It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms.



Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. 



But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-fuel-for-evolution">Energy: Fuel for evolution</h2>



The boring billion period appears to mark a time when the evolution of complex life was delayed and conditions were so stable as to border on stagnant. 



Scientists state that oxygen levels at this time were drastically decreased and conditions were fairly harsh for most forms of life.



A new study by Michael Lynch of <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> has revealed that the transition from unicellular to multicellular life forms would have come at a cost.



Using the water flea, Daphnia, as a <a href="https://phys.org/tags/model+organism/">model organism</a>, the study shows that multicellular organisms require more than a tenfold increase in energy compared with the simpler, unicellular organisms characteristic of the boring billion period. 



"No one doubts that multicellularity can bring substantial advantages to the table, but the privilege of attaining such benefits comes at a steep investment cost," said Lynch, who directs the <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fbiodesign.asu.edu%2Fmechanisms-of-evolution%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution</a> at ASU.



The study emphasizes the importance of respiration and other metabolic processes in navigating the transition to more complex life forms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-complexity">Cost of complexity </h2>



Every organism, from the smallest bacterium to a human, is driven by energy. Having an entire body made of only one cell reduces the need for energy and nutrients to grow and reproduce. 



But multicellular organisms, like plants, animals, and fungi, have to maintain a multitude of cells in complex tissues, organs and structures. And this places a far higher energy demand on the organism.



As the cell count increases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organism</a>, so does the demand on ATP synthase, the molecular machinery in cells that manufactures ATP, the universal energy currency. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1s.webp" alt="A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś" class="wp-image-1950209"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś</figcaption></figure>



Each new cell in a multicellular body is another mouth to feed in terms of energy, and the cost increases with the number of cells.



The findings of the Daphnia study show that metazoans - the group that includes multicellular creatures - need a lot more ATP synthase complexes in each cell than their simpler, unicellular counterparts.



In fact, for every increment in body mass, these organisms require 30 to 50 times more oxygen than simpler, unicellular creatures. This additional oxygen supports the complex needs for metabolism, cellular communication, and tissue maintenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-comes-at-a-price">Size comes at a price</h2>



Growth isn't cheap, particularly for multicellular organisms. 



While larger, unicellular organisms, like some amoebas, become more efficient as they grow, multicellular organisms face unique challenges that require extra energy to sustain their larger sizes and more complex structures.



Given this steep energy price, why did multicellularity evolve at all? 



The answer seems to be that multicellular life offers evolutionary advantages, such as being able to consume unicellular organisms en masse, evade predators, and live in various environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-energy-barriers">Overcoming energy barriers</h2>



To surmount the energetic challenges presented by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-snowball-earth-conditions-drove-evolution-complex-multicellular-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>, organisms have developed remarkable adaptations to utilize their resources efficiently. 



One key adaptation is the division of labor between specialized cells, tissues, and organs; this specialization allows for optimized energy usage where cells perform distinct functions more efficiently than they would if they had to carry out all the different life activities.



For example, mitochondria within eukaryotic cells have evolved highly efficient pathways to generate ATP, thus maximizing the energy harvested from different substrates.



Furthermore, the development of vascular systems in plants and circulatory systems in animals allows for the effective distribution of energy resources, and ensures that all cells have access to the oxygen and nutrients necessary to produce energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-boring-billion">Implications of the "boring billion"</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary narrative of the "boring billion" holds powerful implications for modern scientific research. 



This era not only reflects the energy-centric challenges of the past but also informs the fields of synthetic biology, evolutionary biology, and bioengineering.



By studying the metabolic pathways and energy efficiencies developed during this period, researchers can potentially design bio-inspired systems and organisms with enhanced functionalities and sustainability.



Furthermore, insights gained from this epoch's evolutionary innovations could pioneer future advancements in medical therapies, agriculture, and ecosystem management. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This study primarily focuses on aerobic, animal-like organisms. But there's a vast and varied spectrum of life out there, including plants and fungi, and the researchers plan to extend their investigations to these life forms. 



