About 6 million years ago, an extraordinary event occurred that restructured the Mediterranean and its water. This phenomenon, known as the Messinian Salinity Crisis, transformed the sea into a massive salt basin.



But how did a million cubic kilometers of salt come to rest in such a short time on the Mediterranean seabed? Until now, that remained a mystery.



Now, scientists have made a significant breakthrough. By analyzing chlorine isotopes found in the salt on the Mediterranean seabed, they've unveiled the two distinct phases of this intense evaporation event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phases-of-desiccation-and-salt-accumulation">Phases of desiccation and salt accumulation</h2>



The first desiccation phase lasted approximately 35,000 years. During this time, salt deposition occurred exclusively in the eastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/corsica-sardinia-mediterranean-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean</a>. This was due to a restriction of the Mediterranean outflow into the Atlantic, resulting in a brine-filled basin in the east.



The second phase, however, was a different story altogether. Over less than 10,000 years, salt accumulation took place throughout the entire Mediterranean.



An expeditious evaporative event caused such a sharp decline in sea-level - 1.7-2.1 kilometers in the east, and approximately 0.85 kilometers in the west - that the Mediterranean basin lost up to 70% of its total water volume.



Moreover, change on such a monumental scale didn't occur without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distress-signals-earths-water-cycle-is-becoming-more-erratic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repercussions</a>. The effects of the spectacular fall in sea level were far-reaching and not just limited to the marine environment itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-linked-to-mediterranean-water-loss">Factors linked to Mediterranean water loss</h2>



Local volcanic eruptions may have been triggered due to the release of pressure on Earth's crust. These eruptions could be thought of as Earth's reactions to the rapid loss of such a substantial amount of water weight.



Moreover, this large scale evaporative event also might have influenced global climate patterns. The drastic depression caused by the sea-level drawdown rippled outwards, affecting weather systems far and wide.



These results point towards a better understanding of not just the Messinian Salinity Crisis, but also of the ways extreme desiccation events can drastically alter ecosystems and climates on a global scale.



In the last moments of this salinity crisis, the sea-level of the Mediterranean was almost a kilometer below that of the Atlantic Ocean. This extreme difference lead to the eventual collapse of the Strait of Gibraltar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mediterranean-water-loss-and-marine-life">Mediterranean water loss and marine life</h2>



The Messinian Salinity Crisis also posed significant challenges for marine life in the Mediterranean basin. 



The extreme hypersaline conditions would have been inhospitable for most marine organisms, leading to mass extinctions of species that could not adapt. 



However, evidence suggests that some extremophilic organisms (organisms capable of surviving in highly saline environments) managed to persist during this period. 



Fossil records indicate that isolated pockets of less saline water, or refugia, may have existed, providing temporary habitats for certain species. These pockets paint a picture of resilience amidst an environment of extreme ecological stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoration-of-the-mediterranean-water">Restoration of the Mediterranean water</h2>



The collapse of the Strait of Gibraltar acted as a gateway for the Atlantic Ocean to flow back into the Mediterranean. This sudden influx of water ended the prolonged desiccation, refilling the Mediterranean basin and restoring its water levels. 



As a result, the Mediterranean transitioned from a nearly dry, hypersaline basin dominated by thick salt deposits into a thriving open sea once again, with normal marine conditions and ecosystems returning over time. 



This event marked the resolution of the Messinian Salinity Crisis, reshaping the region's geography and ecological dynamics permanently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-challenges">Modern climate challenges</h2>



The insights gained from studying the Messinian Salinity Crisis carry valuable lessons for our understanding of current and future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-has-caused-crisis-levels-of-food-and-water-scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental changes</a>. 



This event showcases how rapid geological and hydrological transformations can trigger cascading effects on the climate, ecosystems, and even tectonic activity. 



Contemporary concerns about rising temperatures, altering precipitation patterns, and water scarcity echo some of the climate disruptions that may have been felt during the crisis. 



