For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his collaborators have worked to compile an unparalleled database of human history - the Seshat Global History Databank. Recently, Turchin and computer scientist Maria del Rio-Chanona turned their attention to artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots, questioning whether these advanced models could aid historians and archaeologists in interpreting the past. 



The study, which is the first of its kind, evaluates the historical knowledge of leading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-ai-models-pose-an-existential-threat-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI models</a> such as ChatGPT-4, Llama, and Gemini.



The results, presented at the <a href="https://neurips.cc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeurIPS conference</a>, reveal both potential and significant limitations in AI’s ability to grasp historical knowledge, especially at the nuanced, expert level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-historical-competence-in-ai">Limited historical competence in AI</h2>



“Large language models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT, have been enormously successful in some fields - for example, they have largely succeeded by replacing paralegals," said Turchin, who leads the <a href="https://csh.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complexity Science Hub</a>’s (CSH) research group on social complexity and collapse.



"But when it comes to making judgments about the characteristics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-linked-to-the-rise-and-fall-of-early-human-societies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past societies</a>, especially those located outside North America and Western Europe, their ability to do so is much more limited.” 



The study’s findings highlight that AI’s capabilities are domain-specific. While LLMs excel in some applications, they struggle with expert-level historical analysis. GPT-4 Turbo, the best-performing model, achieved a balanced accuracy of just 46% on a four-choice question test. 



This result, though an improvement over random guessing (25%), underscores the substantial gaps in AI’s understanding of global history.



“I thought the AI chatbots would do a lot better,” said del Rio-Chanona, corresponding author of the study and assistant professor at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London.</a> “History is often viewed as facts, but sometimes interpretation is necessary to make sense of it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-ai-understand-expert-level-history">Does AI understand expert-level history?</h2>



The study leveraged the <a href="https://seshat-db.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seshat Global History Databank</a>, a comprehensive resource documenting historical data from 600 societies worldwide, encompassing over 36,000 data points and 2,700 scholarly references. Using Seshat as a benchmark, researchers tested LLMs on questions requiring graduate or expert-level knowledge.



“We wanted to set a benchmark for assessing the ability of these LLMs to handle expert-level history knowledge,” explained first author Jakob Hauser, a resident scientist at CSH.&nbsp;



“A key component of our benchmark is that we not only test whether these LLMs can identify correct facts, but also explicitly ask whether a fact can be proven or inferred from indirect evidence.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-and-temporal-disparities">Regional and temporal disparities</h2>



The study revealed that AI performance varied significantly across time periods and geographic regions. LLMs demonstrated greater accuracy when addressing questions about ancient history, particularly between 8,000 BCE and 3,000 BCE, but struggled with more recent events, especially from 1,500 CE to the present.



Geographically, OpenAI models like GPT-4 performed better for regions such as Latin America and the Caribbean, while Llama models excelled in Northern America. However, both systems underperformed in Sub-Saharan Africa, with Llama also showing weaker results for Oceania.&nbsp;



These disparities highlight potential biases in training data, which may prioritize certain historical narratives while neglecting others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-depth-in-ai-models">Lack of depth in AI models</h2>



LLMs performed best on questions related to legal systems and social complexity, but they struggled significantly with topics such as discrimination and social mobility.



“The main takeaway from this study is that LLMs, while impressive, still lack the depth of understanding required for advanced history,” said del Rio-Chanona. “They're great for basic facts, but when it comes to more nuanced, PhD-level historical inquiry, they're not yet up to the task.”



Among the tested models, GPT-4 Turbo ranked highest with 46% accuracy, while Llama-3.1-8B scored the lowest at 33.6%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-dataset-and-reducing-bias">Expanding the dataset and reducing bias</h2>



The researchers aim to address the shortcomings revealed in this study by expanding the dataset and refining the benchmark. Hauser emphasized plans to incorporate more data from underrepresented regions, especially in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-across-the-global-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global South</a>, and to include more complex historical questions.



“We also look forward to testing more recent LLM models, such as o3, to see if they can bridge the gaps identified in this study,” Hauser said.



The team believes the findings are valuable not only for AI developers but also for historians and archaeologists.&nbsp;



For academics, understanding AI’s limitations can guide its use in research, while for developers, the study highlights areas for improvement, such as addressing regional biases and enhancing models’ capacity for handling nuanced historical evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-ai-s-understanding-of-history">Improving AI’s understanding of history</h2>



The study highlights both the potential and the current limitations of AI in historical research. While LLMs have proven valuable for generating basic historical facts, they fall short when tasked with interpreting complex and nuanced historical contexts.&nbsp;



For researchers and developers alike, these findings offer a roadmap for improving AI’s understanding of global history, paving the way for tools that better support scholarly inquiry into the past.



