaru-telescope_1s.jpg" alt="Subaru telescope captures two quasars merging in the early universe. Credit: NOIRLab/NSF" class="wp-image-1936878"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Subaru telescope captures two quasars merging in the early universe. Credit: NOIRLab/NSF</figcaption></figure>



Upon closer inspection, these red dots were revealed to be quasars, each harboring a colossal black hole exceeding 100 million solar masses. 



Astoundingly, these quasars were separated by a mere 10,000 light-years, a distance comparable to the width of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-chimney-venting-found-heart-milky-way-galaxy-sagittarius-a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.



This close proximity was no mere coincidence but a telltale sign of a cataclysmic merger in progress. The host galaxies of these quasars were locked in a gravitational embrace, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-holes-are-very-messy-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> spiraling towards an inevitable collision.



This merger will ultimately give birth to a single, even more monstrous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>, forever altering the cosmic landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaseous-bridge">Gaseous bridge</h2>



The Gemini Near-Infrared Spectrograph (<a href="https://www.gemini.edu/instrumentation/gnirs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GNIRS</a>) on <a href="https://www.gemini.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gemini North</a> played a crucial role in confirming the identity of these merging quasars and uncovering the secrets of their host galaxies.



“What we learned from the GNIRS observations was that the quasars are too faint to detect in near-infrared, even with one of the largest telescopes on the ground," Matsuoka revealed.



This faintness indicated that a portion of the observed light originated not from the quasars themselves but from the intense star formation occurring within their merging galaxies. 



Furthermore, the GNIRS observations detected a bridge of gas connecting the two quasars, providing compelling evidence of their impending merger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-the-early-universe">Glimpse into the early universe</h2>



This monumental discovery offers a rare glimpse into a period of the universe that has long remained elusive. 



By studying these distant objects, astronomers can unlock valuable insights into the processes that shaped the early universe and laid the foundation for the magnificent cosmic structures we marvel at today.



The discovery of this merging quasar pair marks a significant milestone in our understanding of the cosmos. 



As astronomers venture deeper into the universe's mysteries, they anticipate uncovering more of these enigmatic objects, gradually piecing together the intricate puzzle of the early universe's evolution.



The highly anticipated Vera C. Rubin Observatory's Legacy Survey of Space and Time (<a href="https://kipac.stanford.edu/research/projects/vera-rubin-observatorys-legacy-survey-space-and-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LSST</a>) is poised to revolutionize quasar research. 



With its unparalleled ability to peer into the depths of space, the LSST is expected to detect millions of quasars, ushering in a new era of discovery and unveiling the secrets of these cosmic powerhouses.



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Merging quasars from the 'Cosmic Dawn' reveal how the universe was formed

Let us transport ourselves back in time to an era...

A major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-have-long-lasting-impacts-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquake</a> 2,500 years ago caused a dramatic course change in one of the world's largest rivers, the Ganges, in what is now Bangladesh, a densely populated area still susceptible to significant seismic activity.&nbsp;



The experts found that this previously undocumented earthquake rerouted the main channel of the Ganges River.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-river-course-change">Massive river-course change</h2>



While river-course changes, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cause-catastrophic-river-avulsions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avulsions</a>, have been documented before, this one stands out due to its scale.&nbsp;



“I don’t think we have ever seen such a big one anywhere,” said co-author Michael Steckler, a geophysicist at the <a href="https://lamont.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory</a>. According to Steckler, such an event could have flooded the surrounding area, posing a significant threat to any inhabitants.



“It was not previously confirmed that earthquakes could drive avulsion in deltas, especially for an immense river like the Ganges,” said lead author Liz Chamberlain, a geophysicist at&nbsp; <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wageningen University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ganges-river-system">The Ganges River system</h2>



The Ganges River, originating in the Himalayas, flows approximately 1,600 miles and merges with other significant rivers such as the Brahmaputra and the Meghna, forming a complex system of waterways that empty into the Bay of Bengal. This system is the world's second-largest river system by discharge, after the Amazon.



Rivers in major deltas often change course over time due to sediment buildup, causing the river bed to rise and eventually breach, redirecting the flow.&nbsp;



Typically, these changes happen gradually through successive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floods</a> over years or decades. However, an earthquake-induced avulsion, as Steckler explains, can occur almost instantaneously.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ancient-main-channel-nbsp-of-the-ganges">The ancient main channel&nbsp;of the Ganges </h2>



The researchers identified what they believe to be the ancient main channel of the river, located about 100 kilometers south of Dhaka, Bangladesh's capital. This area, now used primarily for rice cultivation, is prone to frequent flooding.&nbsp;



During fieldwork in 2018, Chamberlain's team discovered vertical dikes of light-colored sand cutting through horizontal layers of mud in a freshly excavated pond. These features, known as seismites, indicate past earthquake activity. The seismites were 30 to 40 centimeters wide, extending through three to four meters of mud.



Further analysis showed that the seismites formed around 2,500 years ago, coinciding with the abandonment and infilling of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-colors-are-shifting-from-blue-to-yellow-and-green/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> channel. Similar findings were observed 85 kilometers downstream.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avulsion-caused-by-an-earthquake">Avulsion caused by an earthquake</h2>



The researchers concluded that this was a significant avulsion caused by an earthquake, likely of magnitude seven or eight.



The potential sources of the quake are twofold: a subduction zone to the south and east, or giant splay faults at the base of the Himalayas. Both zones are accumulating stress and could produce similar earthquakes in the future, as evidenced by a <a href="https://www.earth.columbia.edu/articles/view/3336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2016 study</a> led by Steckler.&nbsp;



The last comparable quake occurred in 1762, generating a deadly tsunami that reached Dhaka, with another possible event around 1140 CE.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-risks-of-river-avulsion">Modern risks of river avulsion</h2>



The 2016 study estimated that a modern recurrence of such a quake could impact 140 million people.&nbsp;



“Large earthquakes impact large areas and can have long-lasting economic, social and political effects,” said Syed Humayun Akhter, vice-chancellor of <a href="https://www.bou.ac.bd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bangladesh Open University </a>and co-author of both studies.



