Diamond rain and super-ionic water are among the more dramatic theories proposed to explain the mysterious interiors of Uranus and Neptune, the ice giants of our solar system.&nbsp;



However, a planetary scientist from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, has introduced a compelling alternative: the interiors of these planets are layered, with materials separating like oil and water.&nbsp;



This separation could explain the planets' unusual magnetic fields and challenges earlier theories about their interiors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-layered-model-for-the-ice-giants">A layered model for the ice giants</h2>



In a paper published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2403981121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, Burkhard Militzer, a professor of earth and planetary science at UC Berkeley, suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decades-after-voyager-2-flew-by-uranus-we-finally-know-what-it-saw/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uranus</a> and Neptune have interiors composed of two distinct layers.&nbsp;



Beneath the planets’ thick hydrogen-and-helium atmospheres, a deep ocean of water-rich material lies above a highly compressed, hydrocarbon-rich fluid composed of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen.



Militzer's computer simulations show that under the extreme pressures and temperatures inside these planets, water (H₂O), methane (CH₄), and ammonia (NH₃) naturally separate. This separation occurs because hydrogen is squeezed out of methane and ammonia, leading to the formation of immiscible layers.



“We now have, I would say, a good theory why Uranus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-moons-discovered-around-neptune-and-uranus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neptune</a> have really different fields, and it's very different from Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn,” Militzer explained. “It's like oil and water, except the hydrogen-rich layer goes on top, and the heavier material stays below.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-fields-and-convection">Magnetic fields and convection</h2>



The theory provides a potential explanation for the irregular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> of Uranus and Neptune, which were discovered by NASA's Voyager 2 mission in the 1980s.&nbsp;



Unlike Earth’s strong, dipolar magnetic field - which results from convection in the planet's liquid outer core - Uranus and Neptune have disorganized magnetic fields.



Convection, a process where hot material rises and cooler material sinks, generates magnetic fields in planetary interiors. For Uranus and Neptune, the lack of a large-scale, convecting layer in their interiors suggests that the materials within are layered and do not mix.



In Militzer's model, the upper water-rich layer likely convects, creating the observed disorganized magnetic field, while the deeper, hydrocarbon-rich layer remains stable and stratified, preventing global convection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-conditions-of-uranus-and-neptune">Extreme conditions of Uranus and Neptune </h2>



Militzer’s breakthrough came after a decade of research. Ten years ago, he used computer models with 100 atoms to simulate the behavior of elements in the planets’ interiors but could not replicate the formation of layers.



Last year, leveraging machine learning and more powerful computing tools, he increased the number of atoms in his model to 540.&nbsp;



This allowed him to simulate the behavior of materials under the extreme pressures and temperatures inside Uranus and Neptune - up to 3.4 million times Earth's atmospheric pressure and temperatures around 4,750 Kelvin (8,000°F).



“One day, I looked at the model, and the water had separated from the carbon and nitrogen,” Militzer said. “What I couldn't do 10 years ago was now happening.”



The model revealed that as pressure increases with depth, hydrogen is squeezed out, forming a stable layer of carbon-nitrogen-hydrogen material, almost like a plastic polymer. This hydrocarbon-rich layer lies beneath the convecting, water-rich layer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravity-fields-measured-by-voyager-2-nbsp">Gravity fields measured by Voyager 2&nbsp;</h2>



When Militzer modeled the gravitational effects of a layered Uranus and Neptune, the results matched the gravity fields measured by Voyager 2 nearly 40 years ago.&nbsp;



His model predicts that below Uranus’ 3,000-mile-thick atmosphere lies a water-rich layer about 5,000 miles thick.&nbsp;



Beneath this layer is a hydrocarbon-rich layer of similar thickness, with a rocky core about the size of Mercury. Neptune, though more massive than Uranus, has a thinner atmosphere but similar water-rich and hydrocarbon-rich layers. Its rocky core is slightly larger, approximately the size of Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-exoplanets">Implications for exoplanets</h2>



If Militzer's theory is correct, it has implications beyond our solar system.&nbsp;



Planets similar in size to Uranus and Neptune, often referred to as sub-Neptune <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neptune-like-exoplanets-atmospheres-interesting-earth-size-neighbors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>, are among the most common types of planets discovered around other stars. These exoplanets may also have layered interiors with distinct chemical compositions and magnetic fields.