By learning from this historic event, scientists emphasize the importance of global collaboration and sustainable resource management to mitigate the impacts of looming environmental challenges on both natural systems and human societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research on the history of Mediterranean water has provided fresh insights into historical geological events, enhancing our comprehension of these past occurrences.



By examining these findings, scientists and researchers have the opportunity to improve their predictions about future geological phenomena. 



Understanding the patterns and causes of past events allows for better preparation and response strategies, potentially reducing the adverse impacts of similar events that may occur in the future. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-geological-history">Learning from geological history</h2>



The study emphasizes the importance of learning from past geological activities to make informed decisions that safeguard communities and environments against natural disasters. It raises a critical question: will we apply the lessons learned to protect our future? 



The findings from the study serve as a call to action, urging society to integrate historical lessons into future planning and preparedness efforts.



The study was led by G. Aloisi, a scientist at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>), which is one of the largest governmental research organizations in France.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-53781-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Pibernat &amp; Garcia-Castellanos



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The Mediterranean nearly lost all of its water 6 million years ago

About 6 million years ago, an extraordinary event occurred that restructured the Mediterranean and its water. This phenomenon, known as the Messinian Salinity Crisis, transformed the sea into a massive salt basin. But how did a million cubic kilometers of salt come to rest in such a short time on the Mediterranean seabed? Until now, that remained a mystery. Now, scientists have made a significant breakthrough. By analyzing chlorine isotopes found in the salt on the Mediterranean seabed, they've unveiled the two distinct phases of this intense...

A new study from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> has examined the relationship between sleep deprivation and mood among teenagers. The experts found that a lack of sleep can quickly cause teens to experience a loss of energy and function during the day, and can even led to feelings of anger and depression.

Sleep plays a major role in maintaining health and well-being. According to previous research, up to 70 percent of teens regularly suffer from a lack of sleep. Stress, late-night studying, and lifestyle choices are some of the biggest contributors to sleep deprivation in teens.

The Flinders team enlisted 34 healthy teenagers between the ages of 15 and 17 to spent 10 days and nine nights in a specially designed sleep center.

The study participants were assigned one of three sleep "doses" - five hours, 7.5 hours, or 10 hours - for five consecutive nights. The following two nights were designated as recovery nights, with up to ten hours available for sleep. 

The experts measured the mood of the volunteers every three hours after waking up, focusing specifically on depression, fear, anger, confusion, and energy levels. 

Among those individuals who had their sleep restricted to five hours, happiness and energy levels were found to decrease significantly. On the other hand, participants who got 10 hours of sleep experienced a noticeable increase in happiness.

The study also revealed that participants in the five-hour group, and not in the 7.5- or 10-hour groups, reported feeling significantly more depressed, angry, and confused during sleep restriction.

"Two nights of recovery sleep was not sufficient to recover from increased negative mood states for the five-hour group, although recovery occurred for positive mood states," said study lead Dr. Michelle Short.

"Given the prevalence of insufficient sleep and the rising incidence of mood disorders and dysregulation in adolescents, our findings highlight the importance of sufficient sleep to mitigate these risks."

The researchers emphasize that sufficient sleep is crucial to protect against mood deficits in otherwise healthy adolescents. The results of the study confirm that sleep deprivation is associated with a substantial deterioration of mood in teens. 

"Given the prevalence of insufficient sleep and the rising incidence of mood disorders and dysregulation in adolescents, these findings highlight the importance of sufficient sleep to mitigate these risks,' explained the researchers.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article-abstract/44/5/zsaa253/6007670?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Sleep</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sleep deprivation linked to quickly deteriorating mood in teens

A new study from Flinders University has examined the relationship...

Light pollution has evolved in color and severity over the past two decades, resulting in complex impacts on moths and other animals who rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-set-a-bedtime-alarm-that-helps-them-survive-the-night/">night</a> vision, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. 

The experts report that artificial lighting can have a subtle yet dramatic influence on the behavior of nocturnal animals. 

To investigate, the researchers analyzed how various types of lighting affect the vision of moths, and the birds that eat them. In particular, the study revealed that elephant hawkmoth vision is enhanced by some types of lighting and disrupted by others. At the same time, the birds that hunt moths were found to see better under almost any type of lighting.