The Ganges is not alone in facing these risks. Other rivers in tectonically active deltas include China’s Yellow River, Myanmar’s Irrawaddy, several rivers off the U.S. West Coast, and the Jordan River, which spans the borders of Syria, Jordan, the Palestinian West Bank, and Israel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-ganges-river-nbsp">More about the Ganges River&nbsp;</h2>



The Ganges River is one of the most significant and sacred rivers in the world. It originates from the Gangotri Glacier in the Indian Himalayas. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-extent-of-microplastic-contamination-in-the-ganges-river/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> is revered in Hinduism, with millions of devotees considering its waters to be purifying and holy.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cradle-of-civilization-nbsp">Cradle of civilization&nbsp;</h3>



Historically, the Ganges has been a cradle of civilization, supporting agriculture and sustaining major cities along its banks, such as Varanasi, Haridwar, and Kolkata.&nbsp;



The fertile plains of the Ganges basin have been vital for India's food production, particularly in growing rice and wheat.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-threats-nbsp">Environmental threats&nbsp;</h3>



However, the river faces significant environmental challenges, including pollution from industrial waste, sewage, and religious offerings, which threaten its ecosystem and the health of those who depend on its waters.



Efforts to clean and conserve the Ganges have been ongoing, with government initiatives like the National Mission for Clean Ganga aiming to reduce pollution and restore its ecological balance.&nbsp;



Despite these challenges, the Ganges remains a symbol of life, spirituality, and resilience for millions of people.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47786-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Massive earthquake changed the course of the Ganges River

A major earthquake 2,500 years ago caused a dramatic course...

A unique celestial "lunar standstill" event will be observed at Stonehenge this week, with a live stream available on YouTube at 21:30 BST (16:30 EST) on Friday, June 21. 



The famous monument is known for its alignment with the sunrise on the summer solstice, which occurs this year on Thursday, June 20. 



This year, however, there is an added phenomenon: one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-weekends-strawberry-moon-is-the-sweetest-of-the-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">southernmost moonrises</a> during a rare lunistice, or “major lunar standstill.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-lunar-standstill-nbsp">Rare lunar standstill&nbsp;</h2>



In addition to the sun rising behind Stonehenge's Heel Stone on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/summer-solstice-midsummer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">summer solstice</a>, the moonrise on the same day will also be significant due to the major lunar standstill.&nbsp;



Occurring every 18.6 years, this event happens when both Earth and the moon are at their maximum tilts. This results in the moon rising and setting at its most extreme positions on the horizon.



According to <a href="https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/things-to-do/major-lunar-standstill/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">English Heritage</a>, the four Station Stones at Stonehenge align with the direction of the southernmost moonrise during the major lunar standstill.&nbsp;



“Stonehenge’s architectural connection to the Sun is well known, but its link with the moon is less well understood,” said Clive Ruggles, emeritus professor of archaeoastronomy at the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>.&nbsp;



“The four Station Stones align with the moon’s extreme positions, and researchers have debated for years whether this was deliberate, and - if so - how this was achieved and what might have been its purpose.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-moon-aligns-with-stonehenge">When the moon aligns with Stonehenge </h2>



The major lunar standstill is challenging to capture because the extreme points of moonrise do not coincide conveniently with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-weekends-strawberry-moon-is-the-sweetest-of-the-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">full moons</a> but occur randomly during various moon phases from 2024 into 2025.&nbsp;



The most extreme points are near the equinoxes, not the solstices, making this week’s near-full moonrise on the solstice a rare and dramatic event.



Scientists will be stationed at Stonehenge throughout the “standstill season” to document the moon's alignments with the Station Stones. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minor-lunar-standstills">Minor lunar standstills</h2>



A minor lunar standstill is a similar astronomical event that occurs approximately halfway between two major lunar standstills, which happen every 18.6 years. During a minor lunar standstill, the Moon's monthly path swings less far north and south in the sky compared to a major lunar standstill.



This phenomenon occurs because the Moon's orbit is tilted by about 5 degrees relative to the Earth's equator. As the Earth rotates around the Sun, the direction of the Moon's orbital tilt gradually shifts over a period of 18.6 years. 



Halfway through this cycle, or about 9.3 years after a major lunar standstill, the Moon's orbit aligns in such a way that its monthly declination range is at its minimum, resulting in a minor lunar standstill.



During a minor lunar standstill, the Moon still rises and sets at different points on the horizon throughout the month, but the range of these positions is smaller than during a major lunar standstill.



 As a result, the Moon's path in the sky appears less extreme, and it does not rise or set as far north or south as it does during a major standstill.



Astronomers and sky enthusiasts observe minor lunar standstills to better understand the complex motion of the Moon and its relationship to the Earth and the Sun. 



While minor lunar standstills may not be as visually striking as major ones, they still offer opportunities to witness the Moon's unique behavior in the sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiencing-the-extreme-moonrise-nbsp">Experiencing the extreme moonrise&nbsp;</h2>



“Unlike the Sun, tracking the Moon’s extremes isn’t straightforward, requiring specific timing and weather conditions,” said Amanda Chadburn from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>’s Kellogg College.&nbsp;



“We want to understand something of what it was like to experience these extreme moonrises and sets and to witness their visual effects on the stones - for example, patterns of light and shadow - and consider modern influences like traffic and trees, and to document all of this through photography for future study,” she concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-stonehenge-nbsp">More about Stonehenge&nbsp;</h2>



Stonehenge is an ancient prehistoric monument located in Wiltshire, England. It's composed of a ring of standing stones, each around 13 feet high, seven feet wide, and weighing approximately 25 tons.&nbsp;



Archaeologists believe that Stonehenge was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The site is part of a larger complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in the area, including several hundred burial mounds.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-purpose">Mysterious purpose</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stonehenge-has-a-mysterious-connection-with-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">purpose</a> of Stonehenge remains a topic of debate among scholars, with theories ranging from its use as an astronomical observatory to a ceremonial site for ancient rituals.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origin-of-the-stones">Origin of the stones</h3>