“If other star systems have similar compositions to ours, ice giants around those stars could well have similar internal structures,” Militzer noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-interiors-of-uranus-and-neptune">The interiors of Uranus and Neptune </h2>



Militzer hopes to collaborate with experimental physicists to recreate the extreme conditions of Uranus and Neptune’s interiors in laboratory settings.&nbsp;



By testing the behavior of fluids with elemental proportions found in the protosolar system, researchers could verify whether immiscible layers naturally form.



Future space missions may also provide definitive proof. A proposed NASA mission to Uranus could include a Doppler imager to measure planetary vibrations.&nbsp;



According to Militzer, a layered planet would vibrate at different frequencies than one with a fully convecting interior. His next project involves calculating these vibrations using his computational model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-peculiarities-of-uranus-and-neptune">The peculiarities of Uranus and Neptune </h2>



Militzer's findings challenge popular theories about Uranus and Neptune, such as the idea of diamond rain in the planets’ interiors or the exotic properties of super-ionic water.



“If you ask my colleagues, 'What do you think explains the fields of Uranus and Neptune?' they may say, ‘Well, maybe it's this diamond rain, but maybe it's this water property which we call super-ionic,’” Militzer said.&nbsp;



“From my perspective, this is not plausible. But if we have this separation into two separate layers, that should explain it.”



Militzer's layered model offers a comprehensive explanation for the peculiarities of Uranus and Neptune, from their magnetic fields to their gravitational signatures.&nbsp;



By identifying the separation of water-rich and hydrocarbon-rich layers as the key factor, the study advances our understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-ice-giant-uranus-in-stunning-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice giants</a> and opens new possibilities for exploring planetary interiors.



Future laboratory experiments and space missions could confirm these findings, not only shedding light on the mysteries of Uranus and Neptune but also providing insights into the structure of similar planets across the galaxy.



-----



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What lies beneath the surface of Uranus and Neptune?

Diamond rain and super-ionic water are among the more dramatic theories proposed to explain the mysterious interiors of Uranus and Neptune, the ice giants of our solar system.&nbsp; However, a planetary scientist from the University of California, Berkeley, has introduced a compelling alternative: the interiors of these planets are layered, with materials separating like oil and water.&nbsp; This separation could explain the planets' unusual magnetic fields and challenges earlier theories about their interiors. A layered model for the ice giants In a paper published in the Proceedings...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> have traced the success of non-native starlings to rapid evolution. The experts set out to investigate how the European starling has become one of the most abundant bird species in North America. 

After just 80 individuals were released in New York City's Central Park in 1890, the starling population exploded to an estimated 200 million breeding adults spread across the continent of North America.

"The amazing thing about the evolutionary changes among starling populations since they were introduced in North America is that the changes happened in a span of just 130 years in parallel with a huge expansion in the bird's range and population size," said study lead author Natalie Hofmeister. "For a long time we didn't think that was possible - that it took millions of years for genetic mutations to change a genome."

According to the researchers, the genetic differences found among North American starlings are very subtle. DNA sequencing showed that the genomes of birds from different regions of the United States were all remarkably similar. 

The experts identified specific genetic signatures representing changes in areas of the genome that control how starlings adapt to variations in temperature and rainfall. The study authors concluded the birds had undergone "rapid local adaptation" to quickly adjust to conditions not found in their native European range.

Movement played a major role in the evolution of starlings. They established new populations as they spread westward, and each population had to adapt to the new environmental conditions. These adaptations may not have required new mutations, but instead resulted from an existing genetic variations.

"A genetic variation that might not have been useful in one environment could turn out to be very beneficial in another," said Hofmeister. "So, a variation related to temperature and rainfall that enhanced survival became more common in a new environment." 

The massive size of the total starling population across North America meant these gene variants were passed down from the original birds across generations.

"What I think is really cool is that the starlings in North America appear to have adapted to different conditions across the range," said Hofmeister. "So, it wasn't just that they reproduced really quickly, and then just kept reproducing. It's that they specialized once they arrived in new areas."

Despite their success, the European starlings are currently in a state of decline. The population is now half the size it was 50 years ago throughout North America, and is also declining in Europe.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Starlings are a prime example of rapid evolution

Researchers at Cornell University have traced the success of non-native...

