The nature of dark matter has puzzled astronomers for 90 years since discovering that 85% of the universe's matter is invisible through our telescopes.&nbsp;



Currently, the most promising candidate for dark matter is the axion, a lightweight particle that scientists worldwide are fervently trying to detect.



Astrophysicists at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, now suggest that axions could be discovered within seconds of detecting gamma rays from a nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosion</a>.&nbsp;



If axions exist, they would be produced in large quantities during the first 10 seconds after a massive star collapses into a neutron star. These axions would escape and transform into high-energy gamma rays within the star's intense magnetic field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-gamma-rays-from-supernova-explosions">Detecting gamma rays from supernova explosions </h2>



Detecting these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brightest-gamma-ray-burst-ever-recorded-had-a-rare-energy-peak/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gamma rays</a> today is possible only if the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope - the sole gamma-ray telescope currently in orbit - is pointing in the direction of the supernova at the time it explodes. Given the telescope's field of view, there's about a one-in-ten chance of this happening.



Yet, a single detection of gamma rays would pinpoint the mass of the axion, particularly the so-called QCD axion, across a vast range of theoretical masses, including those currently being investigated in Earth-based experiments.&nbsp;



Conversely, the lack of a detection would eliminate a large range of potential masses for the axion, rendering many current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a> searches irrelevant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-in-our-cosmic-neighborhood">Searching in our cosmic neighborhood </h2>



The issue is that, for the gamma rays to be bright enough to detect, the supernova must be nearby - within our Milky Way galaxy or one of its satellite galaxies.&nbsp;



Nearby stars explode, on average, only every few decades. The last nearby supernova was in 1987 in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite of the Milky Way.&nbsp;



At that time, a now-defunct gamma-ray telescope, the Solar Maximum Mission, was pointing in the supernova's direction but wasn't sensitive enough to detect the predicted intensity of gamma rays, according to the UC Berkeley team's analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-the-true-nature-of-dark-matter">Seeking the true nature of dark matter </h2>



Benjamin Safdi is an associate professor of physics at UC Berkeley and senior author of the study.



“If we were to see a supernova, like supernova 1987A, with a modern gamma-ray telescope, we would be able to detect or rule out this QCD axion, this most interesting axion, across much of its parameter space - essentially the entire parameter space that cannot be probed in the laboratory, and much of the parameter space that can be probed in the laboratory, too. And it would all happen within 10 seconds," explained Professor Safdi.



The researchers are concerned that when the long-overdue supernova occurs in the nearby universe, we won't have the necessary instruments to observe the gamma rays produced by axions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fleet-of-gamma-ray-telescopes">A fleet of gamma-ray telescopes</h2>



In discussions with colleagues who build gamma-ray telescopes, the experts are exploring the feasibility of launching one - or a fleet - of such telescopes to cover 100% of the sky 24/7, ensuring any gamma-ray burst would be detected.



The researchers have even proposed a name for their full-sky gamma-ray satellite constellation: the GALactic AXion Instrument for Supernova, or GALAXIS.



“I think all of us on this paper are stressed about there being a next supernova before we have the right instrumentation,” noted Safdi. “It would be a real shame if a supernova went off tomorrow and we missed an opportunity to detect the axion - it might not come back for another 50 years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-dark-matter">The search for dark matter</h2>



Initial searches for dark matter focused on faint, massive compact halo objects (MACHOs) theorized to be sprinkled throughout our galaxy and the cosmos.&nbsp;



When these didn't materialize, physicists shifted their attention to elementary particles that should be detectable in Earth-bound labs. Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) also failed to show up.&nbsp;



In the quest to find the true nature of dark matter, the best candidate is the axion - a particle that fits well within the standard model of physics and solves several outstanding puzzles in particle physics.



“It seems almost impossible to have a consistent theory of gravity combined with quantum mechanics that does not have particles like the axion,” Safdi said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strongest-candidate-for-an-axion">Strongest candidate for an axion </h2>



Axions also naturally emerge from string theory - a hypothesis about the universe's underlying geometry - and might help unify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-new-theory-finally-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a>, which explains interactions on cosmic scales, with quantum mechanics, which describes the infinitesimal.&nbsp;



The strongest candidate for an axion is the QCD axion, named after quantum chromodynamics, the prevailing theory of the strong force.&nbsp;



Theoretically, QCD axions interact weakly with all matter through the four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, the strong force, and the weak force.&nbsp;



One consequence is that, in a strong magnetic field, an axion should occasionally transform into an electromagnetic wave, or photon. This distinguishes axions from neutrinos, which only interact through gravity and the weak force and ignore electromagnetism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neutron-stars-and-axion-detection">Neutron stars and axion detection</h2>



Laboratory experiments - such as the ALPHA Consortium (Axion Longitudinal Plasma Haloscope), DMradio, and ABRACADABRA, all involving UC Berkeley researchers - use compact cavities that resonate with and amplify the faint electromagnetic field or photon produced when a low-mass axion transforms in the presence of a strong magnetic field.