The stones are thought to have been transported from long distances, with the smaller bluestones originating from the Preseli Hills in Wales, about 150 miles away.&nbsp;



This feat would have required significant human effort and ingenuity, highlighting the organizational skills of the ancient builders.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-construction-nbsp">Construction&nbsp;</h3>



Stonehenge's construction occurred in several stages, beginning with a circular earthwork enclosure in 3000 BC.&nbsp;



The iconic stone circle we see today was erected in the late Neolithic period, around 2500 BC. Subsequent modifications continued into the Bronze Age, reflecting the site's ongoing importance to successive cultures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-heel-stone-nbsp">The Heel Stone&nbsp;</h3>



The alignment of Stonehenge's stones has fascinated many, as some align with the movements of the sun.&nbsp;



For example, during the summer solstice, the sun rises over the Heel Stone, situated outside the main circle. This alignment has led to theories that Stonehenge served as a solar calendar or a place of sun worship.



Today, Stonehenge is a UNESCO World Heritage site, attracting over a million visitors annually.&nbsp;



Despite extensive research, it continues to hold many secrets, captivating the imagination of people worldwide with its mysterious origins and purpose.



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Rare lunar standstill will illuminate Stonehenge this week

A unique celestial "lunar standstill" event will be observed at...

The migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-dramatically-increases-the-threat-of-desert-locusts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">locust</a>, Locusta migratoria, a notorious crop pest, has long been known for its devastating swarms that threaten agriculture and food security, particularly in Africa and Asia. 



Recent research by scientists at the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> has revealed the unique olfactory brain structure of these locusts. 



Unlike other insects, migratory locusts have over 2,000 glomeruli in their antennal lobe, compared to 20-300 in most insects. This distinctive feature enables complex odor processing in the locusts, crucial for their behavior and swarming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-odor-processing">Complex odor processing </h2>



Migratory locusts’ antennal lobes, essential for odor processing, exhibit a complex neuronal architecture. This complex structure, with more than 2,000 spherical functional units known as glomeruli, differs significantly from the much lower number of glomeruli found in other insects.&nbsp;



This unique configuration has puzzled scientists for decades. Now, the experts aimed to decode how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odors</a> are encoded within this extensive network of glomeruli.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-brain-activation-in-locusts">Mapping brain activation in locusts</h2>



The introduction of CRISPR/Cas9 was a game-changer for the researchers, enabling the development of the first transgenic migratory locusts expressing GCaMP, a genetically encoded calcium sensor. This sensor fluoresces upon binding calcium, released when cells are active.&nbsp;



Using functional 2-photon calcium imaging, the team could map spatial activation patterns in the locusts’ antennal lobes for a variety of ecologically relevant odors across all six developmental stages.



“Our results reveal an unusual functional ring-shaped organization of the antennal lobe,” explained Silke Sachse, head of the Olfactory Coding Research Group at Max Planck.&nbsp;



This structure consists of specific glomerular clusters consistently present throughout the locust's development, from nymph stages to adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-research-nbsp">Challenging research&nbsp;</h2>



Achieving gene transformation in migratory locusts, which are not standard model organisms like Drosophila melanogaster, was particularly challenging.&nbsp;



The large brain volume of locusts further complicated imaging and data analysis. “We are the first group in the world to successfully apply the site-specific knock-in method to locusts,” Jiang said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spatial-odor-coding-in-locusts-nbsp">Spatial odor coding in locusts&nbsp;</h2>



Interestingly, the locust’s spatial odor coding reflects the chemical structure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-the-smell-of-fear-to-control-garden-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odors</a> rather than their valence. This is unlike flies, where the valence (pleasant or repulsive) is represented in the antennal lobe. 



“We have observed that odors of certain chemical classes evoke a certain pattern: For example, aromatic compounds with similar chemical structure but opposite behavioral significance evoke stronger responses in the peripheral regions of the antennal lobe,” noted co-lead author Bill Hansson, Director of the Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology at Max Planck.



“We conclude that the representation of odor valence is not encoded in the antennal lobe, but in higher brain centers such as the mushroom body and the lateral horn.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-odor-perception-in-locusts-nbsp">Understanding odor perception in locusts&nbsp;</h2>



The unique ring structure of the olfactory code in migratory locusts raises questions about its advantages or disadvantages compared to other insects. Future studies aim to investigate if other locust species exhibit similar coding patterns.&nbsp;



Understanding odor perception and processing in locusts is crucial for comprehending their ecological interactions and could aid in developing better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pest-control-product-nemaslug-could-harm-beneficial-snails/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest control</a> strategies. 



“We believe that a better understanding of the odor coding mechanisms in the primary olfactory center of the locust brain will significantly deepen our knowledge of the neuronal modulation underlying olfaction-mediated behaviors, such as the formation of locust swarms,” Hanssen concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sense-of-smell-in-migratory-locusts-nbsp">Sense of smell in migratory locusts&nbsp;</h2>



Migratory locusts possess a highly developed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a>, which plays a crucial role in their survival and behavior. Their olfactory system allows them to detect and respond to a variety of chemical cues in their environment. 



Their sophisticated sense of smell helps the locusts locate food sources, identify suitable habitats, and communicate with other locusts.&nbsp;



The antennae of migratory locusts are equipped with numerous sensory receptors that can detect specific chemical compounds, enabling them to navigate and make decisions critical for their migration and swarming behavior.&nbsp;



Their ability to sense pheromones also facilitates the coordination of mass movements and the formation of large swarms, which are characteristic of migratory locusts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2024.05.036" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Locusts have brains built for complex odor processing 

The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, a notorious crop pest, has...

As life on Earth dramatically expanded over 500 million years ago during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossil-sponges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian explosion</a>, tectonic plate activity began to significantly shape the planet, according to a recent study. The collision of these plates caused mountains to form and initiated a sequence of events that led to a mass extinction known as the “Sinsk event.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-activity-and-rapid-climate-change">Tectonic activity and rapid climate change</h2>



These tectonic movements allowed magma to reach the surface, releasing large amounts of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere and triggering rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. This catastrophic event wiped out various animal groups, such as archaeocyathids and hyoliths.