Future insights could shed light on why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life forms</a> took a considerable time to appear and diversify on our planet.



Multicellular life has high energy demands and this study suggests that the constraints of bioenergy could be a universal phenomenon that is applicable to any carbon-based, oxygen-breathing life, no matter where it exists in the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2414742121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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'Boring billion' wasn’t a dull period, it fueled a shift to complex life

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms. Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us. Energy: Fuel for evolution The boring billion...

Artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming our understanding of climate change, particularly about how global warming influences extreme weather events.



Unprecedented heatwaves have scorched the United States and other parts of the globe in recent years, highlighting the urgent need for accurate methods to measure this impact.



Scientists have been on a relentless search for ways to quantify the influence of global warming on these extreme phenomena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-uncovers-global-warming-s-impact">AI uncovers global warming's impact</h2>



Now, a game-changing methodology has emerged from a collaborative study at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> and <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a>. 



The innovative approach leverages AI to rapidly and cost-effectively determine how much global warming has contributed to recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-are-fueling-more-extreme-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heatwaves</a> in the U.S. and beyond.



This method could revolutionize climate change studies. It also holds significant potential for guiding adaptation strategies. Additionally, it supports legal actions related to climate-induced damages.



“We’ve seen the impacts that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a> events can have on human health, infrastructure, and ecosystems,” said study lead author Jared Trok, a PhD student in Earth system science at the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability. 



“To design effective solutions, we need to better understand the extent to which global warming drives changes in these extreme events.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-efficient-low-cost-prediction-method">Efficient, low-cost prediction method </h2>



The concerted efforts of researchers from Stanford and Colorado State University have resulted in an efficient, low-cost method for studying the impact of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> on individual extreme weather events. The intriguing element is the use of artificial intelligence in their methodology.



“We’ve shown that machine learning is a powerful and efficient new tool for studying the impact of global warming on historical weather events,” said Trok. 



“We hope that this study helps promote future research into using AI to improve our understanding of how human emissions influence extreme weather, helping us better prepare for future extreme events.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-levels-of-global-warming">Varying levels of global warming</h2>



Trok and his co-authors trained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-gives-air-quality-forecasts-that-are-similar-to-weather-forecasts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI models</a> to predict daily maximum temperatures based on regional weather conditions and the global mean temperature. 



For training the AI models, they utilized an extensive database of climate model simulations extending from 1850 to 2100. 



Once trained and verified, the AI models were tested with real-world weather conditions from specific heatwaves to predict the severity of these events under varying levels of global warming. 



This innovative application of AI allowed the researchers to estimate how climate change influenced the frequency and severity of historical weather events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-a-case-texas-heat-wave-of-2023">Making a case: Texas heat wave of 2023</h2>



The first case study for this groundbreaking method was the Texas heatwave in 2023, which led to a record number of heat-related deaths in the state that year. 



The results? Global warming increased the severity of the heatwave by 1.18 to 1.42 degrees Celsius (2.12 to 2.56 Fahrenheit). 



The researchers also found that their new technique accurately predicted the magnitude of record-setting heatwaves in other parts of the world, and the results were consistent with previously published studies of those events.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-help-save-mangrove-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Machine learning</a> creates a powerful new bridge between the actual meteorological conditions that cause a specific extreme weather event and the climate models that enable us to run more generalized virtual experiments on the Earth system,” said study senior author Professor Noah Diffenbaugh.



“AI hasn’t solved all the scientific challenges, but this new method is a really exciting advance that I think will get adopted for a lot of different applications.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-the-unpredictable">Predicting the unpredictable</h2>



Using this AI tool, researchers took a step further into the future. They concluded that similar weather patterns could lead to recurring severe heatwaves if global temperatures rise to 2.0°C above pre-industrial levels. 



Global warming is currently inching towards 1.3°C above pre-industrial standards. Events similar to some of the worst heatwaves in Europe, Russia, and India over the past 45 years could happen multiple times per decade under these conditions.



The new AI method addresses some limitations of existing approaches – including those previously developed at Stanford – by using actual historical weather data when predicting the effect of global warming on extreme events. 



