For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his collaborators have worked to compile an unparalleled database of human history - the Seshat Global History Databank. Recently, Turchin and computer scientist Maria del Rio-Chanona turned their attention to artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots, questioning whether these advanced models could aid historians and archaeologists in interpreting the past. 



The study, which is the first of its kind, evaluates the historical knowledge of leading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-ai-models-pose-an-existential-threat-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI models</a> such as ChatGPT-4, Llama, and Gemini.



The results, presented at the <a href="https://neurips.cc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeurIPS conference</a>, reveal both potential and significant limitations in AI’s ability to grasp historical knowledge, especially at the nuanced, expert level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-historical-competence-in-ai">Limited historical competence in AI</h2>



“Large language models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT, have been enormously successful in some fields - for example, they have largely succeeded by replacing paralegals," said Turchin, who leads the <a href="https://csh.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complexity Science Hub</a>’s (CSH) research group on social complexity and collapse.



"But when it comes to making judgments about the characteristics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-linked-to-the-rise-and-fall-of-early-human-societies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past societies</a>, especially those located outside North America and Western Europe, their ability to do so is much more limited.” 



The study’s findings highlight that AI’s capabilities are domain-specific. While LLMs excel in some applications, they struggle with expert-level historical analysis. GPT-4 Turbo, the best-performing model, achieved a balanced accuracy of just 46% on a four-choice question test. 



This result, though an improvement over random guessing (25%), underscores the substantial gaps in AI’s understanding of global history.



“I thought the AI chatbots would do a lot better,” said del Rio-Chanona, corresponding author of the study and assistant professor at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London.</a> “History is often viewed as facts, but sometimes interpretation is necessary to make sense of it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-ai-understand-expert-level-history">Does AI understand expert-level history?</h2>



The study leveraged the <a href="https://seshat-db.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seshat Global History Databank</a>, a comprehensive resource documenting historical data from 600 societies worldwide, encompassing over 36,000 data points and 2,700 scholarly references. Using Seshat as a benchmark, researchers tested LLMs on questions requiring graduate or expert-level knowledge.



“We wanted to set a benchmark for assessing the ability of these LLMs to handle expert-level history knowledge,” explained first author Jakob Hauser, a resident scientist at CSH.&nbsp;



“A key component of our benchmark is that we not only test whether these LLMs can identify correct facts, but also explicitly ask whether a fact can be proven or inferred from indirect evidence.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-and-temporal-disparities">Regional and temporal disparities</h2>



The study revealed that AI performance varied significantly across time periods and geographic regions. LLMs demonstrated greater accuracy when addressing questions about ancient history, particularly between 8,000 BCE and 3,000 BCE, but struggled with more recent events, especially from 1,500 CE to the present.



Geographically, OpenAI models like GPT-4 performed better for regions such as Latin America and the Caribbean, while Llama models excelled in Northern America. However, both systems underperformed in Sub-Saharan Africa, with Llama also showing weaker results for Oceania.&nbsp;



These disparities highlight potential biases in training data, which may prioritize certain historical narratives while neglecting others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-depth-in-ai-models">Lack of depth in AI models</h2>



LLMs performed best on questions related to legal systems and social complexity, but they struggled significantly with topics such as discrimination and social mobility.



“The main takeaway from this study is that LLMs, while impressive, still lack the depth of understanding required for advanced history,” said del Rio-Chanona. “They're great for basic facts, but when it comes to more nuanced, PhD-level historical inquiry, they're not yet up to the task.”



Among the tested models, GPT-4 Turbo ranked highest with 46% accuracy, while Llama-3.1-8B scored the lowest at 33.6%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-dataset-and-reducing-bias">Expanding the dataset and reducing bias</h2>



The researchers aim to address the shortcomings revealed in this study by expanding the dataset and refining the benchmark. Hauser emphasized plans to incorporate more data from underrepresented regions, especially in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-across-the-global-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global South</a>, and to include more complex historical questions.



“We also look forward to testing more recent LLM models, such as o3, to see if they can bridge the gaps identified in this study,” Hauser said.



The team believes the findings are valuable not only for AI developers but also for historians and archaeologists.&nbsp;



For academics, understanding AI’s limitations can guide its use in research, while for developers, the study highlights areas for improvement, such as addressing regional biases and enhancing models’ capacity for handling nuanced historical evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-ai-s-understanding-of-history">Improving AI’s understanding of history</h2>



The study highlights both the potential and the current limitations of AI in historical research. While LLMs have proven valuable for generating basic historical facts, they fall short when tasked with interpreting complex and nuanced historical contexts.&nbsp;



For researchers and developers alike, these findings offer a roadmap for improving AI’s understanding of global history, paving the way for tools that better support scholarly inquiry into the past.