“It's unusual to point to a tectonic cause for an extinction event, but the evidence is compelling,” said study co-author John Goodge, a professor emeritus at the <a href="http://d.umn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota Duluth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sinsk-event-extinction-nbsp">Sinsk event extinction&nbsp;</h2>



According to the study authors, the Sinsk event extinction was triggered by initial Ross/Delamerian supracrustal contraction along the edge of Gondwana, which caused a cascading series of geodynamic, paleoenvironmental, and biotic changes.&nbsp;



These changes included loss of shallow marine carbonate habitats along the Gondwanan margin, tectonic transformation within the Gondwanan interior, and the extrusion of the Kalkarindji large igneous province.



There was also a release of large volumes of volcanic gases and rapid climate change, including incursions of marine anoxic waters and collapse of shallow marine ecosystems, noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-records-of-mountain-building">Records of mountain building</h2>



Goodge and his colleagues discovered the connection to plate tectonics by comparing field notes from Antarctica and southern Australia. These two regions, once part of the supercontinent Gondwana near the equator, showed nearly identical records of mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building</a> just before the extinction event.



The research, which began in the 1990s, has recently been published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl3452" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>. Goodge and other scientists set up camps on a glacier in Antarctica, traveling by helicopter and snowmobile to the Holyoake Range. 



The experts examined fossils from carbonate reef structures to trace the timeline of the extinction. A separate team found similar evidence in Australia in 2011.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-series-of-cascading-events">A series of cascading events</h2>



“You never know when something you did decades ago is going to come together in a new way,” Goodge said.



Thus, as the author concluded, tectonic movements during mountain building “caused a series of cascading environmental processes that resulted in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-sediments-predict-the-impacts-of-ocean-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a>, reduced oceanic turnover, widespread bottom-water anoxia in marginal and epicontinental seas, and, ultimately, the Sinsk extinction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-mountain-building-nbsp">More about mountain building&nbsp;</h2>



Mountain building, also known as orogeny, is a complex geological process that involves the formation of mountain ranges. This phenomenon primarily results from the movement of tectonic plates, which are massive slabs of Earth's lithosphere.&nbsp;



As these plates interact, they can converge, diverge, or slide past each other, leading to various geological activities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-mountain-ranges">Formation of mountain ranges</h3>



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-volcanic-events-linked-to-the-slowing-of-tectonic-plates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tectonic plates</a> converge, one plate may be forced over another, causing the crust to crumple and fold. This is how many of the world's major mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, were formed. 



The immense pressure and heat generated during this process can also cause the rocks to undergo metamorphism, further contributing to mountain formation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



Another mechanism of mountain building is volcanic activity. When magma from the Earth's mantle rises to the surface, it can build up layers of lava and ash, creating volcanic mountains.&nbsp;



The Andes in South America are a prime example of mountains formed by the subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate, leading to significant volcanic activity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-mountain-ranges-nbsp">Dynamic mountain ranges&nbsp;</h3>



Erosion and weathering also play a crucial role in shaping mountains. Over time, these forces can wear down the peaks and ridges, redistributing the material to form valleys and other features.&nbsp;



This ongoing interaction between tectonic activity and surface processes ensures that mountain ranges are dynamic and continually evolving.



Overall, mountain building is a multifaceted process driven by the movement of tectonic plates and volcanic activity, with subsequent modification by erosion and weathering. These forces combine to create and reshape the majestic mountain ranges that define Earth's topography.



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Mountain building triggered a mass extinction event

As life on Earth dramatically expanded over 500 million years...

In the depths of the East Pacific Rise, a unique environment of extreme temperatures, intense pressures, and toxic carbon compounds, thrives Riftia pachyptila, a giant hydrothermal vent tubeworm.



Growing up to 6 feet tall with a striking deep-red plume, Riftia tubeworm lacks a digestive system and relies on a symbiotic relationship with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-simplest-organisms-like-worms-have-unique-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> within its body.



These bacteria convert carbon dioxide into sugars, sustaining both themselves and the tubeworm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-fixation-in-riftia-tubeworms">Carbon fixation in Riftia tubeworms</h2>



Unlike most autotrophic organisms that use a single carbon fixation pathway, Riftia pachyptila’s bacterial symbionts utilize two: the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle and the reductive tricarboxylic acid (rTCA) cycle. 



Until recently, scientists had limited understanding of how these pathways function and integrate with other metabolic processes.



New research from Harvard University’s Department of <a href="https://oeb.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Organismic and Evolutionary Biology</a> has uncovered how these two pathways are coordinated, revealing a sophisticated adaptation that allows Riftia's symbionts to thrive.



The study, published in Nature Microbiology, involved collecting tubeworms from the East Pacific Rise and mimicking their natural environment in the lab, including pressures of 3,000 PSI and near-toxic sulfur levels. 



“This paper is really a tour de force of going from studying living organisms and measuring their metabolic rates and allying them directly to transcripts in a way that allowed the research team to show that the pathways are very likely being run in parallel,” said senior co-author, professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Peter Girguis. 



“The paper shows that the dual pathways are biased by the environmental conditions, and that there are other metabolic systems in orbit around each of these two.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-carbon-fixation-mechanics">Deep-sea carbon fixation mechanics</h2>



Carbon fixation, the process of converting carbon dioxide to sugars, is essential for sustaining life. 



While photosynthetic organisms like plants use sunlight for this process, Riftia pachyptila’s chemoautotrophic symbionts use energy from hydrogen sulfide.



By varying the experimental conditions for Riftia, the research team identified how environmental changes influence the coordination of the two carbon pathways.



“This is the most in-depth analysis of bacteria that has two carbon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitroplast-discovery-first-nitrogen-fixing-organelle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fixation</a> pathways, the rTCA and CBB,” said lead author and postdoctoral scholar Jessica Mitchell.