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AI struggles to understand human history and fails miserably when tested

For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his collaborators have worked to compile an unparalleled database of human history - the Seshat Global History Databank. Recently, Turchin and computer scientist Maria del Rio-Chanona turned their attention to artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots, questioning whether these advanced models could aid historians and archaeologists in interpreting the past. The study, which is the first of its kind, evaluates the historical knowledge of leading AI models such as ChatGPT-4, Llama, and Gemini. The results, presented at the NeurIPS conference,...

A 25-million-year-old eagle fossil from Australia is helping to fill in the blanks of Accipitridae <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bowfin-fish-proves-that-evolution-can-be-flexible/">evolution</a>. The new genus and species, Archaehierax sylvestris, is represented by 63 bones - a significant amount for a group that can very easily escape the fossil record.&nbsp;



Most fossils are found because they can weather millions of years worth of all the punishment Mother Nature can dole out. Usually these are sturdiest of skeletal remains - things that decay quickly like soft tissue are quickly lost. Bird skeletons are lightweight and fragile by design - by lightening the animal’s body mass, they allowed dinosaurs to soar.&nbsp;



Consequently, bird fossils can be hard to find, so piecing together their evolutionary history can be a bit tricky.&nbsp;



“With eagles at the top of the food chain, they are always few in number - and so are infrequently preserved as fossils,” said study co-author Professor Trevor Worthy. 



“The foot span was nearly 15 cm long, which would have allowed it to grasp large prey. The largest marsupial predators at the time were about the size of a small dog or large cat, so Archaehierax was certainly ruling the roost."



The fossil site, Lake Pinpa, is now a dry and barren patch of land in the Australian outback, but was once a lush and productive forest. Other fossils from the site include koalas, opossums, and other birds, which were all likely prey items for Archaehierax.&nbsp;



“I have studied this system for many years now, and this is the most exquisite fossil we have found to date," said Worthy.&nbsp;



“The completeness of the Archaehierax skeleton allowed us to determine where it fits on the eagle family tree. It shows a range of features unlike any seen among modern hawks and eagles,” said study co-author Ellen Mathers.&nbsp;



Through a large dataset of extinct and extant accipitrids, the team found that Archaehierax did not belong to any of the living genera or families. "It seems to have been its own unique branch of the eagle family. It’s unlikely to be a direct ancestor to any species alive today," said Mathers.&nbsp;



Despite millions of specimens and over 200 years of European-style academic study, the fossil record provides only small, precious glimpses into the history of life on our planet. From the most alien looking specimens, to familiar feathered friends, every new discovery has the potential to inform the grand evolutionary story.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2021.1966777">Historical Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Eagle fossil represents a unique branch of the family tree

A 25-million-year-old eagle fossil from Australia is helping to fill...

Global plastic production has been increasing steadily since the 1950s, reaching 368 million tons in 2019. A large proportion of this plastic waste ends up in seas and oceans, with scientists estimating that over 250,000 tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-and-climate-change-are-interconnected/">plastic</a> debris are currently polluting the world’s waters. A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.743117/full">Frontiers in Marine Science</a> has found that the Mediterranean Sea is one the largest hotspots for plastic pollution, with over 3,760 metric tons of plastic waste currently floating in it.



By using computer modelling, a research team from the <a href="https://www.hcmr.gr/">Hellenic Centre for Marine Research</a> in Greece (HCMR) has tracked the pathways of plastic debris in the Mediterranean Sea from 2010 to 2017. They found that the total annual plastics load going into the Mediterranean is about 17,600 tons, from which 84 percent ends up on beaches and the rest remains in the water column or on the sea floor.&nbsp;



This phenomenon is likely due to the Mediterranean’s densely populated coastlines, fishing, shipping, tourism, and a quite limited outflow of surface water to the Atlantic Ocean. According to the scientists, such a high level of micro- and macroplastics pollution significantly affects marine biodiversity, and can also be detrimental to humans, who often ingest microplastics through seafood consumption.



“Simulations of plastic distribution in marine environments are currently characterized by a large degree of uncertainty. Experimental data on several processes that affect the fate of plastics, such as sinking, ingestion by marine organisms and fragmentation into smaller pieces are still quite limited,” explained lead author Dr. Kostas Tsiaras.