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AI struggles to understand human history and fails miserably when tested

For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his collaborators have worked to compile an unparalleled database of human history - the Seshat Global History Databank. Recently, Turchin and computer scientist Maria del Rio-Chanona turned their attention to artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots, questioning whether these advanced models could aid historians and archaeologists in interpreting the past. The study, which is the first of its kind, evaluates the historical knowledge of leading AI models such as ChatGPT-4, Llama, and Gemini. The results, presented at the NeurIPS conference,...

Weddell seals are large, active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newborn-mammals-can-see-the-world-before-they-open-their-eyes/">mammals</a> that inhabit the icy Southern Ocean waters around Antarctica. They are an iconic species, considered to be key indicators of the ecosystem health in these regions. 



Weddell seal populations have been studied since the 1960s, making them one of the best studied mammals in the world. Despite this, little is known about large scale patterns in their distribution, population size, and structure.&nbsp;



In a first-of-its-kind study, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota Twin Cities</a> has conducted a global population estimate of the Weddell seals in Antarctica using high-resolution satellite images. The researchers, along with 330,000 trained volunteers from all over the world, analyzed hundreds of satellite photographs taken during November of 2011.&nbsp;



The resulting estimate of about 202,000 sub-adults and adult female Weddell seals in Antarctica was far lower than previous estimates, which stood at around 800,000 individuals. Admittedly, that number would have included adult males whereas this current study did not estimate the number of adult males.&nbsp;



At the time that the images were taken, adult female Weddell seals and their sub-adult pups were the ones hauling out on the fast-ice and their dark coloration make them easy to count against the white background of the ice. Adult males are mostly in the water at this time of year, guarding their territories under the ice.&nbsp;



Despite the fact that the population estimate in the current study excluded the adult males, the authors suggest it is very likely that the global Weddell seal abundance is less than 50 percent of the original estimate of 800,000 individuals.



"That doesn't necessarily mean there has been a big decrease of Weddell seals recently, but instead this is probably a more accurate count that we can use as a baseline to determine change over time," said study lead author Michelle LaRue, a research associate in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Minnesota.



"We've also developed an efficient process for monitoring them to see if the population has changed from this baseline. Tracking the population of seals against this benchmark is critical for conservation efforts."



Weddell seals live the furthest south of any mammal in the world and can live up to 30 years in some of the harshest conditions on the planet. They breed on the coastal sea ice around Antarctica and feed mainly on fish, squid, octopus and prawns.&nbsp;



One of their favored prey species is Antarctic toothfish, a species that is commercially fished and marketed as Chilean sea bass. This species of fish plays an important role in the Antarctic ecosystem and Weddell seals are thus also indicators of the health of the toothfish stocks.



"The reason Weddell seals are so important is because they're a key indicator species for the Southern Ocean," said LaRue, who is also a senior lecturer in the School of Earth and Environment at the University of Canterbury. "Weddell seals live on fast-ice, which is the ice that's attached to the Antarctic continent – the same habitat as Emperor penguins. As the climate continues to change, we might expect that fast-ice to change as well. So if we understand where the seals are and how many there are, that gives us an idea of how the ecosystem might be changing."



In addition to conducting the first-ever global count, the research also provided insights into habitat use by Weddell seals. They were spotted in the largest numbers in the Ross Sea. Their distribution was associated with proximity to the continental shore. but also with the presence of deep waters.&nbsp;



The haul-out areas were often found to be near penguin rookeries. The seals appeared to prefer being near Emperor penguin aggregations, but only if there weren't too many individuals in the crowd.



"There seems to be a trade-off. It's good to be near Emperor penguins but only if the penguin colony size doesn't get too big and there is not too much competition for food," said LaRue.



The study authors hope that the satellite image method they used will be applicable to determine the population sizes in other animal species. They plan to use their Weddell seal count as a baseline to monitor any future changes in population number, as climate change potentially begins to affect this important species.



The details of the study are published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Weddell seal numbers are much lower than expected

Weddell seals are large, active mammals that inhabit the icy...

The future of the koala is threatened by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/illegal-cannabis-farms-infringe-on-crucial-animal-habitats/">habitat</a> loss and climate change. A less well-known threat to the iconic Australian animal is the Koala retrovirus, or KoRV.&nbsp;To gain a better understanding of KoRV, scientists at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> set out to investigate how it was transmitted.&nbsp;



"A conserved retrovirus, koala retrovirus (KoRV)-A, is present within the genome of koalas in most Australian populations," explained the researchers. "Additional divergent sequences and subtypes are thought to be exogenously transmissible and more pathogenic."