“This is also the first network analysis done on a hydrothermal vent symbiosis and the first network analysis done on a dual carbon fixation pathway system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tubeworms-metabolic-insights">Tubeworms metabolic insights </h2>



Network analysis allowed the team to detect patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crown-of-thorns-starfish-gene-expression-may-help-protect-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene</a> expression data, providing a comprehensive view of the system.



They identified metabolic hub genes crucial for maintaining and regulating the complex network of metabolic reactions within cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-roles-in-metabolic-function">Distinct roles in metabolic function</h2>



The study found significant differences in the transcriptional patterns of the rTCA and CBB cycles in response to varying geochemical conditions. 



The rTCA cycle is linked with hydrogenases and dissimilatory nitrate reduction, crucial for processing hydrogen and nitrates without oxygen, indicating its key role under low-energy conditions.



In contrast, the CBB cycle is associated with sulfide oxidation and assimilatory nitrate reduction, vital processes in the sulfide-rich environment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-new-hydrothermal-vents-discovered-in-the-pacific-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrothermal vents</a>.



This linkage allows the symbionts to utilize available chemical energy to fix carbon effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complementary-carbon-pathways">Complementary carbon pathways</h2>



One of the study’s most intriguing findings is the complementary nature of the two pathways in the tubeworm.



The rTCA cycle is particularly important under conditions where sulfide and oxygen are limited, highlighted by the role of a Group 1e-hydrogenase. 



This flexibility gives the tubeworms a significant advantage, enabling them to thrive in the variable conditions of hydrothermal vents.



The high carbon fixation rates measured during the study support Riftia pachyptila’s rapid growth and survival. 



The dual carbon fixation pathways, each optimized for different environmental conditions, help maintain metabolic stability during environmental shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-tubeworms-and-carbon-capture">Understanding tubeworms and carbon capture</h2>



This research opens new avenues for understanding biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-plants-into-carbon-capture-machines-with-cyanobacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon capture</a> and basic biochemistry.



The findings could have practical applications in biotechnology, where these pathways might be harnessed to develop more efficient systems for carbon fixation. 



“This study really paves the way for future studies, and understanding how these dual pathways are enabling this organism to fix this amount of carbon,” Mitchell said.



By uncovering the mechanisms behind Riftia pachyptila's extraordinary ability to thrive in such a hostile environment, this research deepens our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-worm-discovered-off-costa-rica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea</a> ecosystems and has the potential to inform advancements in sustainable technologies and our knowledge of life's adaptability.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-024-01704-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Microbiology</a>.



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How giant tubeworms survive on deep-sea hydrothermal vents

In the depths of the East Pacific Rise, a unique...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Planet</a> has always been a source of fascination for scientists and the general public alike, with its dusty landscapes and potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harboring life</a>. 



Recent discoveries of mysterious holes on Mars have reignited our curiosity, sparking speculation about their origins and what they might hold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-holes-and-volcanic-past">Mars holes and volcanic past</h2>



Scientists first captured images of these intriguing holes using the HiRISE camera in 2022, but their formation remains a subject of ongoing research. 



One prevailing theory suggests that these holes are "skylights" formed when the ground above ancient lava tubes collapsed. 



Lava tubes, akin to long caves, are created during volcanic eruptions as lava flows downhill, leaving behind empty tunnels as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a> cools and hardens.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-hole_arsia-mons_comparison_UArizona_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-hole_arsia-mons_comparison_UArizona_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Pit crater on Arsia Mons captured by Mars Recon Orbiter. Credit: NASA/JPL/UArizona" class="wp-image-1936866"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Pit crater on Arsia Mons captured by Mars Recon Orbiter. Credit: NASA/JPL/UArizona</figcaption></figure>



"There's more than one of these [pits] on Mars that we've seen," said Brandon Johnson, a geophysicist at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a> who studies impact craters across the solar system. "But they're really interesting because they're places where astronauts might be able to go and be safe from radiation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-refuge-from-mars-harsh-radiation">A refuge from Mars' harsh radiation</h2>



Mars' thin atmosphere and lack of a global magnetic field like Earth's leave it exposed to dangerous levels of radiation. This poses a significant challenge for future human missions to the planet. 



However, these newly discovered holes offer a glimmer of hope. If they lead to sufficiently large lava tubes, they could provide astronauts with much-needed protection from the harsh Martian environment.



"On Earth, these lava tubes can be large enough to walk around in, but they can also be small or the voids can be discrete or discontinuous," explained Ross Beyer, a planetary scientist with the <a href="https://www.seti.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a>.



"So these pits we see could open into larger caves, or they could just be isolated pits. There's no way to know what's in them until we explore them in more detail."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-depths-with-mars-holes">Exploring the depths with Mars holes</h2>



While there is no concrete timeline for sending humans to Mars, scientists are exploring alternative methods to delve into these mysterious pits. 



One possibility involves deploying robots to descend into the holes and investigate their interiors.



"There are missions proposed to essentially have a robot go on a line and drop down into one of these skylights and be able to explore what's inside of them," said Johnson, although he noted that no such mission is currently underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-we-alone-in-the-universe">Are we alone in the universe?</h2>



While the discovery of these pits on Mars does not definitively confirm the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/searching-for-life-on-mars-quest-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existence of life</a>, it opens up a realm of exciting possibilities. 



Lava tubes, with their inherent ability to maintain stable temperatures and shield against harmful radiation, could have served as sanctuaries for lifeforms in Mars' past.



It is conceivable that these subterranean environments might still harbor remnants of these lifeforms, either dormant or actively adapting to the challenging Martian conditions.



This discovery underscores the importance of further exploration and investigation of these pits to determine if they hold the key to unlocking the secrets of life beyond Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-mars-exploration">Future of Mars exploration</h2>



As technology advances and our understanding of Mars deepens, the prospect of sending humans to explore these mysterious holes becomes increasingly tangible. 