The technique does not require expensive new climate model simulations because the AI can be trained using existing simulations.



Together, these innovations will enable accurate, low-cost analyses of extreme events in more parts of the world, which is crucial for developing effective climate adaptation strategies. The research also opens up new possibilities for fast, real-time analysis of the contribution of global warming to extreme weather.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-ai-in-meteorology">The future of AI in meteorology</h2>



The team plans to extend the application of this method to a broader range of extreme weather events and fine-tune their AI networks for more accurate predictions. 



“We’ve shown that machine learning is a powerful and efficient new tool for studying the impact of global warming on historical weather events,” said Trok. 



“We hope that this study helps promote future research into using AI to improve our understanding of how human emissions influence extreme weather, helping us better prepare for future extreme events.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl3242" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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AI predicts global warming's impact on extreme weather

Artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming our understanding of climate change,...

Imagine a camera so powerful that it operates at attosecond speed, which is one quintillionth of a second! The world's newest, fastest microscope can capture the motion of an electron -- a particle so fast it could circle the Earth several times in just one second. 



This is not just a fantasy; it’s the new reality achieved by researchers at the University of Arizona. They developed the world's fastest electron microscope, a tool that promises to open new doors in the fields of physics, chemistry, bioengineering, materials sciences, and beyond.



Mohammed Hassan, an associate professor of physics and optical sciences, is at the helm of this project. 



"This transmission electron microscope is like a very powerful camera in the latest version of smartphones; it allows us to take pictures of things we were not able to see before -- like electrons," Hassan explains. 



With this innovative tool, Hassan and his team hope to help the scientific community delve deeper into the quantum physics that govern electron behavior and movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transmission-electron-microscopes">Transmission electron microscopes</h2>



Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) have long been a staple in scientific research. These devices can magnify objects up to millions of times their actual size, revealing details far beyond the capabilities of traditional light microscopes. 



Instead of using visible light, TEMs direct beams of electrons through a sample. The interaction between these electrons and the sample generates detailed images, captured by a camera sensor.



The principle of ultrafast electron microscopy, which uses a laser to generate pulsed beams of electrons, was first developed in the early 2000s. 



This method significantly enhanced the temporal resolution of microscopes -- their ability to observe changes in a sample over time. 



Unlike conventional cameras where image quality depends on the shutter speed, in a TEM, the resolution is determined by the duration of the electron pulses. The shorter the pulse, the clearer the image.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attosecond-electron-pulses">Attosecond electron pulses</h2>



Even with these advancements, there was still a gap in capturing the most fleeting moments of electron behavior. Previous ultrafast electron microscopes operated with electron pulses at speeds of a few attoseconds -- an attosecond being one quintillionth of a second. 



These pulses could produce a series of images, much like frames in a movie, but scientists were still missing the minute changes in electron behavior that occur between these frames.



To overcome this limitation, Hassan and his team achieved a significant breakthrough by generating a single attosecond electron pulse. This pulse is as fast as the electron’s own movement, allowing the microscope to capture these elusive particles in a freeze-frame. 



This achievement enhances the microscope's temporal resolution, making it akin to a high-speed camera that can capture movements invisible to the naked eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-on-nobel-winning-research">Building on Nobel-Winning Research</h2>



This innovation didn’t emerge from a vacuum; it builds on the Nobel Prize-winning work of Pierre Agostini, Ferenc Krausz, and Anne L’Huillière, who were recognized in 2023 for generating the first extreme ultraviolet radiation pulse measured in attoseconds. 



Hassan’s team took this concept further by creating a microscope that splits a powerful laser into two components: a fast electron pulse and two ultra-short light pulses.



The first light pulse, known as the "pump pulse," injects energy into the sample, causing electrons to move or undergo rapid changes. 



The second light pulse, the "optical gating pulse," acts as a gate, creating a brief window in which the single attosecond electron pulse is generated. 



The speed of this gating pulse dictates the resolution of the image. By precisely synchronizing these pulses, researchers can capture ultrafast processes at the atomic level.