Astrophysicists have also proposed looking for axions produced inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-star-collisions-push-the-limits-of-extreme-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron stars</a> immediately after a core-collapse supernova, like 1987A. Until now, they've primarily focused on detecting gamma rays from these axions' slow transformation into photons in the magnetic fields of galaxies. 



Safdi and his colleagues realized that this process is not very efficient at producing gamma rays detectable from Earth.



Instead, they explored the production of gamma rays by axions in the strong magnetic fields around the very star that generated the axions. Supercomputer simulations showed that this process very efficiently creates a burst of gamma rays dependent on the axion's mass.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burst-of-neutrinos-from-a-hot-star">Burst of neutrinos from a hot star </h2>



This burst should occur simultaneously with a burst of neutrinos from inside the hot neutron star. However, the burst of axions lasts a mere 10 seconds after the neutron star forms - after that, the production rate drops dramatically - though it happens hours before the outer layers of the star explode.



“This has really led us to thinking about neutron stars as optimal targets for searching for axions as axion laboratories,” Safdi said. "Neutron stars have a lot of things going for them. They are extremely hot objects. They also host very strong magnetic fields.” 



“The strongest magnetic fields in our universe are found around neutron stars, such as magnetars, which have magnetic fields tens of billions of times stronger than anything we can build in the laboratory. That helps convert these axions into observable signals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-the-search-for-axions">Advancing the search for axions</h2>



Two years ago, Safdi and his colleagues established the best upper limit on the mass of the QCD axion at about 16 million electron volts, or about 32 times less than the mass of the electron. This was based on the cooling rate of neutron stars, which would cool faster if axions were produced along with neutrinos inside these hot, dense objects.



In the current paper, the UC Berkeley team not only describes the production of gamma rays following a core collapse to a neutron star but also uses the non-detection of gamma rays from the 1987A supernova to set the best constraints yet on the mass of axion-like particles, which differ from QCD axions in that they do not interact via the strong force.



They predict that a gamma-ray detection would allow them to identify the QCD axion mass if it is above 50 microelectron volts (μeV), or about one ten-billionth the mass of the electron. A single detection could refocus existing experiments to confirm the mass of the axion, Safdi said.&nbsp;



While a fleet of dedicated gamma-ray telescopes is the best option for detecting gamma rays from a nearby supernova, a fortunate observation with Fermi would be even better.



“The best-case scenario for axions is Fermi catches a supernova. It's just that the chance of that is small,” Safdi said. “But if Fermi saw it, we'd be able to measure its mass. We'd be able to measure its interaction strength. We'd be able to determine everything we need to know about the axion, and we'd be incredibly confident in the signal because there's no ordinary matter which could create such an event.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-the-true-nature-of-dark-matter">Uncovering the true nature of dark matter </h2>



The researchers are anxious about missing a rare opportunity to detect axions due to inadequate instrumentation. They will continue to discuss the feasibility of launching new gamma-ray telescopes to ensure continuous sky coverage.



Safdi's team believes that capturing gamma rays from a nearby supernova could not only confirm the existence of axions but also provide detailed information about their properties. This could revolutionize our understanding of dark matter and the fundamental forces of nature.



The quest to uncover the true nature of dark matter continues to drive innovation in astrophysics. By focusing on gamma rays emitted during supernova explosions, scientists hope to finally detect axions and solve one of the most enduring mysteries in physics.&nbsp;



The stakes are high, and time is of the essence. With the potential for a nearby supernova to occur at any moment, researchers are eager to have the right tools in place to seize this fleeting opportunity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.211002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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The true nature of dark matter may be revealed in a supernova

The nature of dark matter has puzzled astronomers for 90 years since discovering that 85% of the universe's matter is invisible through our telescopes.&nbsp; Currently, the most promising candidate for dark matter is the axion, a lightweight particle that scientists worldwide are fervently trying to detect. Astrophysicists at the University of California, Berkeley, now suggest that axions could be discovered within seconds of detecting gamma rays from a nearby supernova explosion.&nbsp; If axions exist, they would be produced in large quantities during the first 10 seconds after...