“Our model showed a reasonable skill in reproducing the observed distributions of plastics in the marine environment and thus can be used to assess the current status of plastic pollution in the Mediterranean and evaluate the impact of future cleaning actions and management plans.”



This study is a step forward for identifying ecologically or commercially important areas that are currently endangered by plastic pollution. According to Dr. Tsiaras, it is crucial to urgently design and implement “ecosystem-based management plans and policies for the mitigation of plastic pollution, which is often a trans-boundary environmental problem, as floating plastics may travel long distances from their sources.”



“The use of predictive models, like the one presented here, that can connect observed plastic concentrations with their sources, is critical for the designation of successful management plans,” he concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Mediterranean Sea is a hotspot for plastic pollution

Global plastic production has been increasing steadily since the 1950s,...

A new study offers both caution and hope for populations at risk of cyclones. In the face of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-methane-is-the-fastest-way-to-slow-global-warming/">warming</a>, extreme weather events are likely to increase in frequency. Coastal populations in particular face the danger of tropical cyclones, which over the past fifty years have killed 779,324 people and caused over $400 billion in damages according to the <a href="https://public.wmo.int/en">World Meteorological Association</a>.&nbsp;



The new study essentially models the impact of cyclones over the next eighty years, taking into account various warming scenarios.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Basically, our computer model can calculate the impact of any given warming scenario, on a global and country scale, and its implications for the number of people at risk by tropical cyclones," said study co-author Johannes Gütschow.



"Our findings most likely also hold true for a variety of other climate extremes whose occurrence only deepends on absolute warming and not on the timing."



If global mean temperatures rise two degrees Celsius by 2050, the risk of cyclone events occurring to tropical coastal populations will increase dramatically.&nbsp;



“If we add population growth to two degree Celsius global warming, in 2050 we could even see an increase of 40 percent more people exposed to cyclones," said study lead author Tobias Geiger.



"As the global population is projected to peak around mid-century, more people will face more intense cyclones, due to climate change – putting that higher population at greater risk."&nbsp;



However, under scenarios of climate mitigation and reduction of global carbon dioxide emissions, the forecast becomes more optimistic. If we can delay two degrees of warming to 2100, then populations already at risk may have better chances.&nbsp;



"If we rapidly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reach two degree Celsius of global warming only in 2100, this would limit the increase of people in danger of cyclones to 20 percent. This finding is key as it shows that reducing global warming potentially postpones severe tropical cyclone impacts to the late second half of the century, when there would be far fewer people at risk,” said Geiger.



"Emission reductions that would limit global warming to 1.5 degree Celsius could cumulatively protect over 1.8 billion people from exposure to tropical cyclones until the end of this century compared to the warming under currently proposed emission reductions," said Katja Frieler. "It is thus high time to rapidly reduce greenhouse gas emissions to keep as many people safe as possible."&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

40 percent more people could be exposed to cyclones by 2050

A new study offers both caution and hope for populations...

The digestive systems of humans and other animals are home to dense populations of microbes, including bacteria, archaea and fungi. Scientists are still in the process of learning about the functions of these trillions of microbes – they are known to play an important part in the digestion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-can-be-very-cooperative-until-the-food-gets-scarce/">food</a> and in the efficient functioning of the immune system. We also know that each individual carries a unique combination of microbial species from shortly after birth.



Understanding more about the nature of the gut microbiome in different species can help scientists identify its functions in health and in the ecology of the animals. To this end, biologist Heather Skeen from the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>, along with some colleagues, set out to investigate the gut microbiota of Kirtland’s warblers. These small, migratory birds have very specific distributions in both their wintering and summering locations.



“We’ve seen in other animals that microbiomes can be influenced by the places their hosts live. Lots of birds migrate, and they experience different environments at different points of their migratory cycle. We didn’t know how these different environments affected the birds’ microbiomes,” said Skeen.&nbsp;



The researchers selected Kirtland’s warblers because they spend their winters in the Bahamas and migrate to northern Michigan in the spring. While in Michigan, the tiny warblers breed only in young jack pine forest. This means that individual birds could be tagged with radio trackers and followed on their migratory routes.



“We picked Kirtland’s Warblers because there are very, very few species of birds where you would have been able to track individual birds from their non-breeding grounds and then capture them on their breeding grounds,” said Skeen.&nbsp;



Initially, Kirtland’s warblers were captured on their wintering grounds in the Bahamas, using recorded bird calls to lure them closer. Each bird was fitted with a tiny radio tracking device. The warblers themselves have a mass of only one ounce so the tracing devices had to weigh less than 0.02 oz. Once fitted with a device, each bird was enclosed in a wax paper bag for a few minutes, just enough time to evacuate its bowels. The bird was then released and Skeen and colleagues were left to collect the droppings.