"The improvement of the temporal resolution inside of electron microscopes has been long anticipated and the focus of many research groups -- because we all want to see the electron motion," says Hassan. 



"These movements happen in attoseconds. But now, for the first time, we are able to attain attosecond temporal resolution with our electron transmission microscope -- and we coined it 'attomicroscopy.' For the first time, we can see pieces of the electron in motion."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-attosecond-electron-microscopy">Significance of attosecond electron microscopy</h2>



The implications of this breakthrough are profound. Understanding electron behavior is fundamental to many scientific fields. 



In chemistry, for instance, it could lead to new insights into how atoms bond and interact, paving the way for novel chemical reactions and materials. 



In bioengineering, this technology could offer a closer look at biological processes, potentially leading to new treatments for diseases.



Moreover, in the field of materials science, attomicroscopy might reveal how materials behave under stress or change at the atomic level, leading to the development of stronger, more resilient materials. 



The ability to observe these processes in real-time could drive innovations in technology and medicine that were previously out of reach.



The development of the world’s fastest electron microscope is a leap forward in our ability to observe and understand the fundamental building blocks of the universe. Kudos to Mohammed Hassan and his brilliant team!



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Hassan led a team of researchers in the departments of physics and optical sciences that published the research article "Attosecond electron microscopy and diffraction" in the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp5805" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances journal</a>. 



Hassan worked alongside Nikolay Golubev, assistant professor of physics; Dandan Hui, co-lead author and former research associate in optics and physics who now works at the Xi'an Institute of Optics and Precision Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Husain Alqattan, co-lead author, U of A alumnus and assistant professor of physics at Kuwait University; and Mohamed Sennary, a graduate student studying optics and physics.



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Watching electrons move in attoseconds with the world’s fastest microscope

Imagine a camera so powerful that it operates at attosecond...

Lunar exploration has long been a focal point for scientists, and with the dream of human habitation on the Moon becoming more tangible, finding sustainable resources has become more critical than ever. 



Water, a vital component for survival, has been at the center of this quest, driving extensive research into innovative ways to secure it on the lunar surface. A dedicated research team has now brought us closer to realizing this ambitious goal. 



The team was led by Professor WANG Junqiang at the Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering (NIMTE) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).



The researchers have developed a pioneering strategy for large-scale water production on the Moon, utilizing a unique chemical reaction between lunar regolith and endogenous hydrogen to extract usable water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-lunar-regolith-into-water">Turning lunar regolith into water</h2>



“We used lunar regolith samples brought back by the Chang’E-5 mission in our study, trying to find a way to produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-water-reservoir-found-on-the-moons-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water on the Moon</a>,” said Professor WANG, emphasizing the importance of using authentic lunar material to ensure the reliability of their findings.



The experiments demonstrated that by heating the lunar regolith above 1,200 K with specially designed concave mirrors, one gram of molten lunar regolith could generate between 51 to 76 mg of water.



This implies that one ton of lunar regolith could produce more than 50 kg of water, equivalent to about a hundred 500-ml bottles of drinking water. 



Such a quantity would be sufficient to provide enough <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-moon-volcanoes-may-provide-astronauts-with-drinking-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a> for approximately 50 people for an entire day, highlighting the practicality of this method for sustaining human life on the lunar surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-mineral-for-lunar-water-production">Key mineral for lunar water production</h2>



In addition to these findings, the researchers identified lunar ilmenite (FeTiO3) as a critical mineral for water extraction.



This mineral, abundant in the lunar regolith, was shown to contain the highest amount of solar wind-implanted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-water-reservoir-found-on-the-moons-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen</a> among the primary minerals present on the Moon. 



Its unique lattice structure, which features sub-nanometer tunnels, allows it to store significant amounts of hydrogen, which can then be released and used to produce water when the regolith is heated. 