"Modern broad-spectrum lighting allows humans to see color more easily at night," said Dr. Jolyon Troscianko. "However, it is difficult to know how these modern light sources affect the vision of other animals."

"Hawkmoth eyes are sensitive to blue, green and ultraviolet, and they use this color vision to help find flowers just like bees, but at incredibly low light levels – even under starlight."

"Moths are also vitally important pollinators - accounting for a similar proportion of pollination as bees – so we urgently need to investigate how lighting affects them."

According to Dr. Troscianko, his team used animal vision modeling to calculate the ability of moths to see flower colors, and of birds to see camouflaged moths under a wide range of natural and artificial lighting.

“Artificial lights designed for human vision lack the blue and ultraviolet ranges that are key to moth color vision, and under many conditions will block the moth’s ability to see any colors at all," said Dr. Troscianko.

“This could make it more difficult for them to find and pollinate wildflowers, and for them to find suitable spots to camouflage them from predators."

"Conversely, bird vision is much more robust, meaning artificial light will help them to find camouflaged moth prey, and will allow them to hunt later into the evening and earlier in the morning."

The researchers found that white lights with a greater blue component promote more natural color vision in moths, even though these light sources are known to be harmful to other species.

Moths are declining across Europe, especially nocturnal species, and there is a growing collection of evidence that supports a link with light pollution. The experts are calling for a "nuanced approach" to lighting to limit the amount and intensity of light where possible.

The research was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Light pollution may be driving the decline of moths

Light pollution has evolved in color and severity over the...

The unfortunate reality of the name "fur seals" comes from a time when these beautiful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flower-evolution-is-influenced-by-the-animals-that-visit/">animals</a> were seen mainly through the eyes of hunters looking to profit from their skins. In fact, fur seals were hunted so heavily that one species - the Guadalupe fur seal (Arctocephalus townsendi) was declared extinct in the late 18001. 

Thankfully, scientists sometimes make mistakes - 14 of the “extinct” fur seals were discovered on Guadalupe Island in 1950. Since the rediscovery of the Guadalupe fur seals, their numbers have continued to grow. 

Today, the IUCN estimates the Guadalupe fur seal population to be around 41,000 seals, and increasing by ten to eleven percent annually. So far, the only breeding location for the fur seals is their namesake - Guadalupe Island. 

A "haul out" colony, where the seals bask on shore and rest, was populated on San Benito Islands in the 1990’s. Now, researchers are announcing the formation of a new haul out colony, which is a good sign for the seals. The newest resting colony is on El Farallón de San Ignacio Island.

Study co-author Claudia Hernández-Camacho explained that the colony started with the observation of one adult in 2008 until today’s conditions,

“During our visits to El Farallón in 2020, we counted 492 individuals in January, and 771 in November. Most of the animals we have seen have been juveniles, and all have appeared to be in good body condition."

The scientists observing the seals initially thought it might be a fluke to see the seals on El Farallón, considering that the island is hot and dry and not typical for fur seals. They now suspect that the island is a prime feeding area, where the seals hunt their preferred food of squid. 

The good news is that all of these islands are protected land. The bad news is that the government of Mexico still classifies the seals as only occasional visitors to El Farallón and has no conservation plan in place for them yet. 

So far, the seal populations are growing slowly and the animals can be found as far away as the coast of Washington. The seals are still in a precarious position with only one breeding location. 

"Guadalupe fur seals have only one breeding colony, so the new haul-outs in the southern Gulf of California provide some good news. However, the new sites will need regular monitoring to document their growth and possible changes in body conditions, age and sex-composition, and breeding potential," said study co-author Andrew Trites. "This species escaped extinction once and remains vulnerable."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17487692">Marine Mammal Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Guadalupe fur seals are on the mend

The unfortunate reality of the name "fur seals" comes from...

Human impacts now kill about 100 million sharks per year. An international team of researchers led by ecologist Erin Dillon recently focused a study on shark denticles to determine how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-completely-stop-growing-by-2054/">reef</a> communities have changed as a result of human activities. 