Study co-author Keith Chappell, an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>, said the virus predisposes koalas to chlamydia and other diseases, and is having a large impact on wild populations across Queensland and New South Wales.



"The virus causes immune depletion, likely making it much harder for koalas to cope with these other, already-detrimental environmental stressors," said Professor Chappell.



"By sequencing variations of the virus DNA in 109 captive koalas, we finally revealed how the virus spreads - from mother to joey."



"It seems that transmission between mother and joey likely occurs due to close proximity, via a joey's exposure to a mother's potentially infectious fluids, like their milk."



"Mothers were sharing their virus variants three times more than fathers, suggesting this is the dominant pathway of spread for the virus.”



By identifying the pathway of transmission from mother to offspring, the research provides unique insight into conservation and captive breeding programs.&nbsp;



"This work will be highly informative for koala conservation, as it suggests that captive breeding programs focused on mothers that have a low amount of retrovirus variants, could result in healthier animals for release," explained lead researcher Briony Joyce.



"Also, we propose that antiretroviral treatment -- if shown to be safe in koala and effective against KoRV -- could be used specifically in mothers during breeding seasons to prevent transmission."



"This work helps pave the way for evidence-based conservation, increasing koala resilience to help them cope with a changing and challenging environment.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deadly koala virus passed from mothers to their joeys

The future of the koala is threatened by habitat loss...

It is often assumed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origins-of-the-anthropocene-can-be-found-in-tropical-forests/">anthropogenic</a> impacts on the environment during preindustrial times are negligible compared to what we are witnessing today. However, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03858-9">Nature</a> has found that early human activities impacted Earth’s atmosphere more than previously known.&nbsp;



While analyzing ice core samples from Antarctica’s James Ross Island, an international team of scientists discovered an unusual and substantial increase in levels of black carbon - a light-absorbing particle coming from combustion sources such as biomass burning, or, more recently, fossil fuel combustion – that began around the year 1300 and continued during the following centuries.



By using an innovative ice-core analytical system developed by the <a href="https://www.dri.edu/">Desert Research Institute</a> (DRI) in 2007, the research team managed to trace the source of the black carbon emissions to New Zealand.&nbsp;



According to the scientists, these emissions were caused by ancient Māori land-burning practices in New Zealand, which seemed to have been conducted at such a scale that they impacted the atmosphere across most of the Southern Hemisphere. The black carbon emissions associated with land-burning made other preindustrial emissions in the region during the past 2,000 years look insignificant.



“Compared to natural burning in places like the Amazon, or Southern Africa, or Australia, you wouldn’t expect Māori burning in New Zealand to have a big impact, but it does over the Southern Ocean and the Antarctic Peninsula,” explained study co-author Nathan Chellman, a postdoctoral fellow at DRI.&nbsp;



“The idea that humans at this time in history caused such a significant change in atmospheric black carbon through their land clearing activities is quite surprising,” added study lead author Joe McConnell, a research professor of Hydrology at DRI.&nbsp;



“We used to think that if you went back a few hundred years you’d be looking at a pristine, pre-industrial world, but it’s clear from this study that humans have been impacting the environment over the Southern Ocean and the Antarctica Peninsula for at least the last 700 years.”



These findings have important implications for our understanding of the Earth’s climate and the history of humans’ relation to nature, proving that although we currently face an unprecedented level of anthropogenic climate change, our negative impact on the environment started much earlier than previously thought. Understanding the past is essential for making accurate projections for the future, and for learning how to build a sustainable relationship with nature.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Early humans impacted Earth more than previously thought

It is often assumed that anthropogenic impacts on the environment...

A new study published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.121.021436">Journal of the American Heart Association</a> found that exposure to air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-low-level-air-pollution-is-dangerous-for-health/">pollution</a> and road traffic noise over the course of many years can increase the risk of heart failure. This association appears to be even stronger in former smokers and persons with high blood pressure.



The researchers examined the impact of long-term exposure to pollution and traffic noise on the development of heart failure in a group of 22,000 nurses in Denmark during a 15 to 20 years period. 



The women were 44 years of age and older and lived in urban, sub-urban and rural areas in Denmark. At the time of enrollment in the study, participants answered questions regarding pre-existing cardiovascular conditions, body-mass index, lifestyle factors (dietary habits, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activities), reproductive health, and working conditions.



Using a Danish air pollution modeling system, the scientists measured the annual average concentrations of two pollutants, fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The road traffic noise levels within a three-kilometer radius from the participants’ homes were estimated through a modelling system called <a href="https://eng.mst.dk/air-noise-waste/noise/traffic-noise/nord2000-nordic-noise-prediction-method/">Nord2000</a>.