A few months later, once the birds had migrated to Michigan, the researchers managed to locate the same birds using the large network of automated radio towers, known as the Motus Wildlife Tracking System. “There were 12 radio towers spread throughout the birds’ breeding range in Michigan, and when one of our birds’ trackers pinged near a tower, we would drive around the range using a handheld radio antenna, looking for the bird,” said Skeen.&nbsp;



“Once we picked up the signal, we got out of the car and walked around, trying to attract the birds using recordings of their songs.” Once one of the tagged warblers was caught in the nets, it was again placed inside a wax paper bag to make its droppings before being released.&nbsp;



In this way, the researchers collected 200 samples of bird droppings from birds that had been caught both in the Bahamas and in Michigan. They then carried out genetic analysis of the microbial genomes to identify which species were present in the birds’ digestive systems.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that the microbes present in the Michigan samples was different from the microbes in the samples from the Bahamas. More importantly, they found that individual birds had different microbes in their digestive tracts depending on where they were when the sample was collected.



“One of the most important parts about this study is that we were able to recapture birds at different portions of the annual cycle in different locations, and we have this one-to-one comparison of the same population and the same individuals and how their microbiomes changed,” said Skeen.&nbsp;



“If we’d tested different individual birds, we wouldn’t have been able to say for sure if the changes we saw were due to location or if they were just differences between populations. Since we were looking at the exact same birds, these results are much more supported.”



The findings of this study, published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>, indicate that bird microbiomes work differently from those of most mammals. The types of microbes found in mammalian intestines are closely tied to the species of mammal and its evolutionary history. With birds, the gut microbiome is more dependent on where the bird lives than on the species of bird involved. “In our study, we found that there are some groups of bacteria that are probably transient – the birds acquire the bacteria from their food, they poop it out, and it’s gone,” says Skeen. “These bacteria don’t colonize the bird, they go in and out.”



“This study shows how much we can learn about even foundational aspects of bird biology, such as migration, from the combination of new and old technologies – fieldwork and following birds in their breeding, migrating, and wintering habitats, to newer technologies of radiotelemetry and next-generation DNA sequencing,” says Hackett, an associate curator at the Field Museum and co-author of the study.



Skeen also states that climate changes may make gut microbiomes additionally important as animals attempt to survive and adapt to changing environments. “An animal’s gut microbiome is an additional level of molecular diversity, and as global climate change alters ecosystems, the gut microbiome might be one of the avenues in which animals can adapt to the changing environment,” says Skeen. “The gut microbiome has its own unique ecosystem, and it’s ripe for discoveries.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Migratory birds adapt their gut microbes along the journey

The digestive systems of humans and other animals are home...

A species of hawkmoth from Madagascar, whose existence was predicted by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the 19th century, has recently been recognized as a new species. Known as Wallace’s sphinx moth, the unique creature is considered to have the longest tongue of any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-can-smell-dangerous-insects/">insect</a>, measuring up to 30 centimeters. The moth is the only insect that can reach the bottom of the nectar tubes of Madagascar’s star orchid.



In 1862, when Charles Darwin first saw the Madagascan orchid, he speculated that it would take a moth with an extremely long tongue to reach the nectar from the orchid’s tubes. Five years later, Alfred Lord Wallace predicted that this creature would be similar to an already known African hawkmoth with a long proboscis.&nbsp;



Both Darwin and Wallace were proven right when the moth that pollinated these orchids was finally discovered in 1902. Scientists initially categorized it as a subspecies of Morgan’s sphinx moth from the genus Xanthopan (the same one the African hawkmoth also belongs to).



However, a research team led by Joël Minet, a professor of Entomology at <a href="https://isyeb.mnhn.fr/en">Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité</a> (ISYEB), has recently found, through examining its physical and genetic differences, that the Madagascan moth is in fact not a subspecies of Morgan’s sphinx moth, but rather a species on its own, which they named Xanthopan praedicta (in the honor of the fact that Darwin and Wallace predicted its existence).&nbsp;



“The taxonomic change we now propose finally gives long-deserved recognition, at the species level, to one of the most celebrated of all Malagasy endemics,” said study co-author Dr. David Lees, a curator of moths at the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a>.



The research team discovered 25 morphological differences between the Madagascan moth and Morgan’s moths, including differences in the shape of male and female genitalia, wing shape, and color patterns. Moreover, significant genetic differences have also been found between the two species.&nbsp;Most strikingly though, the Madagascan moth appeared to have a proboscis 6.6 centimeters longer than any of the studied Morgan’s moths.