These groundbreaking discoveries emphasize the immense potential of utilizing in-situ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-moon-soil-lunar-regolith-space-debris-into-building-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources on the Moon</a>, not only for drinking water but also for other essential life-supporting functions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustaining-life-on-the-moon">Sustaining life on the moon</h2>



The water generated through this innovative method could also be electrochemically decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen, providing both a renewable energy source and breathable air for future lunar inhabitants. 



This process is vital for the long-term sustainability of human life on the Moon, making it possible to establish self-sufficient lunar bases. 



The research by Professor WANG’s team opens new doors for lunar water exploration, setting the stage for the construction of permanent lunar research stations.



The work brings us one step closer to making the dream of sustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grow-plants-on-moon-by-2026-nasa-artemis-iii-mission/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar habitation</a> a reality, demonstrating that with the right technology and approach, life beyond Earth is not just a distant fantasy but an achievable future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-water-production">Beyond water production</h2>



The implications of this water extraction method extend far beyond just providing drinking water and breathable oxygen for astronauts. By efficiently harvesting water from lunar regolith, this approach can support various aspects of long-term lunar colonization.



For instance, the extracted water can be used to grow plants in lunar greenhouses, providing a sustainable food source and enhancing the quality of life for future lunar inhabitants. 



This not only ensures self-sufficiency but also reduces the need to transport large quantities of supplies from Earth, significantly cutting down costs and logistical challenges.



Additionally, the capability to split water into hydrogen and oxygen on the Moon opens up new avenues for energy production. 



Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells to generate electricity, powering lunar habitats, scientific instruments, and exploration vehicles. The oxygen produced can be used to support human respiration and to create a safer living environment.



These developments could lead to the establishment of a more permanent human presence on the Moon, and lay the groundwork for future missions to Mars and beyond.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.xinn.2024.100690" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Innovation</a>.



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Chinese scientists have harvested water from lunar soil

Lunar exploration has long been a focal point for scientists,...

If you've been sensing something feverish about the Earth recently, you're far from alone. The symptoms of climate change are alarmingly clear, and worsening every year. The climate report for the year 2023 was no respite, echoing this fevered sentiment.



Escalating sea levels, record-smashing temperatures, swelling greenhouse gas levels, and a spike in extreme weather calamities are just the tip of the proverbial iceberg.



If you're looking for a hard evidence suitcase, the 34th annual State of the Climate report is your go-to resource, packed with a comprehensive international review of climate indicators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-annual-climate-report-issued">Alarming annual climate report issued</h2>



The annual international review of the world’s climate, led by scientists from NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information (<a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NCEI</a>) and published by the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society (<a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/bams-overview.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BAMS</a>), brings together nearly 600 scientists from 60 countries.



It offers a comprehensive update on Earth’s climate indicators, key weather events, and other data collected from monitoring stations and instruments on land, water, ice, and even in space.



“The BAMS State of the Climate report is the product of an international effort to more fully understand global climate conditions in 2023,” said NCEI Director Derek Arndt. “This report documents and shares a startling, but well established picture.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-climate-change">Global climate change </h2>



The year 2023 hoisted some discomforting 'first-place' flags - greenhouse gas accumulation, land and sea temperatures, the global sea level, and oceanic heat content; they all reached new all-time highs.



Here are the stats to take note of: the annual global surface temperature registered an increase of 0.99 to 1.08 degrees F (0.55 to 0.60 degrees C) against the 1991–2020 baseline. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-records-shatter-2024-set-to-be-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature spike</a> makes 2023 the warmest year since record-keeping began in the 19th century, toppling 2016 from its reigning pedestal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-record-warmth">Decoding the record warmth</h2>



But what's heating up our home planet to this extent? The transition from La Nina conditions early in 2023 to a potent El Nino witnessed sea surface temperatures ascend to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-make-your-hometown-feel-like-somewhere-else/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record levels</a>. 



From June through December, every month shattered previous warmth records. On August 22, 2023, a staggering globally averaged daily sea-surface temperature of 66.18 degrees F (18.99 degrees C) was clocked.



Making matters less cozy, the atmospheric big three - carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide - reached unprecedented spikes. 