“We found that long-term exposure to specific air pollutants and road traffic noise increased the risk of incident heart failure, especially for former smokers or people with hypertension, so preventive and educational measures are necessary,” said study lead author Dr. Youn-Hee Lim, an assistant professor of Environmental Health the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a>.&nbsp;



More specifically, the scientists found that for every 5.1 µg/m3&nbsp;increase in PM2.5 exposure over three years, the risk of incident heart failure increased by 17 percent; for every 8.6 µg/m3&nbsp;increase in NO2&nbsp;exposure, the risk increased by 10 percent; and for every 9.3 dB increase in road traffic noise exposure, the risk increased by 12 percent. Moreover, former smokers exposed to fine particulate matter had a 72 percent higher risk of heart failure.



“We were surprised by how two environmental factors – air pollution and road traffic noise – interacted,” explained Dr. Lim. “Air pollution was a stronger contributor to heart failure incidence compared to road traffic noise; however, the women exposed to both high levels of air pollution and road traffic noise showed the highest increase in heart failure risk.”



“To minimize the impact of these exposures, broad public tactics such as emissions control measures should be implemented. Strategies like smoking cessation and blood pressure control must be encouraged to help reduce individual risk."



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pollution and traffic noise could lead to heart failure

A new study published in the Journal of the American...

Recent estimations suggest that up to two-thirds of the Arctic’s near-surface permafrost might disappear by the end of the century due to climate change. A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01162-y">Nature Climate Change</a> warns that rapidly melting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-years-ozone-hole-is-larger-than-antarctica/">Arctic</a> permafrost could cause the spread of nuclear waste and previously unknown pathogens. 



The Arctic permafrost covers nine million square miles and dates up to one million years ago. Over the millennia, it has housed a large variety of microbes and chemical compounds that could be released into the atmosphere once the permafrost melts.



“Changes in the Arctic’s climate and ecology will influence every part of the planet as it feeds carbon back to the atmosphere and raises sea levels,” said study co-author Arwyn Edwards, a Reader in Biology at <a href="https://www.aber.ac.uk/en/">Aberystwyth University</a>. “This review identifies how other risks can arise from the warming Arctic. It has long been a deep-freezer for a range of harmful things, not just greenhouse gases."&nbsp;



"We need to understand more about the fate of these harmful microbes and pollutants and nuclear materials to properly understand the threats they may pose.”



Between 1955 and 1990, the Soviet Union conducted 130 nuclear weapon tests in the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, releasing 265 megatons of nuclear energy. Furthermore, over 100 decommissioned nuclear submarines were scuttled in the Kara and Barents Seas.&nbsp;



However, the Soviet Union is not the only culprit for making the permafrost a deposit of dangerous compounds. The United States' Camp Century nuclear-powered research facility in Greenland also produced a large amount of nuclear waste, which is now scattered within the Greenland ice sheet.



In addition to these man-made chemicals, the permafrost also houses a variety of ancient pathogens. Scientists have already discovered more than 100 species of microorganisms in the Siberian deep permafrost that appear to be antibiotic resistant. As permafrost thaws, there is a strong chance for these pathogens to mix with meltwater and mutate into other antibiotic-resistant strains that could easily cause future pandemics.&nbsp;



“It’s important to understand the secondary and tertiary impacts of these large-scale Earth changes such as permafrost thaw,” warned study lead author Dr. Kimberley Miner, an Earth and Climate Scientist at <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



"While some of the hazards associated with the thaw of up to a million years of material have been captured, we are a long way from being able to model and predict exactly when and where they will happen. This research is critical.”&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Permafrost melting may release nuclear waste into the atmosphere

Recent estimations suggest that up to two-thirds of the Arctic’s...

Roughly half of the world’s 100 million parrots currently lives in zoos, breeding facilities, and homes. A new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.1952">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a> found that many of these captive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-altered-their-behavior-during-lockdowns/">birds</a> suffer from mental health issues caused by an insufficient amount of stimulation. These findings suggest that the more intelligent a bird is, the more needs it has in captivity. 



“This study provides the first empirical evidence that intelligent animals can struggle in captivity,” said lead author Georgia Mason, the director of University of Guelph’s <a href="https://www.uoguelph.ca/ccsaw">Campbell Centre for the Study of Animal Welfare</a>. “Some species seem to adapt well to captivity, but maybe some should not be kept unless you have lots of time and creativity.”



Dr. Mason and her colleagues examined an early 1990s survey on captive breeding success involving over 30,000 birds in the United States, and created an online survey about 1,400 parrots from 50 species. The team wanted to investigate the rates of stereotypic behavior or other types of abnormal activity (such as biting cage bars, chewing or eating their own feathers, or rote pacing in their cages).