Winter landscape in Lapland, Abisko National Park, Abisko, Sweden

As global temperatures rise, frozen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosols-play-a-mysterious-yet-powerful-role-in-arctic-warming/">Arctic</a> soil in the northern hemisphere is thawing and releasing carbon that has been stored away for thousands of years. A new study from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/">University of Copenhagen</a> describes how thawing permafrost is generating even higher CO2 emissions than what has been predicted.
The researchers have identified a previously unknown process by which bacteria release carbon that was thought to be permanently sequestered in the soil. 

Compared to the amount of CO2 emitted by humans, the amount of carbon stored in permafrost is believed to be four times greater. The frozen ground, which is warming much faster than anticipated, is estimated to contain a staggering 1,400 gigatons of carbon.

"The release of vast amounts of organic carbon during thawing of high-latitude permafrost is an emerging issue of global concern. Yet, the extent of greenhouse gas emissions from permafrost thawing remains unpredictable due to knowledge gaps related to controls on the fate of carbon in permafrost soils," wrote the study authors.

To investigate, the researchers examined peatland soils collected along a thaw gradient at Stordalen mire in Abisko, Sweden. Here, they identified a phenomenon that will release even larger quantities of carbon than what was anticipated from organic matter in permafrost. This pool of carbon was previously thought to be bound tightly and safely secured by iron.

It is known that microorganisms play a key role in the release of carbon as permafrost melts. As the frozen ground thaws, microorganisms are activated that convert dead plants and other organic material into CO2 and other greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide.

Mineral iron was believed to bind carbon, even as permafrost thawed. However, the new study has revealed for the first time that bacteria disable iron's carbon trapping ability, resulting in the release of vast amounts of CO2. 

Study co-author Carsten W. Müller is a professor in the University of Copenhagen's Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management. 

"What we see is that bacteria simply use iron minerals as a food source. As they feed, the bonds which had trapped carbon are destroyed and it is released into the atmosphere as greenhouse gas," explained Professor Miller. 

"Frozen soil has a high oxygen content, which keeps iron minerals stable and allows carbon to bind to them. But as soon as the ice melts and turns to water, oxygen levels drop and the iron becomes unstable. At the same time, the melted ice permits access to bacteria. As a whole, this is what releases stored carbon as CO2."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Arctic permafrost is releasing even more CO2 than expected

As global temperatures rise, frozen Arctic soil in the northern...

Three large studies published by the <a href="https://www.heart.org/">American Heart Association</a> have produced evidence that drinking coffee on a daily basis reduces the risk of heart failure. In the United States, the top causes of death from heart disease are heart failure, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-viruses-can-trigger-a-stroke/">stroke</a>, and coronary artery disease.

"While smoking, age and high blood pressure are among the most well-known heart disease risk factors, unidentified risk factors for heart disease remain," explained study senior author Dr. David P. Kao.

"The risks and benefits of drinking coffee have been topics of ongoing scientific interest due to the popularity and frequency of consumption worldwide," said Dr. Linda Van Horn. "Studies reporting associations with outcomes remain relatively limited due to inconsistencies in diet assessment and analytical methodologies, as well as inherent problems with self-reported dietary intake."

To analyze the health outcomes of drinking caffeinated coffee, the researchers categorized consumption as 0 cups per day, 1 cup per day, 2 cups per day and 3 cups per day. They used machine learning to analyze data from the Framingham Heart Study, and then compared those findings to data from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study and the Cardiovascular Health Study for confirmation.

The studies collectively involved more than 21,000 participants who were followed for at least 10 years. The analysis revealed that drinking one or more cups of caffeinated coffee was associated with a decreased long-term heart failure risk.

In the Framingham Heart and the Cardiovascular Health studies, the risk of heart failure decreased by up to 12 percent per cup per day of coffee, over the course of decades.

While the risk of heart failure was not reduced with just one cup of coffee in the third study, people who drank at least two cups of coffee per day had a 30 percent lower risk of heart failure.

Drinking decaffeinated coffee was found to have no association with heart failure risk in one of the investigations, yet was found to increase this risk in another dataset. Upon further investigation, the researchers found that caffeine consumption from any source was linked with decreased heart failure risk. They determined that caffeine was at least partially responsible for the apparent benefit from drinking more coffee.

"The association between caffeine and heart failure risk reduction was surprising. Coffee and caffeine are often considered by the general population to be 'bad' for the heart because people associate them with palpitations, high blood pressure, etc. The consistent relationship between increasing caffeine consumption and decreasing heart failure risk turns that assumption on its head," said Dr. Kao. 