Over the prior decade, the annual global mean CO2 growth skyrocketed, averaging 2.5 parts per million (ppm) per year, a steep climb from the 0.6 ± 0.1 ppm per year rise in the early 1960s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-rippling-effect">Climate change rippling effect</h2>



The repercussions from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-days-getting-longer-rotation-slows-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolving climate landscape</a> are strikingly clear. Extreme weather episodes are increasingly becoming the new normal. From scorching heatwaves to harsh droughts to wild fires blazing across the globe. 



In Canada, approximately 37 million acres were scorched during the late spring and record-warm summer, forcing nearly 232,000 people to evacuate their homes.



Europe and Australia's Northern Territory were no exceptions, experiencing their largest wildfire since 2000 and long-lasting bushfires, respectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-alarm-and-antarctic-anxiety">Arctic alarm and Antarctic anxiety</h2>



The polar frontiers weren't exempted from the heat wave either. The Arctic posted its fourth warmest year, while Antarctic sea ice levels slumped to new record lows throughout 2023. 



The Arctic ice, particularly multiyear ice (ice that survives at least one summer melt season), is melting at a frighteningly rapid pace. Since 2012, the Arctic has been nearly devoid of ice older than four years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyclones-decelerate">Cyclones decelerate </h2>



In an unexpected turn of events, the year 2023 saw below-average tropical cyclone activity, reporting a total of 82 named storms. 



While this might suggest a quieter season, it's crucial not to let the statistics create a false sense of security.



Among these 82 cyclones, a noteworthy seven escalated their intensity, reaching the formidable Category 5 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale. 



This category signifies winds of 157 mph or higher, indicating that these storms were exceptionally powerful and destructive. 



Such intensity can lead to catastrophic impacts on coastal communities, emphasizing the importance of preparedness, awareness, and respect for the unpredictable nature of weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-damage-dossier">Climate damage dossier</h2>



The live-action drama of climate change is far from a pleasure watch. However, it's a reality we cannot shirk. 



This yearly report serves as an indispensable guide in our fight, chronicling the evolving facades of our planet with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capable-countries-must-take-the-lead-on-climate-goals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comprehensive climate overview</a>.



Reflecting on the 2023 State of the Climate Report, it's abundantly clear that our actions bear consequences. 



"We are experiencing a warming world as I speak, and the indicators and impacts are seen throughout the planet," stated NCEI Director, Derek Arndt.



To put it plainly, Earth is running a high fever, and we're the ones who cranked up the thermostat. Now, it's up to us to take the necessary steps to dial it down. So, the question that remains is - are we ready?



<a href="https://www.ametsoc.org/index.cfm/ams/publications/bulletin-of-the-american-meteorological-society-bams/state-of-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The full State of the Climate Report 2023</a> is readily accessible online as published by the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.



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Record-high temperatures, greenhouse gases, and sea-level rise reached in 2023

If you've been sensing something feverish about the Earth recently,...

Have you ever considered how a python, after possibly months without feeding, can consume something larger than itself without any adverse effects? 



The answer lies in an extraordinary process that scientists from CU Boulder have been investigating.



In the first 24 hours after a python devours its massive prey, its heart grows by 25%, its cardiac tissue softens dramatically, and the organ squeezes harder and harder to more than double its pulse.



Meanwhile, a vast collection of specialized genes kicks into action to help boost the snake’s metabolism forty-fold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-larger-and-stronger-heart">Larger and stronger heart </h2>



Remarkably, once the feast has been fully digested – usually within two weeks – the python's biological systems revert back to normal, with the heart slightly larger and stronger than before.



This extraordinary process has been described by CU Boulder researchers this week in the journal PNAS. 



The python's ability to strengthen its heart could ultimately inspire novel treatments for a host of modern-day ailments that the monstrous snakes seem to miraculously resist.



For example, the python's cardiac transformation process could inspire treatments for cardiac fibrosis - a common human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-genetic-condition-may-offer-protection-from-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart condition</a> characterized by the stiffening of heart tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-implications-for-human-health">Potential implications for human health </h2>



The fascinating journey of transformation in the python isn't just an amazing spectacle, but potentially a key to unlock revolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snake-venom-may-be-key-to-treating-high-blood-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapies for various human ailments</a>.