If not for human-driven <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plankton-began-hunting-their-own-food-to-survive-a-mass-extinction-event/">extinctions</a>, there would be at least four times as many flightless bird species today, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>. The experts found that flightlessness evolved in birds much more often than what would be expected by looking at only living birds.

According to the researchers, the study shows how human-driven extinctions have biased our understanding of evolution.

"Human impacts have substantially altered most ecosystems worldwide, and caused the extinction of hundreds of animal species," said study lead author Dr. Ferran Sayol.

"This can distort evolutionary patterns, especially if the characteristics being studied, such as flightlessness in birds, make species more vulnerable to extinction. We get a biased picture of how evolution really happens."

The experts compiled a comprehensive list of all the bird species that are known to have gone extinct since humans emerged. They identified 581 bird species that were wiped out from the Late Pleistocene 126,000 years ago to the present day. The researchers believe that nearly all of the extinctions were caused by human influences.

The analysis revealed that 166 of the extinct bird species were flightless. Today, there are only 60 bird species that lack the ability to fly. 

The study also showed that flightless birds were much more diverse than what was previously assumed. Furthermore, the findings confirm that flightless species were much more likely to go extinct than species that could fly.

"Many bird species can become flightless in environments without their usual predators, for example on islands. Flying expends a lot of energy that birds can use for other purposes if they don't need to take to the air. Unfortunately, though, this makes them easier prey if humans - and their associated rats and cats - suddenly turn up," said study co-author Professor Tim Blackburn.

"Extinction has all too often been the result, and is likely to continue as flightless birds are overrepresented, compared to avian species, on global lists of animals under threat."

The researchers discovered that most island groups worldwide had flightless birds before humans arrived, and some of these regions were hotspots. New Zealand once had 26 flightless bird species such as the extinct moa, while Hawaii had 23 species - all of which are now extinct.

"Our study shows that the evolution of flightlessness in birds is a widespread phenomenon," said Dr. Sayol. "Today, most flightless species are penguins, rails or ostriches and their relatives. Now, only 12 bird families have flightless species, but before humans caused extinctions, the number was at least 40. Without those extinctions we would be sharing the planet with flightless owls, woodpeckers and ibises, but all of these have now sadly disappeared."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flightless birds would be four times as diverse if not for humans

If not for human-driven extinctions, there would be at least...

A large portion of the Milky Way is about to become much less mysterious today as scientists release the most detailed data that has ever been obtained for more than two billion stars. The European Space Agency's Gaia space observatory has measured stellar positions, colors, brightness, and movement,  including the first optical measurement of the acceleration of the solar system. 

Gaia was launched in 2013 to orbit around the so-called Lagrange 2 (L2) point, located 1.5 million kilometers behind the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fireball-meteor-that-fell-to-earth-contains-extraterrestrial-organic-compounds/">Earth</a> in the direction away from the Sun. At L2, the gravitational forces between the Earth and the Sun are balanced, which keeps the spacecraft stable. Here, Gaia also has unobstructed views of the sky.

The primary goal of Gaia is to continuously scan the sky, allowing for astronomers to measure changes in the positions of stars over time. Calculating these tiny shifts makes it possible to calculate the distance between the stars. 

Two previous data releases from Gaia revealed the positions of 1.6 billion stars. The latest release will push this total up to just under 2 billion stars, and their positions are significantly more clear this time around.

Gaia also monitors how fast stars are moving toward or away from the Sun, assesses their chemical composition, and tracks their brightness and position. 

In addition, the spacecraft collects data on the two largest companion galaxies to the Milky Way, the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds. 

"Gaia is measuring the distances of hundreds of millions of objects that are many thousands of light years away, at an accuracy equivalent to measuring the thickness of hair at a distance of more than 2,000 kilometers. These data are one of the backbones of astrophysics, allowing us to forensically analyze our stellar neighborhood, and tackle crucial questions about the origin and future of our Galaxy."

The data, as well as early scientific discoveries, will be presented today at a special briefing hosted by the <a href="https://ras.ac.uk/">Royal Astronomical Society</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gaia mission has obtained new details about two billion stars

A large portion of the Milky Way is about to...