"However, there is not yet enough clear evidence to recommend increasing coffee consumption to decrease risk of heart disease with the same strength and certainty as stopping smoking, losing weight or exercising."

The American Heart Association warns that popular coffee-based drinks such as lattes are often high in calories, added sugar and fat. Furthermore, despite its benefits, caffeine can be dangerous when consumed in excess. 

"While unable to prove causality, it is intriguing that these three studies suggest that drinking coffee is associated with a decreased risk of heart failure and that coffee can be part of a healthy dietary pattern if consumed plain, without added sugar and high fat dairy products such as cream," said Dr. Penny M. Kris-Etherton.

"The bottom line: enjoy coffee in moderation as part of an overall heart-healthy dietary pattern that meets recommendations for fruits and vegetables, whole grains, low-fat/non-fat dairy products, and that also is low in sodium, saturated fat and added sugars. Also, it is important to be mindful that caffeine is a stimulant and consuming too much may be problematic - causing jitteriness and sleep problems."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/journal/circheartfailure">Circulation: Heart Failure</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Coffee and caffeine linked to lower risk of heart failure

Three large studies published by the American Heart Association have...

Bark beetles and wildfires are taking a heavy toll on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-eating-mammals-fertilize-the-soil-in-tropical-forests/">forests</a> in Colorado. Researchers at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">CU Boulder</a> report that while the forests can recover from one or the other, the collective impacts of bark beetles and fires could lead to permanent changes. 

The study is one of the first to document the effects of bark beetles on high elevation forests as they recover from wildfire.

The experts found that when wildfire follows a severe spruce beetle outbreak in the Rocky Mountains, Engelmann spruce trees are unable to recover and grow back. Meanwhile, aspen tree roots can survive underground.

"The fact that Aspen is regenerating prolifically after wildfire is not a surprise," said study lead author Robert Andrus. "The surprising piece here is that after beetle kill and then wildfire, there aren't really any spruce regenerating."

In previous research, Andrus determined that Colorado forests can survive bark beetle outbreaks, including overlapping outbreaks with different kinds of beetles. He also found that spruce bark beetle infestations do not affect fire severity.

The current study, which was conducted in the San Juan range of the Rocky Mountains, shows that subalpine forests that have been spared from bark beetle invasions are more likely recover after wildfire. On the other hand, in affected forests that also experience fire within about five years, conifers cannot bounce back. 

"This combination, the spruce beetle outbreak and the fire, can alter the trajectory of the forest to dominance by aspen," said Andrus.

According to the study, when bark beetles attack Engelmann spruce trees before a fire, there are not enough seeds being produced in the burned areas to regenerate the forest. On the other hand, aspens regrow from their root systems, which gives them the ability to bounce back.

Based on 45 study sites, 74 percent of forests that endured fire soon after a bark beetle invasion had Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir trees that failed to recover. 

"Bark beetle outbreaks have been killing lots and lots of trees throughout the western United States. And especially at higher elevation forests, what drives bark beetle outbreaks and what drives fire are similar conditions: generally warmer and drier conditions," said Andrus.

The good news, according to the researchers, is that the aspens that may come to dominate these forests can anchor their recovery, and keep forests from transitioning into grasslands. "Where the aspens are regenerating, we expect to see a forest in those areas.'

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://eco-sphere.com/">Ecosphere</a> 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Colorado forests are transformed by bark beetles and fire

Bark beetles and wildfires are taking a heavy toll on...

In a new study led by <a href="https://www.brown.edu/">Brown University</a>, researchers have taken a new approach to reconstruct the movement of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-the-dinosaurs-vanished-forests-expanded-and-thrived/">dinosaurs</a> and other extinct animals. The experts developed a 3D imaging technique to investigate the mechanics of early animal locomotion. 

"By combining the latest technology for studying joint motion with unprecedented amounts of joint pose data, we've uncovered surprising new information that will improve reconstructions of locomotion in extinct animals," said study lead author Armita Manafzadeh.

According to Manafzadeh, improving the ability for scientists to study animal biomechanics is important because knowledge of how individual species moved can advance our understanding of major evolutionary transformations. 