The potential for discovering life, or at the very least, finding suitable shelters for future astronauts, makes these Martian pits an exciting frontier in our ongoing quest to unravel the secrets of the universe.



In the meantime, scientists continue to analyze data and images from Mars, hoping to gain further insights into these enigmatic formations. 



The mysteries surrounding these holes only fuel our fascination with the Red Planet and drive us to continue exploring its vast and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manganese-discovery-ancient-mars-earth-like-water-lake-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unknown landscapes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-considerations">Challenges and considerations </h2>



While the prospect of finding life or astronaut havens in Martian lava tubes is captivating, there are numerous challenges to overcome before humans can venture into these subterranean realms. 



The extreme temperatures, lack of atmosphere, and potential hazards within the caves pose significant risks that require careful planning and technological advancements.



Moreover, the ethical implications of exploring and potentially disturbing a pristine Martian environment must be carefully considered. 



The search for life beyond Earth raises profound questions about our place in the universe and the responsibilities that come with such discoveries.



Overall, the mysterious holes on Mars serve as a reminder of the vast unknowns that still exist within our own solar system. They beckon us to explore, to seek answers to fundamental questions about life and our place in the cosmos.



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Mysterious holes on Mars might harbor life and are crucial for exploration

The Red Planet has always been a source of fascination...

A new study reveals that consuming small fish whole may reduce the risk of all-cause and cancer mortality in women.



The research, conducted by a team from <a href="https://www.med.nagoya-u.ac.jp/medical_E/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine</a>, highlights the potential life-extending benefits of this dietary habit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-nutritional-profile-of-small-fish">Unique nutritional profile of small fish</h2>



Japanese <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-diets-offer-health-benefits-and-lower-carbon-footprint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cuisine</a> often includes small fish such as whitebait, Atlantic capelin, Japanese smelt, and small dried sardines.



These fish are typically eaten whole, including the head, bones, and organs, which are rich in micronutrients like calcium and vitamin A. 



The practice of eating small fish whole is believed to be a key factor in the health benefits observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-impact-of-eating-small-fish">Health impact of eating small fish</h2>



"Previous studies have revealed the protective effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fish-lowers-risk-of-recurrent-cardiovascular-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish intake</a> on health outcomes, including mortality risks. However, few studies have focused on the effect of the intake of small fish specifically on health outcomes,” said Dr. Chinatsu Kasahara, who led the study.



“I was interested in this topic because I have had the habit of eating small fish since childhood. I now feed my children these."



The research team conducted a comprehensive study involving 80,802 participants (34,555 men and 46,247 women) aged 35 to 69 years across Japan. Small fish consumption was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire.



The participants were followed up on for an average of nine years, during which 2,482 deaths were recorded, with about 60% (1,495 deaths) being cancer-related.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-findings-among-women">Significant findings among women</h2>



One of the most striking findings was the significant reduction in all-cause and cancer mortality among women who habitually eat small fish. 



Women who consumed small fish 1-3 times a month, 1-2 times a week, or 3 times or more a week had a significantly reduced risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-cancer-rates-in-young-adults-linked-to-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> mortality.



After controlling for factors such as age, smoking, alcohol consumption, BMI, and intake of various nutrients and foods, the researchers found that frequent consumption of small fish was associated with a lower risk of death from any cause among women. 



This suggests that incorporating small fish into one's daily diet could be a simple yet effective strategy to live a longer, healthier life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-among-men">Observations among men</h2>



The study also observed a similar trend in men, although the results were not statistically significant. 



The researchers speculated that the limited number of male subjects or other unmeasured factors, such as portion size, might have influenced the results.



"One of the reasons underlying the difference in the effects of consumption of small fish on the risk of all-cause and cancer mortality between sexes in this study might be the difference in the cancer type causing cancer mortality among sexes; however, other reasons are unknown," noted the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-research">Implications and future research</h2>



Dr. Kasahara believes the results of the study could be significant for other populations as well. “While our findings were only among Japanese people, they should also be important for other nationalities,” she said.



Previous studies have pointed out that small fish are an affordable and vital source of nutrients, especially in developing countries facing severe nutrient deficiencies. 



This latest study adds to the growing body of evidence supporting the health benefits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-improves-health-by-helping-people-make-smart-dietary-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary practices</a> which include frequent fish consumption.



“Small fish are easy for everyone to eat, and they can be consumed whole, including the head, bones, and organs. Nutrients and physiologically active substances unique to small fish could contribute to maintaining good health," noted Dr. Kasahara.



"The inverse relationship between the intake of small fish and the mortality risk in women underscores the importance of these nutrient-dense foods in people's diets."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fish-a-potential-lifespan-booster">Small fish: A potential lifespan booster</h2>



“The habit of eating small fish is usually limited to several coastal or maritime countries, such as Japan,” said Professor Takashi Tamura.



“However, we suspect that the intake of small fish anywhere may be revealed as a way to prolong life expectancy. Further evidence is necessary to elucidate the potential role of the intake of small fish in mortality risk.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/association-between-consumption-of-small-fish-and-allcause-mortality-among-japanese-the-japan-multiinstitutional-collaborative-cohort-study/47E8745FA2D52366394DF85A6A9A0674" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Public Health Nutrition</a>.



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Eating small fish whole reduces cancer risk in women

A new study reveals that consuming small fish whole may...

The rapid expansion of satellite "megaconstellations" is jeopardizing the recovery of the ozone hole.



As satellites fall into Earth's atmosphere and burn up, they release tiny particles of aluminum oxide. These particles can severely damage Earth's protective ozone layer. 



A recent study revealed that aluminum oxides increased eight-fold between 2016 and 2022, with more accumulation expected as the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-low-earth-orbit-leo/">low-Earth-orbit satellites</a> continues to rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-megaconstellations">Satellite megaconstellations</h2>



Megaconstellations are large groups of low Earth orbit satellites working together for global coverage. Companies like <a href="https://www.spacex.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SpaceX</a> and Amazon lead this effort, aiming to provide high-speed internet worldwide. Starlink, SpaceX's project, plans up to 42,000 satellites. 