“Pythons can go months or even a year in the wild without eating and then consume something greater than their own body mass, yet nothing bad happens to them,” said senior author Leslie Leinwand, professor of molecular, cellular, and developmental biology at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a> and chief scientific officer of the BioFrontiers Institute. 



“We believe they possess mechanisms that protect their hearts from things that would be harmful to humans. This study goes a long way toward mapping out what those are.”



With almost twenty years spent observing pythons, Leinwand’s lab remains one of the few places in the world exploring these creatures with the aim of enhancing human health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-pythons">Learning from pythons</h2>



As much as 20 feet long, depending on the species, pythons are typically found in resource-scarce regions of Africa, South Asia, and Australia. They fast for extended periods, but when they do have the opportunity to eat, they can swallow a deer whole.



"Most people who use animal models to study disease and health typically focus on rats and mice, but there is a lot to learn from animals like pythons that have evolved ways to survive in extreme environments,” noted Leinwand.



Heart growth in humans can be classified into two categories: healthy (with endurance exercise) and unhealthy (stemming from disease). Interestingly, pythons exhibit the kind of healthy heart growth we see in elite athletes.



Leinwand's previous work has shown that about a week to 10 days after a meal, a python's heart significantly increases in size, its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increased-heart-rate-makes-us-feel-time-passing-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart rate</a> doubles, and its bloodstream becomes laden with circulating fats. Surprisingly, these fats nourish rather than damage their heart tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-python-s-eating-habits-and-heart-health">Python's eating habits and heart health</h2>



Through their most recent study, the CU Boulder team sought to further understand this phenomenon. The researchers fed pythons who had fasted for 28 days a meal of 25% of their body weight and compared them to snakes who had not been fed.



The experts discovered that as the well-fed snakes’ hearts grew, specialized bundles of cardiac muscle called myofibrils - that help the heart expand and contract - radically softened, and contracted with roughly 50% greater force.



In addition, the well-fed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/move-over-burmese-pythons-these-snakes-are-the-true-eating-champions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a> exhibited profound epigenetic differences compared to those who had fasted, particularly in terms of which genes were activated or inactivated. 



It is speculated that some of these genes might encourage the python's heart to use fat instead of sugar for fuel - a key process which diseased human hearts struggle to accomplish. Further research is required to identify the exact genes and metabolites involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-potential-of-nature-inspired-therapies">The potential of nature-inspired therapies</h2>



Looking beyond the heart, stiff or fibrotic tissues can also drive diseases in other human organs, such as the lungs and liver. Therefore, lessons learned from pythons can potentially extend to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finasteride-regrows-hair-heals-prostate-boosts-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatments</a> for these organs as well.



“We found that the python heart is basically able to radically remodel itself, becoming much less stiff and much more energy efficient, in just 24 hours,” stated Leinwand. "If we can map out how the python does this and harness it to use therapeutically in people, it would be extraordinary."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2322726121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Pythons can make their heart stronger, and we need to know how

Have you ever considered how a python, after possibly months...

Aging is an inevitable part of life, shaping our physical and mental well-being as we journey through the years. 



Over the centuries, the institution of marriage has been both revered for its emotional support and scrutinized for its complex dynamics.



Today, a fascinating new study adds yet another dimension to marriage's significance: its potential role in promoting optimal aging, particularly in men.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matrimony-and-optimal-aging">Matrimony and optimal aging </h2>



A recent Canadian research project has come up with some interesting findings related to matrimony and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-may-speed-up-aging-in-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging process</a>. The study examined over 7,000 individuals, predominantly middle-aged and older, for approximately three years.



"This study investigates the prevalence of successful aging among older Canadians who were never married, divorced, separated, or widowed and the sex differences of trajectories of marital status on successful aging in the Canadian context," noted the researchers.



The results were eye-opening. Men who were either married or got married during the study period were twice as likely to experience optimal aging compared to their never-married counterparts.