For example, advanced knowledge of early animal movement could help us understand how vertebrates came out of the water and started walking on land, how they went from walking on four legs to two, and how flight evolved, explained Manafzadeh.

Current research on early animal locomotion relies on the process of elimination. The fossilized bones are assembled together and manipulated to determine a joint's mobility, which includes all of the poses that could have been executed without the bones bumping into each other. 

However, this traditional approach only identifies the way in which animals did not move, and requires additional resources to investigate how they actually did move. 

For the current investigation, Manafzadeh teamed up with Professor Stephen M. Gatesy and Dr. Robert Kambic to determine whether joint mobility data may be more informative than what has been assumed.

Using XROMM 3D imaging technology, the researchers analyzed the locomotion of two living animals that are closely related to extinct dinosaurs -  the helmeted guineafowl and the American alligator.

The team captured X-ray videos of the animals walking and having their limbs manipulated, conducted CT scans of the skeletons, and measured nearly 600,000 joint poses. 

The researchers found consistent patterns that linked joint mobility to specific poses used by the dinosaur relatives during locomotion. The experts explained that these patterns can now be applied to reconstruct the movements of extinct animals with more accuracy.

"Thanks to these pose usage patterns, it turns out that what dinosaurs couldn't do with their joints will give us some big clues about how they walked," said Manafzadeh. "What's more, this information has been right in front of us, hidden within the data that paleontologists are already collecting. We just didn't know how to appreciate it yet."

According to the researchers, their confidence in the patterns is supported by the hundreds of thousands of joint poses they have been able to measure and analyze. "We can now pursue future research to ask how broad those patterns are, how they evolved and why," said Professor Gatesy.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur relatives reveal clues about early animal locomotion

In a new study led by Brown University, researchers have...

Climate change could have major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-why-breastfed-babies-live-healthier-lives/">health</a> impacts on people who suffer from seasonal allergies. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a> have found that allergy seasons are now starting 20 days earlier, lasting 10 days longer, and invloving 21 percent more pollen compared to 1990.

According to the experts, human-caused climate change has played a major role in extending the pollen season, as well as a smaller role in boosting pollen counts. 

"The strong link between warmer weather and pollen seasons provides a crystal-clear example of how climate change is already affecting peoples' health across the U.S.," said study lead author William Anderegg.

Environmental allergies often have negative effects on respiratory health, and longer pollen seasons will worsen these effects. 

Previous studies have linked higher pollen production to rising temperatures and atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide. The current study is the first to investigate the likely contribution of climate change to pollen trends on a continental scale. 

"A number of smaller-scale studies - usually in greenhouse settings on small plants - had indicated strong links between temperature and pollen," explained Anderegg. "This study reveals that connection at continental scales and explicitly links pollen trends to human-caused climate change."

The researchers examined records at 60 pollen count stations across the United States and Canada for the time period from 1990 to 2018. These stations collect airborne pollen and mold samples, which are then counted by hand.

The analysis showed that nationwide pollen amounts increased by around 21 percent over the study period, with the greatest increases recorded in Texas and the Midwestern United States.

The fact that allergy seasons are now starting about 20 days earlier than in 1990 indicates that global warming is causing plants to start producing pollen earlier in the year.

The experts applied statistical methods to the pollen trends in conjunction with nearly two dozen climate models. The results showed that climate change alone was responsible for around half of the pollen season lengthening and around eight percent of the increase in pollen. The study also revealed that the contribution of climate change to higher pollen counts is accelerating.

"Climate change isn't something far away and in the future. It's already here in every spring breath we take and increasing human misery," said Anderegg. "The biggest question is - are we up to the challenge of tackling it?"

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change is to blame for longer allergy seasons

Climate change could have major health impacts on people who...

Over the last 30 years, the Arctic has been warming at a rate that is two to three times faster than the rest of the planet. It is important for scientists to gain a better understanding of what is causing this phenomenon, known as Arctic amplification, to help mitigate and prepare for the global impacts of rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-linked-to-low-quality-diets-among-children/">temperatures</a>.

"We need to improve our climate models because what's happening in the Arctic will eventually spread elsewhere," said <a href="https://www.epfl.ch/en/">EPFL</a> atmospheric scientist Julia Schmale.

"It's already affecting the climate in other parts of the northern hemisphere, as we've seen with the melting glaciers and rising sea levels in Greenland. And to develop better models, a better understanding of aerosols' role will be crucial. They have a major impact on the climate and on human health."