In a new study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, researchers have successfully used GPS technology to follow plastic bottles through the Ganges River system into Bay of Bengal. Tracking the movement of the bottles will provide scientists with new insight on the environmental pathways of plastic pollution, which threatens the health of humans and natural <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/carnivores-that-eat-human-foods-are-altering-their-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> worldwide.

Previous studies suggest that rivers transport up to 80 percent of the plastic pollution found in oceans. While the movement and accumulation of plastic pollution in the ocean is well-documented, not as much is known about the transfer of plastic litter through rivers.

To investigate, a team led by Emily Duncan at the University of Exeter created a new system that uses GPS tracking devices placed in 500 mL plastic bottles. The so-called "bottle tags" were designed to mimic plastic beverage bottles traveling through natural environments.

As part of the National Geographic Sea to Source Ganges Expedition, the researchers released 25 bottle tags at various sites along the Ganges River. 

The experts successfully tracked several of the bottles through the Ganges and into the Bay of Bengal. The bottle that traveled the longest distance moved across 2,845 kilometers in 94 days.

The findings suggest that bottle tags could be used to significantly improve our understanding of plastic litter's movement through rivers and into oceans. The devices may provide new insight into where plastic litter is most likely to accumulate.

According to the researchers, the bottle tags could also be used to get the public involved by letting people follow along with their journey. This would potentially boost awareness and discourage littering.

"Our 'message in a bottle' tags show how far and how fast plastic pollution can move," wrote the study authors. "It demonstrates that this is a truly global issue, as a piece of plastic dropped in a river or ocean could soon wash up on the other side of the world."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists use GPS tags to track plastic bottles moving through the Ganges

In a new study published by PLOS, researchers have successfully...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a>, a team of marine <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mammal-defaunation-is-wiping-out-valuable-ecosystem-services/">mammal</a> specialists analyzed reports on more than 50 killer whales that have been stranded in the northeast Pacific and Hawaii over the last decade. The experts found that killer whales are facing a number of deadly threats, and many of these hazards are related to interactions with humans. 

According to the researchers, understanding each threat is critical for managing and conserving killer whale populations. 

The stranded whales belonged to both healthy populations as well as endangered species, such as southern resident whales that are found off the coast of British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon.

The cause of death had been determined for 42 percent of the 53 whales that were stranded between 2004 and 2013. One calf died from sepsis following a halibut hook injury, while another starved from a congenital facial deformity. Two adult whales had been killed by the blunt force trauma of vessel strikes. Infectious diseases and nutritional deficiencies were also identified as causes of death.

Even though there was no single cause of death, the analysis of the incidents showed that killer whales of all ages from juveniles to adults suffered human-related deaths.

"Nobody likes to think we're directly harming animals," said Dr. Joe Gaydos. "But it's important to realize that we're not just indirectly hurting them from things like lack of salmon, vessel disturbance or legacy toxins. It's also vessel strikes and fish hooks. That humans are directly killing killer whales across all age classes is significant; it says we can do a better job."

"The results from systematic necropsies of dead killer whales in this review is unique and will establish critical baseline information to assess future mitigation efforts," said study lead author Stephen Raverty. "This work contributes to a better understanding of the impacts that ongoing human activities and environmental events have on killer whales."

The researchers acknowledge that their report is an incomplete picture of orca health and mortality. However, the report is one the most comprehensive reviews of the multitude of human and environmental threats affecting killer whales to date, and will ultimately help to improve conservative strategies.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Killer whales face a number of threats, and most are human-related

In a new study from UC Davis, a team of...

Continents were weak and prone to destruction in their infancy, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>. Using mathematical modeling, the researchers have provided brand new insight into the early geological history of the Earth.

Our <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/an-exoplanet-exists-where-rocks-evaporate-and-rain-back-down/">planet</a> has evolved for more than 4.5 billion years, and most of the changes that occurred over the first 1.5 billion years remain a mystery. 

"This was the time of formation of the first continents, the emergence of land, the development of the early atmosphere, and the appearance of primordial life - all of which are the result of the dynamics of our planet's interiors," said study lead author Dr. Fabio Capitanio from the Monash University School of Earth, Atmosphere, and Environment.

"Reproducing the conditions of the early Earth in computer-generated numerical models, we show that the release of internal primordial heat, three to four times that of the present-day, caused large melting in the shallow mantle, which was then extruded as magma (molten rock) onto the Earth's surface."