“Imagine my excitement as I unrolled and measured the proboscis of a male&nbsp;Xanthopan&nbsp;in the Madagascan rainforest, realizing that it was probably the global record holder,” said Dr. Lees.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/antenor/oclc/44695951">Antenor</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Moth with the longest tongue of any insect is a new species

A species of hawkmoth from Madagascar, whose existence was predicted...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abh0895">Science Advances</a> found that rises in marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-will-intensify-due-to-thinning-ocean-layer/">heatwaves</a> will significantly amplify the impact of climate change on fish and fisheries. According to researchers led by <a href="https://oceans.ubc.ca/">UBC’s Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries</a>, global warming could wipe out thousands of tons of fish from all over the world.



By using complex computer modeling, the scientists predicted that in a worst-case scenario, in which no action is taken to mitigate greenhouse emissions, there will be a six percent annual drop in the amount of potential fish catches, and 77 percent of exploited marine species will decrease in biomass.&nbsp;



Due to the combined influence of extreme marine temperature events and the temperature rises related to climate change, fisheries’ revenues may be cut by an average of three percent globally, and employment by two percent, which would imply the loss of millions of jobs.



“These extreme annual temperatures will be an additional shock to an overloaded system,” explained lead author Dr. William Cheung, the director of UBC’s Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries.&nbsp;



“We see that in the countries where fisheries are already weakened by long-term changes, like ocean warming and deoxygenation, adding the shock of temperature extremes will exacerbate the impacts to a point that will likely exceed the capacity for these fisheries to adapt. It’s not unlike how COVID-19 stresses the healthcare system by adding an extra burden.”



According to study co-author Dr. Thomas Frölicher, a professor at the <a href="https://www.climate.unibe.ch/#:~:text=Climate%20and%20Environmental%20Physics%20is,seasons%20to%20a%20million%20years.">Climate and Environmental Physics Department</a> at the University of Bern, such extreme temperature events are likely to increase in frequency in the near future.&nbsp;



“Today’s marine heatwaves and their severe impacts on fisheries are bellwethers of the future as these events are generating environmental conditions that long-term global warming will not create for decades,” said Dr. Frölicher.



Scientists believe that some areas will be worse hit than others, including the Indo-Pacific region, the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and some countries in the West African region. In order to avoid significant losses, active fisheries management - such as adjusting catch quotas in years when fisheries are affected by extreme temperature events, or even shuttering fisheries in severe cases when stocks need to be rebuilt - will be of vital importance.



“This study really highlights the need to develop ways to deal with marine temperature extremes, and soon,” Dr. Cheung concluded. “We need to have mechanisms in place to deal with it.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Marine heatwaves could severely affect the fishing industry

A new study published in the journal Science Advances found...

The shores of southern Florida are the only coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-food-webs-threatened-by-the-loss-of-picky-eaters/">reef</a> habitat in the US continental waters. Recently, these corals have been facing a mysterious, lethal, and contagious disease - the stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) - and its causes are not yet understood.



SCTLD first appeared off the southern coast in 2014, and has spread rapidly along the Florida Keys and down into the Caribbean Sea. More than half of Florida’s coral reef, which comprises 45 species spread over 96,000 acres, has already been affected. “It's heartbreaking, and I think the most alarming thing about it is that most people don't know it's happening,” said Michelle Ashton, the communications director of the <a href="https://wildlifeflorida.org/">Fish and Wildlife Foundation of Florida</a>.&nbsp;



Over 2,000 colonies of infected corals were removed from the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/drto/index.htm">Dry Tortugas National Park</a>, located in the western part of Florida Keys, and are now being treated in 20 medical institutions across 14 states. They were placed in large seawater tanks with sunlight-mimicking lamps above them in order to simulate their native environments.&nbsp;



This rescue operation is part of a project initiated in 2018 by the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association</a> and the <a href="https://myfwc.com/">Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission</a>. Although they don’t know the precise cause of the disease, scientists are trying to treat corals with antibiotics, in the hope that they will ultimately manage to save and return them to their wild habitats.&nbsp;



Researchers at the <a href="https://myfwc.com/research/habitat/coral/disease/rescue/">Florida Coral Rescue Center</a> are currently treating 18 species of coral (over 700 specimens), by feeding them shrimp along with antibiotics inside habitat-mimicking water tanks. “We are holding the corals safely and healthy in our care. If they were still in the wild, up to 90 percent of them would have been dead,” said Justin Zimmerman, the director of the Rescue Center.