By using methodological frameworks from evolutionary biology that allowed them to identify inherited traits that predispose species to risk, the research team found that parrot species whose natural diets involve nuts, seeds, or insects were more likely to chew or eat their feathers.&nbsp;



According to Dr. Mason, such abnormal behavior might be caused by parrots’ evolved needs to manipulate and crunch foods with their beaks, or by the lack of some particular nutrients found in their natural diets.



“We don’t know which is the most important to feather-plucking birds. So ideally owners should provide naturalistic food items intact so that parrots really have to break their way in and do extractive foraging as they do in the wild,” she advised.



Moreover, the larger the brains parrots had, the more psychological problems they seemed to experience in captivity. While species such as cockatiels, Jandaya parakeets, or yellow-naped Amazons typically thrive in domestic settings, large-brained and more intelligent parrots like Nanday parakeets, monk parakeets, and some cockatoos suffer more from mental health issues.



Thus, greater intelligence, which is clearly a benefit in the wild, seems to hinder parrots’ capacity to adjust to captivity. Such birds might need more cognitive stimulation (through naturalistic environments, puzzle, or other means), as well as foods that are more complicated to handle in order improve their mental health.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Smart parrots need more stimulation in captivity

Roughly half of the world’s 100 million parrots currently lives...

Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are important pollinators of flowering plants but have come under increasing pressure in recent times due to habitat loss, pesticide use and the emergence of diseases. Recent evidence suggests that flower-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/backyard-gardens-have-reversed-migrations-among-blackcaps/">gardens</a> in towns and cities may play an important role in providing food to bees and in the conservation of these pollinators. 



In the past, it has been difficult to assess the extent to which urban flower patches provide resources to honeybees because the majority of the gardens are on private property and are not easily accessible. Similarly, it is challenging to determine the floral species richness in agricultural lands where small patches of wildflowers provide important food in a sea of otherwise unappetizing crop fields. This makes it impossible to quantify accurately the resources available to bees in the two habitat types.



In a recent study, researchers from Royal Holloway University and Virginia Tech used the characteristic waggle dance, displayed by honeybees when they return to the hive, to determine the distance bees travel to find suitable food. Using this method, they established that bees foraging in rural or agricultural areas had to travel farther to find food than did bees that foraged in urban settings.



"In this study, we overcame the hurdles of assessing floral resources by getting the bees themselves to&nbsp;tell&nbsp;us where to find food," said Professor Elli Leadbeater. "Calculating the distance to forage indicated by the waggle dances provides a real-time picture of current forage availability, from the bees’ own perspective.”



When a bee returns to its hive after a successful foraging trip, it displays a waggle dance on the hanging honeycomb to communicate information about available food to the other bees. The dance takes the form of a figure of eight, with the duration of the central run indicating the distance to the food and the angle indicating the direction.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers decoded 2,827 waggle dances from 10 western honeybee colonies in London and 10 in surrounding agricultural areas in Kent, Surrey and other counties. This information allowed the researchers to map out where the bees had been to collect their food. They calculated that bees in urban areas had an average foraging distance of 492 meters, whereas bees in agricultural areas traveled an average of 743 meters to their food.



“Our findings support the idea that cities are hotspots for social bees, with gardens providing diverse, plentiful and reliable forage resources. In agricultural areas, it is likely harder for honeybees to find food, so they have to go further before they find enough to bring back to the hive,” explained Professor Leadbeater.



The researchers also found no difference in the amount of sugar collected by the urban and rural bees during their foraging trips. This indicated that the rural bees were not travelling further in order to access remote, nectar-rich sources of food; they were simply traveling further because there is less available food in agricultural areas.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In terms of bee conservation, the authors of the study warn that urban areas make up such a small percentage of total land cover that they will not be sufficient to support bee populations suffering from food paucity in areas dominated by intensive agriculture.



“Conservation efforts should be directed towards increasing the amount of non-crop flowers in agricultural areas, such as wildflower strips," said Professor Leadbeater. "This would increase the consistency of forage available across the season and landscape as well as minimize bees’ reliance on small numbers of seasonal flowering crops.”



She also emphasized that because the study focused on honeybees only, the findings do not necessarily apply to all bee species. “While we can potentially extrapolate our results to some wild bees, such as generalist bumblebee species, our results should not be used to imply that this pattern will hold for all bee species. For many solitary bees, the existence of specialist host plant species or nesting sites will be important in determining whether cities are valuable habitats.”