Sharks have microscopic scales called dermal denticles thar provide them with protection from abrasive surfaces. The team compared the abundance and variety of denticles from a Panamanian coral reef 7,000 years ago to those in reef sediments today.

Dillon began the research as an intern at the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> (STRI), and is currently finishing her doctoral work at UC Santa Barbara.

"If you have ever petted a shark in an aquarium touch tank, denticles are the reason why shark skin is rough like sandpaper if you rub it in one direction yet smooth in the other direction. Sharks are essentially covered by millions of tiny teeth," explained Dillon.

Just like humans shed dry skin and dandruff, sharks shed their denticles, and they accumulate in marine sediments. The oldest shark denticles ever found - discovered in the Harding Sandstone of Colorado - are about 455 million years old.

STRI paleobiologist Aaron O'Dea uses data obtained from fossil- and modern coral reefs to reconstruct baseline conditions before human colonization. These reconstructions also help scientists understand how evolutionary processes change through time.

"Placoderms in the Paleozoic, and then marine reptiles in the Mesozoic, were larger and ate sharks," said O'Dea. "Placoderms ruled the oceans for around 70 million years and marine reptiles of the Mesozoic ruled for more than 100 million years."

"Sharks are only top predators now because extinction events preferentially took out other groups but allowed sharks to survive. Sharks seem to have remarkable evolutionary resilience and I was fascinated to work on a technique that would help us explore how sharks have fared more recently when humans step into the picture."

The team sampled material from a 7000-year-old fossilized reef in Bocas del Toro, Panama and from nearby modern Caribbean reefs. O'Dea asked Dillon to analyze the samples and look for shark denticles.

"What started as a three-month-long internship turned into a two-year stay in Panama and then expanded into part of my PhD thesis," said Dillon. "I've grown with this project as my role shifted from first exploring and processing the samples as an intern to leading the project, analyzing and interpreting the data, and spearheading the writing."

One week's worth of samples took about a year of lab work to recover and identify the denticles. 

"Finding the first denticles was thrilling," said Dillon. "They were beautifully preserved and abundant enough to provide insights into millennia-old shark communities."

Ultimately, Dillon found that denticle accumulation rates - which represent shark abundances - were over three times higher before humans began using marine resources in the region. While all types of denticles had declined over time, those found on commercially valuable sharks declined the most. 

Based on evidence from archaeological studies and historical records, Dillon determined that the steepest decline in shark abundance occurred in the late 20th century. 

"When the Spanish arrived in the Americas, they wrote fantastic accounts of seas swarming with sharks," said Dillon. "But these days we see very few sharks: we are lucky to see the occasional nurse shark."

"Our data show that sharks in Bocas del Toro have been depleted both by long-term harvesting, which accelerated in the second half of the 20th century, and by habitat degradation, which began even earlier with the expansion of banana cultivation and coastal development. There is so much land-based runoff from the coast today that in some locations it's like swimming through limeade."

&nbsp;

"Taken together, Erin's body of work shows that denticle assemblages can be used with care to help reconstruct past shark communities through time," said O'Dea. "Sharks are an integral part of ocean health and play important roles in the great diversity and functioning of coral reefs. Having empirical estimates of past shark abundances and community composition helps us frame our understanding of what is natural in the seas."

According to Dillon, the researchers hope to extend this method to other locations to examine broader geographic patterns of change in reef shark communities over long ecological timescales. 

"For example, we're currently reconstructing trends in denticle accumulation along Panama's Pacific coast over the last several thousand years using sediment cores. These baseline data will help us explore the causes and consequences of changes in shark abundance and functional diversity. Our work can also help tailor shark management goals to this local region."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shark denticles reveal human impacts over centuries

Human impacts now kill about 100 million sharks per year....

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, researchers have discovered that a vast seabird colony on Ascension Island creates a "halo" in which fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-with-no-corals-will-have-half-as-many-types-of-fish/">fish</a> live. 