Large teams of scientists are studying the genetics of the rescued corals, hoping they will manage to cultivate new specimens that will be more resistant to disease and to other threats such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-and-climate-change-are-interconnected/">rising water temperatures and pollution</a>.&nbsp;



Saving Florida’s coral reef is extremely important since they are natural barriers between the open sea and land, reducing the force of waves hitting the coastline during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-will-unleash-more-intense-tropical-cyclones/">extreme weather</a> phenomena such as hurricanes or other massive storms. Moreover, the fishing-and-diving tourist industry, which generates $8.5 billion annually, will also strongly benefit from the presence of a healthy population of corals.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A mysterious disease is destroying Florida’s coral reef

The shores of southern Florida are the only coral reef...

Although they are slow, poor swimmers that sometimes even die of exhaustion, seahorses have some surprisingly speedy qualities too. A new study published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/224/17/jeb236430/272030/Elastic-energy-storage-in-seahorses-leads-to-a">Journal of Experimental Biology</a> has found that seahorses are fierce ambush predators which can spring their heads up in 0.002 seconds to snag and devour their unsuspecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-lions-have-mastered-the-timing-to-prey-on-chinook-salmon/">prey</a>.



Seahorses spend most of their time anchoring themselves by their tails to seaweed or corals while keeping their heads down, close to their bodies. When they sense prey passing by, they are able to lift their heads at an extraordinary speed to catch it. This movement, faster than any muscle contraction known to exist in the animal kingdom, is possible due to an elastic tendon which they stretch using their back muscles. The mechanism allows them to achieve a head speed rotation 50 times faster than that of other types of fish.



The amazing discovery was made by a team of researchers from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> who used high-speed cameras and laser-scan technology to record the hunting behavior of seahorses. This method also helped in elucidating how their incredibly fast head motions allow the seahorses to eat. The researchers found that the movements were accompanied by a powerful suction flow (eight times faster than those of similar-sized fish) that enabled the seahorses to suck their prey directly into their mouths.&nbsp;



The scientists have also investigated how different seahorse species proceed in capturing their prey by using their specific anatomical traits. “Our study shows that the speed of head movement and suction currents are determined by the length of a seahorse's nose,” said study lead author Roi Holzman, a professor of Zoology at Tel Aviv University.



“From the evolutionary aspect, seahorses must choose between a short nose for strong suction and moderate head raising, or a long nose for rapid head raising and weaker suction currents. This choice corresponds to the available diet - long-nosed species catch smaller, quicker animals, whereas short-nosed species catch heavier, more ponderous ones,” he explained.



Seahorses are not the only aquatic species to exhibit this fascinating spring mechanism. Other so-called “misfit fish,” including alligator piperfish, cornetfish, and shrimpfish are known to have similar abilities.



“The big question applies to the evolution of the spring mechanism, how it was formed and when it developed. I hope our recent study will lead to further studies designed to help solve the riddle of spring fish,” concluded Professor Holzman.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seahorses may be slow, but they are fierce ambush predators

Although they are slow, poor swimmers that sometimes even die...

Tule elk (Cervus canadensis nannodes) is a subspecies of the large deer endemic to California. By the mid 1800s, the Tule elk was thought to be extinct. The subspecies was only saved by a rancher who found them on his land and preserved the remaining population of possibly less than 30 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-shapeshifting-to-survive-climate-change/">animals</a>.&nbsp;



Ironically, there is now a struggle over the coexistence of ranchers and Tule elk; which have grown in number to a population of 5,700 animals in 22 herds. Starting in the 1970s, the elk were reintroduced to the Point Reyes National Seashore; where historically they were the dominant grazer.&nbsp;



Today, the population of Tule elk has grown and the National Park Service (NPS) plans on culling their number against the outcry from activists. Not only is the NPS planning on culling the elks’ population, but a three-mile long, eight-foot high fence prevents their free ranging. The fence is for the benefit of dairy and cattle ranchers who also use Point Reyes for grazing.



Due to the limiting impact of the fence on movement, activists have been providing water troughs for elk unable to reach the vital resource. NPS employees have been accused of <a href="https://youtu.be/ndXyAbe5rOg">dumping out the water</a> left for the animals. 



Many elk are said to have died without access to water for months. Now, the NPS has reversed its decision and is instead providing new water troughs and mineral supplements. <a href="https://www.idausa.org/">In Defense of Animals</a>, ForELK and the TreeSpirit Project have hailed the decision as a step in the right direction.