The study is published in the British Ecological Society’s <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dancing bees reveal that urban gardens are a good source of food

Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are important pollinators of flowering plants but...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.210976%C3%A2%E2%82%AC%C5%BD">Royal Society Open Science</a> found that some dogs possess exceptional capacities, being able to learn up to 12 new toy names in a week, and remember them for at least two months. While it has long been known that dogs can easily learn action words, scientists have just recently found that some gifted dogs can also learn the names of objects.



“We know that dogs can easily learn words that are linked to actions, such as “sit” or “down.” But very few dogs can learn names of objects” explained&nbsp; Shany Dror, a leading researcher in the&nbsp;<a href="https://familydogproject.elte.hu/?fbclid=IwAR1wqdu2LjNJoQ0Z32DRSlIKL8zrvdK-0Qlyd3s3ZxkYWLcXligpwvGjY6Q">Family Dog Project</a> at <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/">Eötvös Loránd University</a>. “For more than two years we searched around the world for dogs that had learnt the names of their toys, and we managed to find six.”



These amazingly gifted Border Collies – Gaia (Brazil), Max (Hungary), Nalani (the Netherlands), Rico (Spain), Squall (Florida), and Whiskey (Norway) – managed to learn over 28 words each, with some of them knowing even more than 100.



In a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-93581-2">previous study</a>, researchers found that these dogs were capable to learn a toy name with a remarkable speed, after hearing it only four times. However, according to the head of the research team Dr. Claudia Fugazza, “with such short exposure, they did not form a long-term memory of it.”&nbsp;



In this new study, the scientists wanted to find out whether dogs are capable of long-term learning too, and asked their owners to try to teach them up to 12 toy names per week. “It turned out that, for these talented dogs, this was not much of a challenge. They easily learned between 11 to 12 toys,” said Dror. After testing the dogs one, and two months later, the researchers found that they still remembered the words.



Although the dogs that were tested were all Border Collies, through the <a href="http://geniusdogchallenge.com/">Genius Dog Challenge</a> project, scientists discovered other gifted dogs too, including a German Shepherd, a Pekingese, a Mini Australia Shepherd, and a few mixed-breed dogs.



According to co-author Adam Miklósi, head of the Department of Ethology at Eötvös Loránd University, “gifted dogs are especially interesting because they show that also among other species there are individuals that are uniquely talented. With the help of these dogs, we hope to better understand the factors that contribute to the development of talent.”



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some dogs have exceptional learning capacities

A new study published in the journal Royal Society Open...

As the human population increases into the mid-21st century, along with its demands for resources, we are faced with the task of working out how to supply food and other goods to people while simultaneously mitigating the effects on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">biodiversity</a> and nature.



“Figuring out how to feed, clothe and power 11 billion people without causing mass species extinction and wrecking the climate is this century’s greatest challenge,” said Andrew Balmford, a professor of Conservation Science at the University of Cambridge and author of a new review on the topic.&nbsp;“Preserving diverse life while meeting humanity’s needs will mean enormous trade-offs, but the evidence is starting to point in one direction.”



Professor Balmford’s review summarizes a decade of global research on trade-offs between crop production and biodiversity.&nbsp;It also uses data from more than 2,500 individually assessed plant, insect and vertebrate species from five continents. The research highlights that there is an urgent need to limit humanity’s escalating impacts on nature while still providing for the needs of the ever-increasing human population.&nbsp;



To this end, Professor Balmford lays out the case for concentrating farming activities in limited, high-yield enterprises that use less land and use it more effectively. This then allows other lands to be spared for re-wilding and the exclusive use of nature.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Most species fare better under this “land sparing” approach than if farming tries to share land with nature – as wildlife-friendly agriculture still damages biodiversity and requires far more land to produce the same amount of food.



Cambridge-led studies on bird and tree species in India and West Africa found that, while all species are “losers” if mid-century food targets are met, more species “fare least badly” under extreme land sparing: concentrated farming that allows the freeing-up of more natural habitat.



“Colleagues have replicated these findings in field sites ranging from Mexico and the Pampas to Colombia and Kazakhstan,” said Professor Balmford. “Most species are specialized to particular environments. Even minor disruptions reduce their populations. This is why so many species decline even with gentler farming.”



“Most species fare much better if habitats are left intact, which means reducing the space needed for farming. So areas that are farmed need to be as productive as we can possibly make them."



He recognizes that some species do thrive on traditional farmlands, particularly in Europe, and so he has proposed that some lightly farmed areas need to remain in order to accommodate the conservation needs of these species. This implies a three-compartment model to farming in the future: high-yield farms maximize food production in the smallest possible land area; some low-yield farming areas are left where species specializing in these habitats can flourish; and the rest of the land is spared for the protection of natural habitats and their associated biodiversity.&nbsp;



The National Food Strategy (NFS), commissioned by the UK government and published this past summer, recommended that Balmford’s three-compartment model should form the basis of a new “Rural Land Use framework." This approach sees high-productivity farming being concentrated into the smallest possible area, thus sparing lands to return to natural habitat. The NFS points out that around 21 percent of farmed land in England will need to be rewilded to some extent or used for biofuel if the UK is to meet its net zero targets for emissions.