Located far from the mainland, the UK Overseas Territory of Ascension Island is home to tens of thousands of seabirds of various species. Some of these species, including frigatebirds, masked boobies and brown boobies, prey on flying fish. 

The experts have found that the numbers of flying fish are greatly reduced within a 90-mile radius of the island, which is a phenomenon that can only be explained by foraging seabirds.

Dr. Sam Weber is an expert in the Centre for Ecology and Conservation on Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall.

"This study tells us a lot about large colonies of animals and how their numbers are limited," said Dr. Weber.

"These birds are concentrated at Ascension Island during the breeding season, and the intensity of their foraging is naturally highest near the island."

"As they use up the most accessible prey located near to the island, they have to travel increasingly long distances to feed, causing the 'halo' to expand outwards."

"Once individuals can't find enough food to break even with the energy they expend finding it, the colony stops growing.

Dr. Weber noted that human activities such as fisheries can interfere with this natural balance and have negative effects on populations of marine top predators like seabirds, even if they don't directly harm the birds.

"What was particularly surprising is the large scale of the footprint we found. It shows that Marine Protected Areas may need to be very large because some predators rely on prey stocks across a huge area."

The pattern of fish declines revealed by the study is known as "Ashmole's halo," named after British ornithologist Philip Ashmole, who first proposed a theory about this type of prey depletion about 60 years ago after visiting Ascension Island.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Seabirds create a "halo" of depleted fish

In a new study from the University of Exeter, researchers...

We often think of individual drivers of natural selection separately from each other. It’s easy to think of the big and bold examples - how male Irish elk or peacocks were driven to evolve elaborate decoration to attract mates, despite the inherent risks. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/an-answer-to-the-mystery-of-sperm-evolution/">Evolution</a> is more complex than this though. 

Many factors work together to select "for" or "against" individual traits and the underlying suit of genes. In a new study led by Michael Moore of <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University</a>, experts have investigated how different factors affect the color patterns of male dragonfly wings.

The researchers looked at the amount of pigment found in male dragonfly wings. It is believed that the primary purpose dragonfly wing colors is for mating. However, the scientists have now found that sex is not the only factor in wing color. 

Utilizing databases created by "citizen scientists" using iNaturalist and field guides, the experts were able to examine the amount of pigment found in dragonfly wings at different locations. The difference in pigments is important because, depending on the color, wings can increase in heat up to two degrees celsius, explained Moore.

As expected, the study authors found that dragonflies found in warmer locations tend to have less pigment on their wings, while those in cooler climates tend to have more. This seems to be an adaptation that keeps dragonflies from overheating. 

The study also revealed that in warmer years, dragonflies tended to have less wing color than those photographed on cooler years. Interestingly, female dragonfly wings do not change colors as much in response to temperature as those of males. 

Looking at climate change scenarios, the researchers note that we cannot expect male and female dragonflies to adapt in the same ways. One possibility is that as wing patterns change, it will become harder for female dragonflies to distinguish between members of their own species and different species, a potential problem for the survival of these fascinating insects.       

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dragonfly wing colors driven by climate and sexual selection

We often think of individual drivers of natural selection separately...

Wisconsin currently hosts between 695 and 751 gray wolves, which is a major drop from a population of at least 1,034 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cougars-threat-yellowstone-elk/">wolves</a> last year, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>. 

The research suggests that about one-third of the population decline is due to hidden deaths in the wolf population that have resulted from relaxed legal protections.

On November 3, 2020, the United States Fish &amp; Wildlife Service officially removed the gray wolf from the federal Endangered Species list in the contiguous United States and Mexico. The new law became effective in January of 2021.

In the current study, the researchers found that 218 wolves were killed by licensed hunters during Wisconsin's first public wolf hunt. The experts report that the uncounted deaths of an additional 100 wolves may be attributed to something called cryptic poaching, where poachers hide evidence of illegal killings.

The overall loss of about 323 wolves represents a decline in Wisconsin's wolf population of between 27 and 33 percent between April 2020 and April 2021. 