While Arctic warming is primarily driven by rising greenhouse gas emissions, there are other local processes that are also making significant contributions. For example, as the Arctic loses ice, the land surface also loses some of its albedo - the capacity to reflect solar radiation. 

Another regional factor that must be considered has to do with the complex interactions that take place between clouds and aerosols. According to Schmale, there is an urgent need to clarify the role of aerosol-related processes in Arctic warming.

"How albedo is affected by ice is fairly well understood - there are established maximum and minimum values, for example," said Schmale. "But when it comes to groups of aerosols, there are many variables to consider: will they reflect or absorb light, will they form a cloud, are they natural or anthropogenic, will they stay local or travel long distances, and so on. There are a lot of question marks out there, and we need to find the answers."

During several research expeditions to the North Pole, Schmale saw first-hand that the Arctic climate tends to change fastest in the winter. Since these rapid changes are taking place during periods of 24-hour darkness, they are not related to albedo.

One explanation could be that clouds present in the winter are reflecting the Earth's heat back down to the ground. The extent of this warming varies according to natural cycles, but is also influenced by the amount of aerosol in the air. This process is very complicated due to the wide range of aerosol types, as well as their varying capacities to reflect and absorb light. 

"Few observations have been made on this phenomenon because, in order to conduct research in the Arctic in the wintertime, you have to block off an icebreaker, scientists and research equipment for the entire season," said Schmale.

Going forward, weather models could be improved by accounting for all the discoveries made so far on Arctic warming.

"A major effort is needed right away, otherwise we'll always be one step behind in understanding what's going on. The observations we've already made could be used to improve our models. A wealth of information is available, but it hasn't been sorted through in the right way to establish links between the different processes. For instance, our models currently can't tell us what kinds of aerosols contribute the most to climate change, whether local or anthropogenic."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Aerosols play a mysterious yet powerful role in Arctic warming

Over the last 30 years, the Arctic has been warming...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a> has revealed that erratic, unpredictable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/second-wave-of-covid-19-pandemic-was-driven-by-the-weather/">weather</a> slows down the economy. Through more frequent day-to-day temperature variability, climate change may have major effects on economic growth.

The researchers analyzed daily temperature changes alongside economic data from more than 1,500 regions over 40 years. They found that when the daily temperature deviates from seasonal expectations, there are negative effects on the basic components of the economy, including human health, sales, crop yields, and operational costs.

"We have known for a while that changes in annual mean temperature impacts macroeconomic growth," said study lead author Maximilian Kotz. "Yet now, for the first time, we're also able to show that day-to-day variations in temperature, i.e. short-term variability, has a substantial impact. If this variability increases by one degree Celsius, economic growth is reduced on average by 5 percentage-points."

According to study co-author Leonie Wenz, economies in low-income regions of the global South are particularly impacted. 

"We find that familiarity with temperature variations is important: Economies in Canada or Russia, where average monthly temperature varies by more than 40°C within a year, seem better prepared to cope with daily temperature fluctuations than low-latitude regions such as parts of Latin America or Southeast Asia, where seasonal temperature differences can be as small as 3°C. This is likely because farmers and small business owners have cultivated resilience against temperature variability," said Wenz.

"Furthermore, income protects against losses. Even if at similar latitude, economies in poor regions are more strongly affected when daily temperature fluctuates than their counterparts in rich regions."

The researchers looked at day-to-day temperature variability for each year between 1979 and 2018, comparing this information with the corresponding regional economic data. Overall, the team analyzed a total of 29,000 individual observations. 

"Rapid temperature variability is something completely different than long-term changes," explained study co-author Anders Levermann. "The real problem caused by a changing climate are the unexpected impacts, because they are more difficult to adapt to." 

"Farmers and other businesses around the world have started to adapt to climate change. But what if weather becomes simply more erratic and unpredictable? What we have shown is that erratic weather slows down the economy. Policy makers and industry need to take this into account when discussing the real cost of climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rapid temperature variability linked to slow economic growth

A new study from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact...

In a new report from the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a>, researchers are describing how the COVID-19 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/second-wave-of-covid-19-pandemic-was-driven-by-the-weather/">pandemic</a> is accelerating the end of fossil fuel power generation. 

The pandemic is responsible for a temporary drop in CO2 emissions, as well as a reduction in coal-fired power generation that may persist beyond the coronavirus outbreak.