According to the researchers, the shallow mantle left behind by this process was dehydrated and rigid and formed the keels of the first continents.

"Our results explain that continents remained weak and prone to destruction in their infancy, ~4.5 to ~4.0 billion years ago, and then progressively differentiated and became rigid over the next billion years to form the core of our modern continents," said Dr. Capitanio.

"The emergence of these rigid early continents resulted in their weathering and erosion, changing the composition of the atmosphere and providing nutrients to the ocean seeding the development of life."

Dr. Capitanio investigates the dynamics of the Earth's tectonics and plate motions to better understand the mechanisms that drive changes. The current study sheds new light on the formation of the supercontinent, as well as how it broke down to form the continents we have today. 

The researchers used quantitative models to determine that continents remain weak and prone to destruction in their infancy, then progressively melt and differentiate to become stable continents.

This explains the transition from the Hadean, the geologic eon that covers the first 500 million years of Earth's history, to the Archean - when rigid continental keels built up and remain preserved through time.

"The geological record suggests that the very early continents did not survive and were recycled in the planet's interiors, yet this trend dramatically inverted approximately four billion years ago, when the most enduring piece of continents, cratons, appeared," said Dr. Capitanio.

The Earth's earliest continental crust formed more than 4 billion years ago, and all that remains are tiny crystals. The process that formed the new crust, which replaced the original, is related to how the continents became stable. 

By extracting melt from the Earth's interior, rigid rafts formed in the mantle beneath the new crust, where it was shielded from destruction. The crust that formed in this process is still preserved in the core of today's continents, the cratons.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The earliest continents were weak and prone to destruction

Continents were weak and prone to destruction in their infancy,...

Chemical compounds that plants use to protect themselves may also help to protect people from <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/how-much-did-pollution-levels-drop-due-to-covid-19-shutdowns/">COVID-19</a> infection, according to a new study from at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>. 

Plant compounds found in muscadine grapes, dark chocolate, and green tea can bind to and inhibit the coronavirus' main protease (Mpro), which plays a key role in viral gene expression and replication.

Study co-author and plant biologist Professor De-Yu Xie explained that proteases are important to the health and viability of cells and viruses. For example, cells cannot perform many important functions like replication if proteases are inhibited. 

"One of our lab's focuses is to find nutraceuticals in food or medicinal plants that inhibit either how a virus attaches to human cells or the propagation of a virus in human cells," said Professor Xie.

The researchers set out to investigate how Mpro in the SARS-CoV-2 virus would react when it encountered a number of different plant chemical compounds that are known for having powerful antioxidant properties. 

Using computer simulations, the experts demonstrated that chemical compounds from green tea, two varieties of muscadine grapes, cacao powder and dark chocolate were able to bind to different portions of Mpro.

"Mpro in SARS-CoV-2 is required for the virus to replicate and assemble itself. If we can inhibit or deactivate this protease, the virus will die," said Professor Xie. "Mpro has a portion that is like a 'pocket' that was 'filled' by the chemical compounds. When this pocket was filled, the protease lost its important function."

Lab experiments conducted in Professor Xie's lab by PhD student Yue Zhu confirmed the results of the computer simulations. The chemical compounds in green tea and muscadine grapes were very successful at blocking the function of Mpro. In addition, plant compounds in cacao powder and dark chocolate reduced Mpro activity by about half.

"Green tea has five tested chemical compounds that bind to different sites in the pocket on Mpro, essentially overwhelming it to inhibit its function," said Professor Xie. "Muscadine grapes contain these inhibitory chemicals in their skins and seeds. Plants use these compounds to protect themselves, so it is not surprising that plant leaves and skins contain these beneficial compounds."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.frontiersin.org/Plant_Biotechnology/">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant compounds in muscadine grapes block coronavirus replication

Chemical compounds that plants use to protect themselves may also...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.uthscsa.edu/">UT Health San Antonio</a>, experts have pinpointed why drinking alcohol interferes with our ability to concentrate. The researchers have found that alcohol blocks the release of norepinephrine, which is needed to help us pay <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/musically-training-children-have-improved-attention-and-memory-skills/">attention</a>.

"When we want to focus on something, or when we stand up from a chair and become active, a brain stem nucleus releases a chemical called norepinephrine. Acute exposure to alcohol inhibits this signal in the brain," said study senior author Dr. Martin Paukert.