The research has produced the first estimate of Wisconsin's wolf population since the public hunt in February. The hunt ended early after hunters exceeded the quota of 119 wolves within a few days. 

The researchers believe that the current population contains a maximum of 751 gray wolves, considering that they incorporated optimistic assumptions about population growth and low poaching rates in their computer models.

The population estimates will help the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) prepare for the next wolf hunt this fall.

"Although the DNR is aiming for a stable population, we estimate the population actually dropped significantly," said Professor Adrian Treves.

In previous studies from Professor Treves' lab, the team showed that wolf population growth declined in Wisconsin and Michigan when legal protections were relaxed, regardless of the number of wolves that were killed legally. 

The results of other studies suggest that when governments allow lethal management, poachers are inclined to kill more wolves because the relaxed policies signal that predators are less valued. The researchers took this into consideration when modeling the uncounted gray wolf deaths in Wisconsin since last November.

"During these periods, we see an effect on poaching, both reported and cryptic. Those wolves disappear and you never find them again," said Francisco Santiago-Ávila. "Additional deaths are caused simply by the policy signal, and the wolf hunt adds to that."

Without hunting, the researchers estimate that the population could recover in one to two years. The experts hope that the Wisconsin DNR and other states' natural resource agencies take advantage of their methods to develop a more complete assessment of the effect of new policies on predator populations.

"These methods and models are freely available to these agencies," said Karann Putrevu. "They should take advantage of the best available science to meet their stated goals."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wisconsin gray wolf population dropped by 30 percent in one year

Wisconsin currently hosts between 695 and 751 gray wolves, which...

We’ve all seen flies swarm to dung or dead animals to eat. Despite the difference in taste between the average fly and most people, the insects don’t eat just anything - their diet has to meet certain criteria. Like all animals, flies spend time seeking out foods that are tasty and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-crops-nutritious/">nutritious</a>. 

In a new study from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a>, researchers have investigated the food choices of flies to determine what goes on in their brains while choosing between two menu items. 

The experts offered fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) two choices - a nutritious food laced with a bitter substance and a less nutritious, low-calorie option that tasted sweet. 

The team used neuroimaging to track neural activity as the flies made the choice between the high-calorie or tasty food.

"It depends on how hungry they are," explained study senior author Professor Michael Nitabach. "The hungrier they are, the more likely they will tolerate bitter taste to obtain more calories."

However, the experts report that the real answer to how flies make food choices is a little more complicated. The researchers explained that flies relay sensory information to a portion of their brain called the fan-shaped body, where signals are integrated, triggering what amounts to the insect version of an executive decision. 

The study revealed that patterns of brain cell activity in the fan-shaped body change when new food choices are introduced, and this controls the fly's decision over what food to eat.

The researchers took the study one step further by manipulating neurons in parts of the brain that feed into the fan-shaped body. By decreasing the activity of neurons that regulate metabolism, the scientists were able to force the flies to "decide" to eat the lower calorie food, even when very hungry. 

The reward systems in the brains’ of flies and humans are similar and this study relates to how Homo sapiens make food decisions as well. In this way, this finding could be used as a way to understand how hunger and eating behavior work in humans.

“The study provides a template to understand how it is that things like hunger and internal emotional states influence our behavior,” said Professor Nitabach.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do flies decide what to eat?

We’ve all seen flies swarm to dung or dead animals...

The mystery of missing ocean plastic comes down to a simple case of human error, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.ub.edu/web/portal/en/">University of Barcelona</a>. The researchers found that estimates of river flux are overestimated by two to three orders of magnitude, which explains why a large volume of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-the-remote-vatnajokull-glacier/">microplastics</a> has been unaccounted for.

Unfortunately, the study does not indicate that ocean plastic is any less of an issue. On the contrary, the researchers found that plastics persist at the ocean's surface much longer than expected, allowing them to cause even more damage. 

Rivers are the leading source of marine plastic pollution - estimated to deliver several million metric tons of plastic to the ocean each year. However, the actual quantity of plastics found floating on the ocean's surface has been tens to hundreds of times lower than what was thought to be dumped through rivers. This major discrepancy led to the theory that there is a missing ocean plastic sink.