A team of economists based in Potsdam and Berlin analyzed the impact of COVID-19 on the energy system and investigated how the demand for electricity haa changed. 

The results of the study suggest that despite the tragedy of the pandemic, it has presented an opportunity to make the trend of decreasing coal use irreversible. According to the researchers, power sector emissions could now decline more rapidly than previously thought with the right climate policy measures.

"Coal has been hit harder by the corona crisis than other power sources - and the reason is simple," explained study lead author Christoph Bertram. "If demand for electricity drops, coal plants are usually switched off first. This is because the process of burning fuels constantly runs up costs. The plant operators have to pay for each single ton of coal."

"In contrast, renewable power sources such as wind and solar plants, once built, have significantly lower running costs - and keep on operating even if the demand is reduced."

As a result, fossil fuels were partially squeezed out of the power generation mix in 2020, and global CO2 emissions from the energy sector decreased by about seven percent. 

Across European countries, India, and the United States, monthly electricity demand declined by up to 20 percent in 2020 compared to 2019. The researchers found that monthly CO2 emissions decreased by up to 50 percent, and they estimate that these emissions will no longer reach the all-time high of 2018. 

"Due to the ongoing crisis, we expect that 2021 electricity demand will be at about 2019's levels, which, given ongoing investments into low-carbon generation means lower fossil generation than in that year," explained study co-author Gunnar Luderer. 

"As long as this clean electricity generation growth exceeds increases in electricity demand, CO2 emissions from the power sector will decline. Only if we saw unusually high demand for electricity along with surprisingly few additions of renewable power plants from 2022-2024 and beyond, fossil fuel generation would rebound to pre-pandemic levels."

The pandemic has weakened the market position of coal-fired power generation and exposed its vulnerability.

"Our research shows that investing in fossil-fueled power is not only environmentally irresponsible - it is economically very risky," said study co-author Ottmar Edenhofer. 

"In the end, it will certainly take carbon pricing to cut emissions at the required pace and stabilize our climate. Yet the impacts of the corona crisis on the power generation sector have put political leaders in a unique position: Along with additional policies such as eliminating subsidies for fossil fuels and increasing investments in wind and solar power, it is now easier than ever before to put an end to high-carbon electricity."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coal-fired power generation weakened by the pandemic

In a new report from the Potsdam Institute for Climate...

Childhood exposure to air pollution affects cognitive skills later in life. Exposure to air pollution in childhood has a detrimental impact on cognitive ability later in life, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>. The researchers found that people who are exposed to air pollution as children may experience negative changes in their thinking skills up to 60 years later.

The study was focused on the general intelligence of more than 500 individuals who participated in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 study. 

The experts based the analysis on tests that had been conducted when the participants were 11 years old. The individuals repeated the same test at the ages of 76 and 79.

To estimate pollution levels in early childhood, the researchers analyzed records of where the participants lived throughout their lives. 

The experts used statistical models to investigate the relationship between a person's exposure to air pollution and their thinking skills in later life. The study also accounted for relevant lifestyle factors, including socioeconomic status and smoking.

The analysis revealed that exposure to air pollution in childhood had a distinguishable association with negative cognitive changes between the ages of 11 and 70.

According to the researchers, the study shows that it is possible to estimate historical air pollution and explore how this relates to cognitive ability throughout life. They explained that these types of studies were previously limited by a lack of data on air pollution levels before the 1990s.

Dr. Tom Russ is the director of the Alzheimer Scotland Dementia Research Centre at the University of Edinburgh.

"For the first time we have shown the effect that exposure to air pollution very early in life could have on the brain many decades later," said Dr. Russ. "This is the first step towards understanding the harmful effects of air pollution on the brain and could help reduce the risk of dementia for future generations."

The researchers have been working with the Lothian Birth Cohorts since 1999 to chart how an individual's thinking skills change over the course of their lifetime.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.j-alz.com/">Journal of Alzheimer's Disease</a>. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Childhood exposure to air pollution affects cognitive skills later in life

Childhood exposure to air pollution affects cognitive skills later in...

Scientists may have just discovered the world's smallest reptiles living on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-parts-of-the-amazon-rainforest-will-thrive-in-a-warming-climate/">rainforest</a> floor in Madagascar. The tiny chameleons are so small that they fit on a human fingertip.