Amazon's <a href="https://www.aboutamazon.com/what-we-do/devices-services/project-kuiper" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Project Kuiper</a> will launch thousands more. These satellites orbit closer to Earth, reducing signal delay and improving internet access in remote areas.



However, megaconstellations pose environmental and space traffic risks. When satellites re-enter the atmosphere, they release aluminum oxides, threatening the ozone layer. 



The rapid increase in satellite numbers raises concerns about space debris, which can cause collisions and damage other satellites.



Despite these challenges, megaconstellations represent a significant technological advance, potentially revolutionizing global communication. Balancing their benefits with environmental and safety considerations is crucial for sustainable space development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-ozone-hole">Shrinking ozone hole</h2>



The 1987 Montreal Protocol successfully regulated ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), resulting in a shrinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ozone-hole-exposes-wildlife-to-harmful-uv-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone hole</a> over Antarctica.



Full recovery was anticipated within fifty years. However, the unexpected rise in aluminum oxides may halt this progress in the coming decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proliferation-of-low-earth-orbit-satellites">Proliferation of low-earth-orbit satellites</h2>



Currently, there are 8,100 objects in low Earth orbit, with 6,000 of them being Starlink satellites that were recently launched.



The demand for global internet coverage drives the rapid increase in the number of small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/communications-satellites-may-disrupt-astronomical-observations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication satellites</a>.



SpaceX leads this effort, with permission to launch another 12,000 Starlink satellites and plans for up to 42,000 in total.



Companies like Amazon are also planning constellations ranging from 3,000 to 13,000 satellites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-threat-from-satellite-lifespans">Ozone threat from satellite lifespans</h2>



Internet satellites in low Earth orbit have a short lifespan of about five years. To maintain internet service, companies must continually launch replacement satellites, perpetuating a cycle of planned obsolescence and unplanned pollution.



Aluminum oxides from these satellites trigger destructive reactions between ozone and chlorine, depleting the ozone layer. 



These oxides persist in the atmosphere for decades, continually destroying ozone molecules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-attention-to-satellite-pollutants">Lack of attention to satellite pollutants</h2>



Despite the potential damage, little attention has been paid to pollutants formed when satellites burn up in the upper atmosphere. 



Previous studies focused on the consequences of launching vehicles into space, such as the release of rocket fuel. 



The new study by researchers from the University of Southern California <a href="https://viterbischool.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Viterbi School of Engineering</a> provides the first realistic estimate of the extent of long-lived pollution in the upper atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-pollution-and-ozone-damage">Satellite pollution and ozone damage</h2>



“Only in recent years have people started to think this might become a problem,” said Joseph Wang, a researcher in astronautics at the University of Southern California and corresponding author of the study. “We were one of the first teams to look at what the implication of these facts might be.”



The experts used advanced modeling to estimate pollution from satellite re-entry. Previous estimates based on micrometeoroids were inaccurate due to the low aluminum content in micrometeoroids compared to satellites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-depletion-and-satellite-re-entry">Ozone depletion and satellite re-entry</h2>



In 2022, re-entering satellites increased atmospheric aluminum by 29.5% over natural levels.



The study found that a typical 250-kilogram satellite, with 30% of its mass as aluminum, generates about 30 kilograms of aluminum oxide nanoparticles during re-entry. 



Most of these particles are created in the mesosphere, 50-85 kilometers above Earth’s surface.



The researchers estimate that it will take up to 30 years for these particles to drift down to the stratosphere, where 90% of Earth's ozone is located.



By the time the planned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/see-the-satellite-constellations-posing-risks-to-night-sky-observations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite constellations</a> are complete, approximately 912 metric tons of aluminum will fall to Earth annually, releasing around 360 metric tons of aluminum oxides each year, a 646% increase over natural levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-layer-recovery-at-risk">Ozone layer recovery at risk</h2>



The rapid expansion of satellite megaconstellations poses a significant threat to the recovery of the ozone layer. 



Immediate attention and further research are crucial to mitigate this emerging environmental challenge and ensure the continued protection of Earth's ozone layer.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL109280" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Burning up of satellites severely harms ozone recovery

The rapid expansion of satellite "megaconstellations" is jeopardizing the recovery...

A mother's love is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-sensory-perception-brain-fascinating-interplay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">powerful force</a>, shaping not just our childhood but potentially our entire lifespan. Recent research suggests a fascinating link between the depth of maternal care and the evolution of longer lifespans in both humans and animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-human-longevity">Mystery of human longevity</h2>



Humans are an anomaly in the animal kingdom. We outlive many other mammals of comparable size, and scientists have long puzzled over the reasons behind our exceptional longevity. 



<a href="https://as.cornell.edu/people/matthew-zipple" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matthew Zipple</a>, a Klarman Postdoctoral Fellow at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, believes the answer may lie in the unique bond between mother and child.



Zipple's research, conducted alongside colleagues H. Kern Reeve and Orca Jimmy Peniston, challenges us to reconsider the significance of maternal care. "It's one of the really mysterious things about humans, the fact that we live these super long lives as compared to so many other mammals," said Zipple.



"What we're putting forward is that a part of the explanation for our long lifespan is this other foundational aspect of our lives, which is the relationship between the mother and her child."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mother-s-care-and-evolution">Mother's care and evolution</h2>



Zipple and his team propose that species in which offspring survival depends heavily on extended maternal care tend to evolve longer lifespans and slower reproductive rates. This pattern is evident in humans and a surprising array of other mammals, including hyenas, whales, and elephants.



"As we see these links between maternal survival and offspring fitness grow stronger, we see the evolution of animals having longer lives and reproducing less often – the same pattern we see in humans," noted Zipple.



"And what's nice about this model is that it's general to mammals overall, because we know these links exist in other species outside of primates, like hyenas, whales and elephants."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-motherhood-s-influence">Motherhood's influence</h2>



To test their hypothesis, the researchers developed a mathematical model that demonstrates the relationship between maternal survival, offspring fitness, and the pace of life. 