"We can now confirm that the search for the missing 'plastic sink' is over, as the missing plastics have been found through the correction of the river flux estimate," said study co-author Professor Miquel Canals, head of the Consolidated Research Group on Marine Geosciences at the University of Barcelona.

The researchers identified the main methodological mistakes which led to inaccurate assessments of the overall mass of ocean plastic discharged by rivers. 

"The in situ data that we now have for microplastics in rivers, compared to early empirical modeling studies, allowed us to assemble a robust database which we were then able to analyze to obtain a more reliable estimate for the quantity of microplastics being discharged from rivers into the sea," explained study lead author Dr. Lisa Weiss from the CEFREM laboratory at the University of Perpignan.

"This process revealed several significant methodological errors in previous flux estimates. When we then corrected these mistakes we found that the global river flux estimates are two to three orders of magnitude less than previously thought." 

"Further, we found that the average residence time for microplastics at the surface of the oceans may actually be a few years as opposed to only several days, as previously estimated."

According to study co-author Dr. Wolfgang Ludwig, the Director of the CEFREM laboratory, the only way we are going to have a chance at winning the fight against microplastic pollution will be to target the sources where microplastic waste is generated. 

"We need to take action at the human level. We need to change our consumption habits, better manage our waste and we need to do this at a global scale," said Dr. Ludwig.

"Our study shows that marine microplastic pollution not only comes from developing countries - with little to no waste management - as one might think, but also comes from countries with well-established waste management systems."

"If we were to stop the discharge of microplastics from rivers to the sea today, the amount of floating particles and their harmful effects on marine ecosystems would persist for at least another several years."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mysterious ocean plastic sink is no longer missing

The mystery of missing ocean plastic comes down to a...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a>, experts have discovered why pelagic red crabs are sometimes found stranded in staggering numbers outside of their range. 

The crabs have been known to wash up on the West Coast of the United States in the millions. The new study suggests that abnormal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-with-no-corals-will-have-half-as-many-types-of-fish/">ocean</a> currents push the creatures out of their home range in Baja California.

Study lead author Megan Cimino is a biological oceanographer at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and UC Santa Cruz through the Institute of Marine Sciences Fisheries Collaborative Program.

In 2018, Cimino had biked past a pelagic red crab stranding on route to her office in Monterey, California. Years earlier, she had witnessed another stranding event in Southern California.

"At that time, I had no clue what a red crab was, what was going on, why they would be there," said Cimino. "But it was very clear something different was going on in the ocean - something unusual."

When she brought this to the attention of her colleagues, the team decided to investigate what was driving these unusual events. 

For months, the experts analyzed information from sources including oceanographic research surveys and citizen science programs to compile data about the recorded range of the red crabs and the occurrence of strandings from 1950 to 2019. 

Ultimately, the researchers found that the appearance of red crabs outside of their normal range correlated with the amount of seawater flowing from Baja California to central California. 

The evidence supports the idea that strong currents, and not warm water associated with Niño events, cause the red crab strandings.

The researchers used a regional ocean model of the California Current System, which was developed by scientists in the UC Santa Cruz ocean modeling group, to study the ocean currents that can push red crabs out of their range.

"What you're doing is putting a tracer - you could think of it like a dye - into a particular part of the ocean and then running the model backwards in time to see where that came from," said study co-author Michael Jacox.

Based on the results, the team created the southern source water index (SSWI), which shows how much water off the central California coast comes from south of the U.S.-Mexico border.

"It's that pathway of water that brings up some of these unusual species," said study co-author Ryan Rykaczewski. "It's not just the pelagic red crabs, even though those might be the most conspicuous species that we see on the coast."

According to the researchers, the red crabs represent a larger phenomenon that they can use the SSWI to better understand.

"The index could be used as a kind of early warning system about what the ocean state is that year and whether we're going to expect southern species in northern regions," said Cimino. "That can help us plan and manage and give expectations for bycatch or different fisheries."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19395590">Limnology and Oceanography</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Strong ocean currents push red crabs far out of their range

In a new study from UC Santa Cruz, experts have...