When a particular task requires our attention,  norepinephrine is secreted by a brain structure called the locus coeruleus. Dr. Paukert and his colleagues have described, for the first time, what happens next. They discovered that the norepinephrine normally attaches to receptors on cells called Bergmann glia, which elevates calcium levels within these cells. 

Bergmann glia are supporting cells in the cerebellum, a region near the brain stem. "To our knowledge, this paper is the first description that norepinephrine in mammals directly binds to receptors on the Bergmann glia and activates them through calcium elevation," said Dr. Paukert.

Even though the researchers focused primarily on the Bergmann glia, they also demonstrated that the same type of inhibition takes place in cortical astrocytes. "Most likely vigilance-dependent astrocyte calcium activation is inhibited throughout the brain by acute alcohol intoxication."

People tend to lose their balance when they are drinking alcohol. The researchers expected to find that the inhibition of calcium rise in Bergmann glia would explain this as well, but it did not. 

"The calcium elevation in Bergmann glia is not critical for motor coordination, which is somewhat surprising because the cerebellum is classically known for its role in motor control," said Dr. Paukert. "However, our findings are in line with current suggestions that the cerebellum also plays critical roles in non-motor functions, and that astrocytes are not only supporting basic brain maintenance, but they may actively participate in cognitive function."

Study co-author Dr. Manzoor Bhat suggested that the significance of this groundbreaking research is that it was conducted "in real time in living and breathing animals using state-of-the-art technologies." 

"The findings will open up new avenues of defining the brain circuits that ultimately determine the state of alertness, and how chemicals that interfere with those circuits essentially dampen this inherent vigilance system of the brain," said Dr. Bhat. 

The work was funded by the Robert J. Kleberg, Jr. and Helen C. Kleberg Foundation, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, and the National Institute of Mental Health. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why drinking alcohol interferes with concentration

In a new study from UT Health San Antonio, experts...

Pets are saving many people from the devastating effects of social isolation during the <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/how-much-did-pollution-levels-drop-due-to-covid-19-shutdowns/">COVID-19</a> pandemic, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a>. In the absence of human-to-human contact, animals have provided a constant, comforting presence in millions of households.

Study lead author Dr. Janette Young explains that physical touch is a sense that has been taken for granted, and even overlooked, until the pandemic emerged.

"In a year when human contact has been so limited and people have been deprived of touch, the health impacts on our quality of life have been enormous," said Dr. Young. "To fill the void of loneliness and provide a buffer against stress, there has been a global upsurge in people adopting dogs and cats from animal shelters during lockdowns. Breeders have also been inundated, with demands for puppies quadrupling some waiting lists."

It is estimated that more than half the global population has one or more pets in their lives. While the health benefits of owning a pet have been well-documented, little is known about the specific benefits that animals bring to humans in terms of touch.

"Pets seem to be particularly important when people are socially isolated or excluded, providing comfort, companionship and a sense of self-worth," said Dr. Young.

"Touch is an understudied sense, but existing evidence indicates it is crucial for growth, development and health, as well as reducing the levels of the stress hormone cortisol in the body. It is also thought that touch may be particularly important for older people as other senses decline."

More than 90 percent of study participants said that touching their pets was comforting and relaxing. Some reports suggested that animals made physical contact when their owners were sad, distressed, or traumatized.

Many people referenced their pets' innate ability to "know" when they weren't feeling well- and the animals stayed physically close to them.

"The feedback we received was that pets themselves seem to get just as much pleasure from the tactile interaction as humans," said Dr. Young. "Animals, like people, are living, breathing others, with individual interests, styles and preferences. While culturally, animals are not seen as 'human,' they are still seen as individuals with likes and dislikes.

"In the era of COVID-19, social distancing, sudden lockdowns and societal upheaval, our pets may be the only living beings that many people are able to touch and draw comfort from."

"Humans have an innate need to connect with others but in the absence of human touch, pets are helping to fill this void. They need to be considered from a policy angle, therefore, to help mitigate some of the mental and physical stressors that people are experiencing during this time."

Dr. Young noted that hospitals, hospices, and nursing homes should be encouraging pet connections with residents.

"Residential aged care is yet to recognise the value of human-animal relationships. Had more pets being living with their owners in aged care when COVID-19 restrictions were applied, it could have helped people immeasurably."