Concentrating farming activities in smaller areas while leaving and increasing natural habitats will create a patchwork landscape that will not only conserve species but also allow them to “seed” and repopulate entire regions and nations. These species will no longer be isolated in small fragments of natural habitat but will be able to spread throughout the patchwork of available rewilded lands.



Professor Balmford highlights the success of just four square kilometers of restored wetland near Lakenheath in the east of England. Covered with carrot fields as recently as 1995, the site is now a launchpad for egrets spreading northwards under climate change, and home to the first breeding cranes seen in The Fens for over 300 years.



Additionally, emerging evidence from areas including the Andes, the US and the UK suggests that “land sparing” is important in the fight against climate change, as carbon storage levels are higher if high-yield production allows for more natural vegetation. In this connection, previous research by Balmford suggests that if 30 percent of UK land was spared for woods and wetlands, it could store enough carbon to offset almost all emissions from UK farming by 2050 – and provide a colossal boost to British wildlife.



Important questions remain about how to deliver high yields sustainably, and also about how to ensure that high-yield farming goes hand-in-hand with the protection and restoration of habitats and is not simply used as an excuse for farmers to make more profit.



The framework can also be applied in other fields, including urban planning, recreation, forestry and fisheries. For example, New Zealand is taking the “sparing” approach in forestry management where over 70 percent of forests are protected while the trees are intensively harvested from pockets of pine plantation.&nbsp;



In addition, research suggests the “sparing” philosophy also offers hope for depleted oceans. Fish farming and concentrated areas of locally intensive fishing could provide enough food to allow dramatic expansion of “no-take” marine protected areas where species diversity and natural ecosystems could be left to flourish.&nbsp;



Crucially, future land management policies of this type must be linked to the ability to meet humanity’s need for food and other resources. “You can’t convince people to save nature if they are hungry. We need to ensure we can harvest enough from the biosphere while preserving the planet,” said Professor Balmford. “Conservation has to be pragmatic if we are to interrupt an ecological catastrophe.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14697998">Journal of Zoology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Farmland must be spared, not shared, for nature to thrive

As the human population increases into the mid-21st century, along...

A new study led by the <a href="https://icahn.mssm.edu/">Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</a> has found that exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/illegal-cannabis-farms-infringe-on-crucial-animal-habitats/">THC</a>, the main psychoactive ingredient of cannabis, can cause birth defects in genetically-predisposed mice.&nbsp;



Cannabis is one of the most frequently used recreational drugs, and is also one of the most common drugs used by pregnant women. However, its effects on embryonic development are not yet clearly understood.&nbsp;



Although it is still restricted in most countries, cannabis has been increasingly legalized for recreational and medical consumption in a variety of places, thus causing the number of its consumers to grow significantly.&nbsp;



According to a research team led by Robert Krauss, a professor of Cell, Developmental, and Regenerative Biology at the Icahn School of Medicine, exposure to THC could exacerbate a mutation that affects a mechanism that cells use to communicate to each other called <a href="http://annalsofneurosciences.org/journal/index.php/annal/article/view/531">Hedgehog signaling</a>.&nbsp;



“Several years ago, it was reported that THC could inhibit Hedgehog signalling in cells grown in a dish,” said Professor Krauss. “We reasoned that THC might be an environmental risk factor for birth defects, but that it would require additional risk factors, such as specific mutations in the genes required for Hedgehog signalling, to induce these defects in mice.”



In order to test this hypothesis, the scientists administered a single dose of THC to pregnant mice approximately a week after conception. Afterward, they studied the embryonic development of the pups, some of which carried a mutation affecting their Hedgehog signaling system.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that the pups without the mutation developed normally, even when exposed to THC. However, the pups that carried the mutation and were exposed to the drug developed a face and brain defect called holoprosencephaly, which is characterized by the failure of the embryonic brain to divide into two lobes.



The findings could have important implications for human health too. “The THC concentration in cannabis is now very high, so it is important to perform epidemiology studies looking at whether cannabis consumption is associated with developmental defects."&nbsp;



"Women are already advised not to consume cannabis while pregnant, but our results show that embryos are sensitive at a very early period, before many women know they are pregnant. Cannabis consumption may therefore be inadvisable even when women are trying to get pregnant,” warned Professor Krauss.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.199585">Development</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How does cannabis use affect embryonic development?