However, the management of tule elk is still controversial, with the NPS <a href="https://www.ptreyeslight.com/article/park-finalizes-management-plan-update">recently revising </a>its management plan involving culling elk for the grazing of thousands of cows after it was contested in court.&nbsp;



Miyoko Schinner, founder and owner of California-based Miyoko's Creamery, has an animal sanctuary at her home in Nicasio where she keeps hundreds of rescued animals.&nbsp;



“At some point we have to decide: what is the legacy we want to leave? Do we want to be the species that exterminated every other species on this planet, which does not belong to just the human species? It belongs to all species, including the Tule elk, and every single species deserves to live," said Schinner.



"What we are doing today may or may not make a difference tomorrow, sadly, but we are a microcosm of a movement that is going to ripple across America that will change how we treat all wild animals. We must tell the story to all non-believers, to non-vegans that if they are wildlife and animal lovers they must stop consuming animal products.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Activists win a small battle as the war over Tule elk continues

Tule elk (Cervus canadensis nannodes) is a subspecies of the...

The longest-lived person in history was Jeanne Calment, a French woman born in 1875 who lived 122 years and 164 days. Currently, the world’s oldest person is 118-year-old Kate Tanaka from Japan. 



According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.hec.ca/">HEC Business School in Montreal</a>, the possibility of living such long lives will increase in the future. After analyzing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-pollution-increases-mortality/">mortality</a> of Italian and French “super-centenarians” (individuals who lived over 105 years), the scientists estimate that some humans could possibly live up to the age of 130 in the next decades.



&nbsp;“As the world population keeps increasing, there are more people reaching 100 and more reaching 110,” said study lead author Dr. Léo Belzile, a statistician at the HEC Business School. According to Dr. Belzile and his colleagues, after reaching 110, the chances of remaining alive stabilize at about 50 percent.&nbsp;



“The more people tossing a coin, with a 50 percent chance of surviving each year after they turn 110, the more we can expect that someone will have a lucky streak and get to the age of 130,” said Dr. Belzile.&nbsp;



Theoretically, no upper mortality plateau should exist. Some animals, such as clams, appear not to age at all, giving humans hope that a reliable cure for aging might soon be discovered. In fact, after two decades of research, scientists have recently <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03415-4?proof=t">decoded</a> the structure of telomerase, an enzyme thought to halt aging in plants, non-human animals, and humans.&nbsp;



“Our findings provide a structural framework for understanding human telomerase disease mutations, and represent an important step towards telomerase-related clinical therapeutics,” explained Kathleen Collins, a molecular biologist at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>, who led the project of mapping this enzyme.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, even telomerase ultimately decays, and scientists have not yet discovered a way to halt this process. According to Dr. Belize and his research team, people who reach the age of 108 are likely to live only about an extra year and three months on average. &nbsp;



“People are fascinated by the idea of living forever, but unfortunately very few people reach these very old ages,” concluded Dr. Belzile.&nbsp;



The study appeared in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.202097#d1e1735">The Royal Society Open Science</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People could soon live to be 130 years old

The longest-lived person in history was Jeanne Calment, a French...

Tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) are highly mobile, widely distributed sharks that feed on a range of vertebrate prey. They live in diverse habitats in tropical and subtropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-losing-oxygen-much-faster-than-oceans/">oceans</a> throughout the world and are expected to mix and interbreed freely due to their ability to travel widely. 



However, a recent analysis of the genomes of 242 tiger sharks from ten localities around the world has revealed that there are two distinct populations of tiger sharks in the world’s oceans. Conducted by Dr. Andrea Bernard from Nova Southeastern University, the research identifies an Atlantic and an Indo-Pacific population that are significantly different from one another.  



“These results mean that Atlantic and Indo-Pacific tiger sharks, despite their ability to travel vast distances, have not intermingled to reproduce for a long time,” explained study co-author Professor Mahmood Shivji, the director of the <a href="https://saveourseas.com/sosf-shark-research-center/">Save Our Seas Shark Research Centre</a> (SOSF-SRC).&nbsp;



“This long-term separation between Atlantic and Indo-Pacific tiger sharks has resulted in them developing into separate populations, each with its own unique genetic diversity."



The study also found that tiger sharks from Hawaii, one of the world’s most geographically isolated archipelagos, are genetically different from those found in the Indian Ocean. 



The scientists made use of genome-scale analysis at the sites of 2,000 different single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which allowed a very detailed look at the differences between tiger shark populations. 