The study is published in the <a href="https://sabeconomics.org/jbep/">Journal of Behavioral Economics for Policy</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pets are playing a lifesaving role this year during the pandemic

Pets are saving many people from the devastating effects of...

Preserving and planting trees, especially in the tropics, could reduce carbon dioxide <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wooden-buildings-could-store-half-of-the-cement-industrys-co2-emissions/">emissions</a> by six gigatons a year from 2025 to 2055. The associated costs, however, could be as high as $393 billion a year.

Study co-author Brent Sohngen is a professor of Environmental Economics at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a>. "There is a significant amount of carbon that can be sequestered through forests, but these costs aren't zero," said Professor Sohngen.

The overall CO2 reduction predicted by 2055 would make up about 10 percent of the total reduction needed to keep the climate from warming beyond 1.5 or 2 degrees Celsius. While limiting warming to two degrees or below will help to prevent the worst case scenarios, it would not eliminate global warming and other issues associated with climate change.

For example, a two-degree increase in the average global temperature would lead to more frequent extreme weather events, including droughts, heatwaves, and hurricanes. In addition, many species will be pushed to extinction.

The targeted temperature thresholds would allow for some adaptation, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. However, the Earth is currently on track to double the two-degree limit. 

A growing collection of studies suggest that tree planting, management and conservation could play a key role in addressing the climate crisis. Based on an updated version of the Global Timber Model, the Ohio State researchers calculated the worldwide financial costs of sequestering carbon in the world's forests.

The researchers found that protecting existing forests is cheaper than planting new ones. They also determined that forest management provides a low-cost option to store carbon in regions where timber management is an important economic activity.

Study lead author Kemen Austin is a senior policy analyst with RTI International, a nonprofit research institute based in North Carolina

"Protecting, managing and restoring the world's forests will be necessary for avoiding dangerous impacts of climate change, and have important co-benefits such as biodiversity conservation, ecosystem service enhancement and protection of livelihoods," said Austin. 

"Until now, there has been limited research investigating the costs of climate change mitigation from forests. Better understanding the costs of mitigation from global forests will help us to prioritize resources and inform the design of more efficient mitigation policies."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Planting trees could slow global warming, but it won't be cheap

Preserving and planting trees, especially in the tropics, could reduce...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/">University of Sydney</a> have demonstrated for the first time that cannabidiol (CBD) does not impair a person's ability to drive. The research is particularly relevant as CBD is increasingly used to treat anxiety, epilepsy, fibromyalgia pain, sleep disorders, and other medical issues. 

"These findings indicate for the first time that CBD, when given without THC, does not affect a subject's ability to drive. That's great news for those using or considering treatment using CBD-based products," said study lead author Dr. Thomas Arkell.

For the investigation, 26 participants were given four different types of vaporized cannabis in a random order on four separate occasions. The vaporized cannabis contained either: mainly THC, mainly CBD, a combination of THC and CBD, or a placebo cannabis with no active components. The amount of THC inhaled by the volunteers was potent enough to induce strong feelings of intoxication.

The driving tests that followed were conducted on a 100-kilometer stretch of public highway in a dual control car with a driving instructor present. The study participants completed two driving tests, which were conducted 40 minutes and four hours after inhaling the cannabis vapor. The researchers used a well-established scientific test that measures lane weaving, swerving, and overcorrecting. 

The study revealed that cannabis containing mainly CBD did not impair driving, while cannabis containing THC caused mild impairment 40 minutes later. The individuals who were given THC no longer showed signs of impairment four hours after exposure.

"With cannabis laws changing globally, jurisdictions are grappling with the issue of cannabis-impaired driving," said Dr. Arkell.  "These results provide much needed insights into the magnitude and duration of impairment caused by different types of cannabis and can help to guide road-safety policy not just in Australia but around the world."

Dr. Arkell said that road safety is a primary concern, and that the research can support evidence-based laws and regulation for people receiving medical cannabis.

Professor Iain McGregor is the academic director of the Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics at the University of Sydney.

"The results should reassure people using CBD-only products that they are most likely safe to drive, while helping patients using THC-dominant products to understand the duration of impairment," said Professor McGregor.

"With rapidly changing attitudes towards medical and non-medical use of cannabis, driving under the influence of cannabis is emerging as an important and somewhat controversial public health issue."

"While some previous studies have looked at the effects of cannabis on driving, most have focused on smoked cannabis containing only THC (not CBD) and have not precisely quantified the duration of impairment."