According to study co-author Frank Glaw, a reptile expert at the <a href="https://www.zsm.mwn.de/">Bavarian State Collection of Zoology</a> in Munich, the male and female specimens were spotted on a mountainside by a local guide during an expedition in 2012.

“You really have to get down on your knees to find them,” Glaw told <a href="https://apnews.com/">AP News</a>. “They are obviously camouflaged and they move very slowly.”

The international team of researchers from Germany and Madagascar named the species Brookesia nana, or nano-chameleon. The body of the male lizard is about 13.5 millimeters in length. This is at least 1.5 millimeters smaller than the previous record holder, another member of the Brookesia family.

Glaw explained that confirming Brookesia nana as the smallest reptile species will require finding more of them, which could take several years.

CT scans revealed that the female harbored two eggs, which confirmed that it was an adult. While the length of the male specimen was 22 millimeters from top to tail, the female is quite a bit larger, with a length of around 29 millimeters. 

The size difference among the genders may explain why the male lizard was found to have genitals that were almost one-fifth of its body size. The researchers said that the "well-developed" genitals may allow the smaller male chameleon to mate with the larger female.

The scientists recommend for Brookesia nana to be listed as critically endangered for its protection. In Madagascar, chameleons are threatened by deforestation.

"The new chameleon is only known from a degraded montane rainforest in northern Madagascar and might be threatened by extinction," wrote the study authors.

Dr. Mark Scherz was one of the experts involved in the discovery. In a blog post, he referred to Brookesia nana as "a spectacular case of extreme miniaturization." 

Dr. Scherz noted that the forests where the chameleons were found are still well connected with others across the north of the island. "So this tiny new chameleon violates the pattern of the smallest species being found on small islands. That suggests that something else is allowing/causing these chameleons to miniaturize."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAvP6ABhCjARIsAH37rbQ5rRYQ39GEJJJhrRAmDBpFCy3JpHSAkQFqiFlPqBzbYkvzFI2c7GMaAn5QEALw_wcB">Scientific Reports</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tiny chameleons found in Madagascar fit on a human fingertip

Scientists may have just discovered the world's smallest reptiles living...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> have taken a new approach to measure the global extent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-carbon-cycle-trends-of-the-past-50-million-years/">carbon</a> fluctuations in forests. The research could ultimately improve carbon cycle estimates and help predict the impact of forests on future climate change. 

The researchers used data from ground reports, aerial surveys, and satellites to assess how changes in forests have impacted atmospheric CO2 levels over the past two decades.

The method used by the experts made it possible to distinguish between the contributions of various types of forest, and confirmed that tropical forests play the biggest role in global carbon fluctuations. Tropical forests not only absorb more carbon, but also release more emissions as a result of deforestation and degradation.

The researchers determined that each year from 2001 to 2019, forests collectively absorbed around 15.6 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide from Earth’s atmosphere.

Meanwhile, deforestation, fires, and other disturbances released an average of 8.1 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. 

“Forests act as a two-lane highway in the climate system,” said principal investigator Nancy Harris, who is the research director for the World Resources Institute (WRI) Forests Program. “A detailed view of where both sides are occurring - forest emissions and forest removals - adds transparency to monitoring forest-related climate policies.”

Despite standardized guidelines from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), current annual reporting of national forestry data varies according to the resources available in different countries. A lack of consistency in the data creates a significant amount of uncertainty.

“The good thing is that we know there is uncertainty and we can actually quantify it,” said study co-author Lola Fatoyinbo, a scientist at NASA Goddard. “All estimates come with an uncertainty around them, which is going to keep getting smaller and smaller as we get better datasets.”

The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI), a laser instrument on the International Space Station, records the three-dimensional structures of the world’s temperate and tropical forests. Along with other NASA missions, GEDI data will provide even more insight into the carbon removal rates of these landscapes.

Fatoyinbo, who is part of the GEDI team, explained that tree canopy profiles and global maps of aboveground biomass will be useful for making future carbon estimates.

“This is kind of a major shift in the paradigm of monitoring forests,” said study co-author Sassan Saatchi of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 

“It brought in a new picture of where the big changes are happening, in terms of both the land surface losing carbon to the atmosphere and also absorbing carbon from the atmosphere.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate">Nature Climate Change</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What role will forests play in future climate change?

Scientists at NASA have taken a new approach to measure...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...