This model, along with two additional empirical models, provides a framework for understanding how maternal care shapes the evolution of lifespan.



The team envisions that their models could be utilized by field ecologists to analyze long-term demographic data and predict the impact of maternal care on the evolution of various species.



"We hope we've made the model straightforward enough, that field ecologists can take their existing long-term demographic data that they've been collecting for decades and apply it to this model, and come up with this estimate of how much they expect mother’s maternal care to have shaped the evolution of their study system,” said Zipple.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mother-and-grandmother-hypothesis">Mother and grandmother hypothesis</h2>



The new research builds upon the existing Mother and Grandmother hypothesis, which posits that offspring have higher survival rates when their mothers and grandmothers are present in their lives. 



While this theory has primarily been used to explain menopause in humans, Zipple's work expands its scope, incorporating a wider range of ways in which maternal care influences offspring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fitness</a>.



The team's models delve into the specific effects of a mother's death after weaning but before the offspring's sexual maturation. Zipple's doctoral research on baboons and other primates revealed that such a loss can have profound negative impacts on offspring and even grand-offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-mother-s-care-and-love">The power of mother's care and love</h2>



For Zipple, whose research involved observing mother-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severe-childhood-obesity-can-cut-life-expectancy-in-half/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infant</a> interactions in baboons, the connection between motherhood and longevity resonates deeply. 



"When you watch mothers and infants in nonhuman primates interact, you can just see in the faces of the infants that there’s nothing more important in the world than the presence of its mother."



Zipple's research reminds us of the profound and enduring influence of maternal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/having-a-sense-of-purpose-makes-you-more-likely-to-find-love/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">love</a>. It suggests that the bond between mother and child, a universal thread across the animal kingdom, may hold the key to unlocking the secrets of longevity and understanding the very essence of what it means to be human. 



Part of the long-term aspiration of this line of research is linking maternal love to longevity - two mysterious and central aspects of what it is to be human.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2403491121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)</a>



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Mother's care linked to the evolution of longer lifespans

A mother's love is a powerful force, shaping not just...

An international team of astronomers has uncovered the formation history of young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a> clusters, many of which are visible to the naked eye at night.



This remarkable research reveals that most nearby young star clusters belong to only three families, each originating from very massive star-forming regions.



The findings offer new insights into the effects of supernovae on the formation of giant gas structures in galaxies like our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-star-clusters">Young star clusters</h2>



Young star clusters have formed relatively recently in the cosmic timeline, typically within the last few hundred million years.



These groups of stars often emerge from large clouds of gas and dust, known as molecular clouds, where new stars are born. They are crucial for astronomers studying stellar evolution, as they provide snapshots of the early stages of star development.



There are two main types of young star clusters: open clusters and globular clusters. Open star clusters, which formed more recently, contain a few hundred to a few thousand stars that are loosely bound by gravity and can disperse over time.



"Found in irregular galaxies and spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, open clusters contain both old and young stars and are generally much younger than globular clusters –&nbsp;typically they are less than a billion years old," noted <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/star-clusters-inside-the-universes-stellar-collections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



Star clusters can vary in size and brightness, and their stars often range from very massive and hot to smaller, cooler ones. Studying these stellar groups helps scientists understand the processes of star formation and the dynamics of stellar populations in galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancestry-of-young-star-clusters">Ancestry of young star clusters</h2>



The research team was led by Cameren Swiggum and João Alves from the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/">University of Vienna</a>, along with Robert Benjamin from the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater.



Using precise data from the European Space Agency's (ESA) Gaia mission and spectroscopic observations, the researchers traced the origins of 155 young star clusters within a radius of about 3,500 light-years around the Sun. 



Their analysis shows that these star clusters can be divided into three families, named after the most prominent clusters within them: Collinder 135 (Cr135), Messier 6 (M6), and Alpha Persei (αPer).



"Young star clusters are excellent for exploring the history and structure of the Milky Way. By studying their movements in the past and thus their origin, we also gain important insights into the formation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-galactic-explosion-provides-clues-about-galaxy-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of our galaxy</a>," noted Alves.



The team's findings suggest that these star clusters originate from only three very active and massive star-forming regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interconnectedness-of-star-clusters">Interconnectedness of star clusters</h2>



"These findings offer a clearer understanding of how young star clusters in our galactic neighborhood are interconnected, much like members of a family or ‘bloodlines’," said Swiggum, lead author of the study.



 By examining the 3D movements and past positions of these star clusters, the team identified their common origins and located the regions in our galaxy where the first stars in these respective star clusters formed up to 40 million years ago.



The study revealed that over 200 supernova explosions must have occurred within these three star cluster families, releasing enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings. The volatile energy likely had a significant impact on the gas distribution in the local Milky Way.



"This could explain the formation of a superbubble, a giant bubble of gas and dust with a diameter of 3,000 light-years around the Cr135 family," explained Swiggum.



Our solar system is also embedded in such a bubble, known as the Local Bubble, which is filled with very thin and hot gas. 



"The Local Bubble is probably also linked to the history of one of the three star cluster families," noted Swiggum. "And it has likely left traces on Earth, as suggested by measurements of iron isotopes (60Fe) in the Earth's crust."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-galactic-time-machine">A galactic time machine</h2>



"We can practically turn the sky into a time machine that allows us to trace the history of our home galaxy," said Alves. "By deciphering the genealogy of star clusters, we also learn more about our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galactic ancestry</a>."



In the future, the experts plan to investigate more precisely whether and how our solar system has interacted with interstellar matter in our home galaxy, the Milky Way.



This research not only advances our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/messier-82-unlocking-the-mysteries-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> but also provides a deeper insight into the complex history of our galaxy.



The findings underscore the interconnectedness of stellar phenomena and their lasting impact on the structure of the Milky Way.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07496-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: ESO/STScI Digitized Sky Survey II



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Secret origins of young star clusters traced to three families

An international team of astronomers has uncovered the formation history...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...