“SNPs repeat across the entire genome,” explained Professor Shivji. “This increases the amount of information for geneticists to work with relative to previous surveys that were limited to small subsections of genetic information.”&nbsp;



The SOSF-SRC uses genetics to gain knowledge and understanding about sharks and rays in the world’s oceans. Its aim is then to apply this knowledge to improve the protection of these species. 



"A guiding principle for our work is to focus primarily on shark species that are of high conservation concern," said Professor Shivji. "We spread our work across both discovery research questions (for instance, understanding how sharks function) and applied conservation research (for instance, understanding interactions between shark migration patterns and fisheries or investigating trade in shark parts). The important point is that all of this information advances our knowledge of sharks and informs conservation.”



Tiger sharks are apex predators and are therefore important in the ecology of ocean systems. Even though they are globally distributed, their populations are threatened by fishing and their ecosystems are impacted by climate change, pollution and habitat destruction.&nbsp;



“Overfishing poses a clear danger to sharks. The genetic diversity in overfished species will inadvertently be diminished and they won’t adapt to the fast pace of environmental change,” said Professor Shivji.&nbsp;



“Compared to other fish species, tiger sharks occupy an unusually wide variety of habitats. Given their influential ecological role and their widespread movements that expose them to a variety of fisheries, science-informed fisheries management of tiger sharks is important to achieve global conservation goals.”



Considering the results of the study, scientists will need to manage the two distinct populations of tiger sharks in specific ways in order to preserve their genetic diversity. This will be particularly important as climate change affects ocean ecosystems and tiger sharks require all their genetic resources in order to adapt rapidly. The study recommends that a targeted conservation plan is devised for Hawaiian tiger sharks as well.&nbsp;



“Tiger sharks are part of not only the ocean’s overall health, but also its beauty and wonder. Our ongoing mission at the SOSF is to know more in order to do better by these species and their ocean home. Improving our insights into tiger sharks is ultimately linked to our health and well-being,” said His Excellency Abdulmohsen Abdulmalik Al-Sheikh, the founder of the SOSF.



If our understanding of tiger sharks had remained that populations are similar wherever they are found across the oceans, we might have stood to lose their true diversity and undermined their resilience as a powerful and ancient species.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jhered">Journal of Heredity</a>,



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tiger shark genomes reveal two distinct populations

Tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) are highly mobile, widely distributed sharks...

An increasing body of evidence links depression with dementia. However, while most studies have pointed to this association in later life, a research team from the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a> has recently found that depression in early adulthood might lead to lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/office-air-quality-affects-cognitive-functioning-and-productivity/">cognitive</a> processing within ten years and to dementia in old age.



The scientists used statistical methods to predict average trajectories of depressive symptoms for 15,000 participants with ages ranging from 20 to 89. They used a questionnaire to screen for depression and found moderate or high depressive symptoms in 13 percent of young adults, 26 percent of midlife adults, and 34 percent of the older participants. Among the participants, 1,277 were diagnosed with cognitive impairment after neuropsychological testing, documented use of dementia treatments, or prior hospitalizations related to dementia.



The data analysis showed that the odds of cognitive impairment during old age were 73 percent higher for those who had depressive symptoms in early adulthood than for those who were happier during that period. On the other hand, people diagnosed with depression in later life had only 43 percent more chances to develop dementia than those without depressive symptoms.&nbsp;



“Several mechanisms explain how depression might increase dementia risk,” said study first author&nbsp;Willa Brenowitz, an epidemiologist at the&nbsp;<a href="https://psychiatry.ucsf.edu/#:~:text=UCSF%20Psychiatry%20and%20Behavioral%20Sciences,UCSF%20Benioff%20Children's%20Hospitals%2C%20Zuckerberg">UCSF Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://weill.ucsf.edu/">Weill Institute for Neurosciences</a>. “Among them is that hyperactivity of the central stress response system increases production of the stress hormones glucocorticoids, leading to damage of the hippocampus, the part of the brain essential for forming, organizing and storing new memories.”



According to Brenowitz, the greater the depressive symptoms in early adulthood, the lower the cognitive abilities later on and the faster the rate of decline. "Older adults estimated to have moderate or high depressive symptoms in early adulthood were found to experience a drop in cognition over 10 years," she reported.



With more than 20 percent of the Earth’s population suffering from depression during their lifetime, it is highly important to understand its impact on cognitive aging. This study, published in the <a href="https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad210588">Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease</a>, is a first step towards shedding more light on these pressing issues.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Depression in early adulthood may lead to dementia

An increasing body of evidence links depression with dementia. However,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...