"This is the first study to illustrate the lack of CBD effects on driving and to also provide a clear indication of the duration of THC impairment."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/">JAMA</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

CBD does not impair driving ability

Experts at the University of Sydney have demonstrated for the...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> (MBL) have finally solved the mystery of insect wing evolution. The team has confirmed the theory that insect wings evolved from an outgrowth or "lobe" on the legs of an ancestral crustacean.

After the ancient marine animal moved onto land about 300 million years ago, one of its leg segments became embedded in the body wall during embryonic development. This was likely an adaptation that emerged to better support its weight on land. 

"The leg lobes then moved up onto the insect's back, and those later formed the wings," said study co-author Heather Bruce. She explained that one of the reasons it took a century to figure this out, is that it was not appreciated until around 2010 that insects are most closely related to crustaceans within the arthropod phylum.

"Prior to that, based on morphology, everyone had classified insects in the myriapod group, along with the millipedes and centipedes," said Bruce. "And if you look in myriapods for where insect wings came from, you won't find anything."

"So insect wings came to be thought of as 'novel' structures that sprang up in insects and had no corresponding structure in the ancestor - because researchers were looking in the wrong place for the insect ancestor."

To solve the decades-old mystery of insect wing evolution, the researchers combined old scientific papers with advanced genomic analysis. The investigation was initiated as Bruce was comparing the genetics of the segmented legs of a crustacean to various insects like fruit flies. Her analysis identified genes that corresponded with the six leg segments found in both crustaceans and insects. 

However, the crustacean species Parhyale, and the has an additional, seventh leg segment next to its body wall. Bruce set out to determine where this segment had gone. 

"And so I started digging in the literature, and I found this really old idea that had been proposed in 1893, that insects had incorporated their proximal [closest to body] leg region into the body wall," said Bruce. "But I still didn't have the wing part of the story. So I kept reading and reading, and I came across this 1980s theory that not only did insects incorporate their proximal leg region into the body wall, but the little lobes on the leg later moved up onto the back and formed the wings. I thought, wow, my genomic and embryonic data supports these old theories."

According to the researchers, it would have been impossible to unravel the mystery of insect wing evolution without the genomic tools that are now available. 

"People get very excited by the idea that something like insect wings may have been a novel innovation of evolution," said MBL Director Nipam Patel. "But one of the stories that is emerging from genomic comparisons is that nothing is brand new; everything came from somewhere. And you can, in fact, figure out from where." 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists solve the mystery of how insects got their wings

Researchers at the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) have finally solved...

Jaguars in the Peruvian Amazon will be able to handle <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/east-asia-may-be-permanently-locked-into-hotter-and-drier-climate/">climate</a> change in the short-term, but could become severely threatened as extreme weather events increasingly interfere with food resources, according to research led by <a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/">Queensland University of Technology</a> (QUT). 

The study is the first to examine how climate change may impact the jaguar, which is the dominant predator in Central and South America.

"Estimates of jaguar numbers are difficult to achieve because the big cats are cryptic by nature, are not always uniquely identifiable, and their habitat can be hostile to humans," explained study co-author Professor Kerrie Mengersen.

The research was focused on data gathered during a 2016 expedition to the Pacaya Samiria Reserve, which covers 20,800 square kilometers in the Loreto region of the Peruvian Amazon. 

The experts also used the results of a census study based on camera traps and scat, as well as data collected from Indigenous rangers in the reserve.

To analyze future population scenarios, the team mapped the jaguar's solitary behavior, births of cubs at certain times of the year, competition, and availability of key prey. The experts also accounted for illegal hunting.

According to Professor Kevin Burrage, the predicted outcomes for the jaguars were concerning in the long-term. 

"Our results imply that jaguars can cope with extreme drought and flood, but there is a very high probability that the population will crash if the conditions are repeated over short time periods. These scenarios are becoming more likely due to climate change," said Professor Burrage.

"The declines may be further exacerbated by hunting of both jaguars and their prey, as well as loss of habitat through deforestation."

The analysis suggests that jaguars can recover- at lower numbers - if there are periods without extreme weather events.

"In this worst-case scenario, prey levels could not recover, and jaguar populations were predicted to drop to single digits in 30 years' time," said Professor Burrage.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Jaguars in the Amazon are threatened by climate extremes

Jaguars in the Peruvian Amazon will be able to handle...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...