A new study led by the Icahn School of Medicine...

The virtues of spiders’ silk have been extolled since ancient times when the Greeks and Romans apparently used bandages of spider <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snake-eating-spiders-live-on-every-continent-except-antarctica/">web</a> to help staunch bleeding and heal wounds, cuts and scrapes. 



In the past decade, many studies have investigated the antimicrobial properties of spiders’ silk in order to back up the myth with empirical findings. Some studies have confirmed antimicrobial activity, while others have rejected it. In short, the topic has become a bit of a tangled web.



“Spider silk has always been admired and almost has a mythical status,” said Trine Bilde, a professor of Biology at <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a> in Denmark. “It’s one of these myths that seems to have become ‘established’ by ‘belief’ and not by strong empirical support.”



In the light of this contradictory evidence, a team of researchers set out to assess the antimicrobial properties of different types of silk from seven species of spiders. They tested whether the silk would affect various types of bacteria, namely Gram-negative Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas putida, and Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, using direct contact or diffusion disc assays.&nbsp;



Having silk with antimicrobial properties could possibly benefit spiders in two ways. Firstly, it may protect the spiders and secondly, it may protect the silk itself. Spiders often hide in burrows that are lined with silk, and their eggs are always encased in silk structures.&nbsp;



In particular, social spiders that live in large groups may be protected from the spread of pathogens by antibiotic silk. These spiders have weakened immune systems from inbreeding, so they are especially vulnerable to infection. However, Professor Bilde and her team of researchers found no evidence of antimicrobial activity in the silk of social spiders.&nbsp;



“We were unable to detect antimicrobial activity of social spider silk, regardless of method or microbe, and this made us curious about why other studies were able to,” said Professor Bilde. “We then started scrutinizing the papers reporting antimicrobial activity in fine detail and became aware of methodological shortcomings.”



Two main methodological issues were identified. Some of the past studies had not adequately controlled for contamination of silk samples by bacteria, while other studies had not controlled for the effects of the solvent used to extract the spiders’ silk. The studies may have been compromised for either of these reasons.



Using improved experimental procedures, the researchers found no evidence of antimicrobial activity in the samples of silk that they tested. Since they only tested silk from seven spider species, they cannot rule out silk with antimicrobial properties from other, untested species. However, their results do cast doubt on previous investigations.&nbsp;



“Rather than assuming that spider silk is antimicrobial, we should now assume that it isn’t,” said Professor Bilde. “We can still test the idea in new species and with new organisms, but with a more cautious starting point.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antimicrobial property of spiders’ silk is a myth

The virtues of spiders’ silk have been extolled since ancient...

Little,Girl,Whispering,A,Joke,In,A,Boy's,Ear,,Boy

A new study has confirmed a strong correlation between humor and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-can-predict-the-future-of-arctic-sea-ice/">intelligence</a> among children. The researchers found that children are better able to produce humor when they have higher levels of general knowledge and verbal reasoning.



The study was focused on 217 Turkish middle-school students with a wide range of intelligence. The results suggest that the link between humor and intelligence is much stronger in children than adults.



"Humor has been considered a sign of high intelligence throughout human history," explained the study authors. "For example, during competitions for women to mate within ancient times, men engaged in humor to demonstrate their cleverness and adaptability."



"In scientific research, intelligence has been found to predict humor ability partly. People who quickly and easily produce witty ideas are considered highly intelligent."



While many previous studies had looked at the correlation between intelligence and humor in adults, there is much less relevant research that is focused on children.



For the investigation, the students were asked to create captions for 10 cartoons. Experts rated the funniness of the captions, as well as their relevance to the cartoons, for a total of 30,380 ratings.



When the researchers compared the ratings with the intelligence of the children, they found that general intelligence was highly correlated with humor.&nbsp;



The study authors emphasize that the cultural context plays an important role in the strength of the link between intelligence and humor. They note that both humor and intelligence are shaped by cultural norms, beliefs and values.&nbsp;



Prior research on humor and intelligence has mostly been carried out in Western cultures, but the new study explored the relationship in Turkish culture, which is a blend of Western and Eastern cultures.



“While humor is frequently used for entertainment by adults, children use it mostly for peer acceptance. Therefore, the nature of adult and child humor differs,” said study lead author Professor Ugur Sak of Anadolu University.



“We were particularly interested in the quality of humor made by children but evaluated by adults. Parents and teachers should be aware that if their children or students frequently make good quality humor, it is highly likely that they have extraordinary intelligence.”



The study is published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2021-0054">Humor - International Journal of Humor Research</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humor is a clear sign of intelligence among children

A new study has confirmed a strong correlation between humor...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...