Flower evolution seems to be influenced by the various animals that visit, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/">University of Tsukuba</a>. The researchers have proposed a new theory that trade-offs caused by different visitors play a central role in shaping floral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-biodiversity-crisis-will-take-millions-of-years-to-recover-from/">diversity</a>.

When it comes to interactions between animals and flowers, some visitors are beneficial, like pollinators, while others can be detrimental. As a result, different selection pressures influence flower traits such as scent or color. 

"On the basis of this theory, you'd expect that flowers would mostly be visited by one particular group of pollinators," said study lead author Professor Kazuharu Ohashi. "But flowers often host many different visitors at the same time and flowers appear to meet the needs of multiple visitors. The question we wanted to answer is how this happens in nature."

In the case where a scent attracts one pollinator but deters another, the flower would attempt to accommodate the best pollinator. 

For example, diurnal bees and nocturnal moths can both pollinate goat willow, yet they prefer different smells. The researchers explained that balancing the demands of multiple visitors involves trade-offs.

The experts developed a conceptual framework to examine different types of trade-offs, as well as how flower evolution may be affected. Next, the team analyzed relevant studies to determine whether the research supported the proposed framework.

The researchers discovered a variety of strategies for mitigating trade-offs. In the case of goat willow, flowers produce different scents during the day and night, and therefore attract both pollinators. Furthermore, floral color can change to attract both bees and flies. 

All of the strategies that were mentioned by the researchers involved acquiring novel combinations of traits to attract, or deter, different visitors.

"Most flowers are ecologically generalized and the assumption to date has been that this is a suboptimal solution," said Professor Ohashi. "But our findings suggest that interactions with multiple animals can actually be optimized by minimizing trade-offs in various ways, and such evolutionary processes may have enriched the diversity of flowers."

The researchers predict that future studies will find that the structure of flower-visitor communities and the associated trade-offs have played critical roles in flower evolution.

"Identifying convergent adaptations to particular community contexts may help us to understand better the evolutionary link between diverse floral phenotypes and their visitors.'

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1469185x">Biological Reviews</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flower evolution is influenced by the animals that visit

Flower evolution seems to be influenced by the various animals...

Chamonix,Mont,Blanc,,France

The total surface area of Earth covered by frozen ground, sea ice, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-fresh-snowfall-causes-greenland-to-melt-faster/">snow</a> - collectively known as the cryosphere - has been shrinking at an alarming rate as a result of climate change. 

In a new study published by the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a>, researchers have found that between 1979 and 2016, the cryosphere shrank by about 33,000 square miles per year on average. This is the equivalent of losing an area about the size of Lake Superior each year.

The bright white surface of frozen water plays an important role in reflecting sunlight away from Earth and cooling the planet. Changes in the cryosphere can have a widespread impact on air temperatures and ocean currents.

"The cryosphere is one of the most sensitive climate indicators and the first one to demonstrate a changing world," said study first author Xiaoqing Peng of Lanzhou University. "Its change in size represents a major global change, rather than a regional or local issue."

The current study is the first of its kind to document changes across the entire extent of the cryosphere, which holds almost 75 percent of Earth's fresh water. In some regions, shrinking glaciers threaten the future of the drinking water supply. 

The researchers found that the extent of the cryosphere grows and shrinks with the seasons, but has shrunk overall since 1979. The majority of the losses were in the Northern Hemisphere, with gains in the Southern Hemisphere slightly offsetting these losses.

In addition to the shrinking global cryosphere, many regions now remain frozen for shorter periods of time. Compared to 1979, the average first freeze occurs about 3.6 days later and the ice begins to thaw about 5.7 days earlier.

According to the study authors, their global dataset can now be used to further investigate the impact of climate change on the cryosphere, and how these changes affect ecosystems, the carbon cycle, and the timing of plant and animal life cycles.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/23284277">Earth's Future</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth's cryosphere is shrinking at an alarming rate

The total surface area of Earth covered by frozen ground,...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...