In contrast, among women, respondents who had never been married were found to age optimally compared to those who experienced widowhood or divorce during the research period. Intriguingly, the researchers found no significant difference in optimal aging between married and never-married women.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimal-aging-in-men-and-women">Optimal aging in men and women </h2>



Study lead author Mabel Ho is a recent doctoral graduate from the <a href="https://socialwork.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto’s Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work</a> (FIFSW) and the Institute of Life Course and Aging.



"Little is known about the relationship between marital trajectories in old age and successful aging. Our goal was to see whether different marital trajectories were associated with physical health and well-being, and whether these relationships varied for men and women," said Ho. 



The concept of optimal aging, as defined by the researchers, involves an absence of any serious physical, cognitive, mental, or emotional conditions that inhibit daily activities. 



Moreover, it incorporates high levels of self-reported happiness, robust physical health, and sound mental health. 



The study focused on the top 40% of participants who were earmarked as successfully aging at the onset of the study.



"Previous studies have shown that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/want-a-happier-marriage-try-the-loving-talk-you-use-with-your-dog/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marriage</a> is associated with better health outcomes for both men and women, while men who were never married generally had the poorest health outcomes," said study co-author Professor David Burnes.



He suggests that the mutual encouragement between spouses to pursue positive health behaviors can be a driving factor behind this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-connections-and-healthy-aging">Social connections and healthy aging</h2>



The study highlights the significance of social connections and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eight-healthy-lifestyle-habits-could-extend-your-life-by-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyle</a> factors in aging optimally. Senior adults who had regular contact with family, friends, and neighbors were more likely to age optimally compared to their socially isolated peers.



Similarly, maintaining a healthy body weight, staying physically active, eschewing insomnia, and abstaining from smoking were pivotal in fostering optimal health during the twilight years.



Eleanor Pullenayegum, a senior scientist at The Hospital for Sick Children (SickKids), noted the importance of regular social interaction, especially in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-drops-in-middle-adulthood-but-then-grows-with-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">old age</a>.



"Having regular contact with relatives, friends and neighbors can help older adults feel connected, reduce their sense of loneliness, and improve their overall well-being," said Pullenayegum.



Senior author Esme Fuller-Thomson, director of the Institute for Life Course &amp; Aging at FIFSW, emphasized the importance of sticking to healthy habits such as quitting smoking.



"In our study, those who were former smokers were much more likely to be aging optimally than those who continued to smoke," said Fuller-Thomson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-supportive-environments-for-everyone">Creating supportive environments for everyone</h2>



The study highlights the need to consider sex-specific differences when developing programs and services for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-impairs-memory-in-older-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older adults</a>.



"Our findings can inform the development of programs and services to engage and support older adults, particularly those who were never married or experienced widowhood, separation, and divorce in later life," said Ho.



The study paves the way for further investigations and potential policy changes that can help us create environments where everyone, irrespective of their marital status, can age optimally.



"Additional research is needed to illuminate the causal pathways between marital trajectories and successful aging, and to further clarify the implications of this research for gerontological social work practice," concluded the researchers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00208728241267791" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Social Work</a>.



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Men who are married are more likely to achieve optimal aging

Aging is an inevitable part of life, shaping our physical...

New research from Northwestern University has demonstrated that a mild electrical current can significantly strengthen marine coastlines, providing a potential long-term solution to combat sand erosion caused by climate change and rising sea levels.



In this study, the researchers were inspired by marine organisms like clams and mussels, which use dissolved minerals in seawater to build their shells.&nbsp;



The researchers applied a similar concept, using naturally occurring dissolved minerals to create a natural cement between grains of sand, transforming them into a rock-like solid. However, instead of using metabolic energy as mollusks do, they used electrical energy to trigger the chemical reaction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combating-sand-erosion-with-electricity">Combating sand erosion with electricity </h2>



Laboratory experiments showed that a mild electrical current instantly altered the structure of marine sand, making it a solid, immovable material. The researchers believe this method could offer a sustainable, low-cost solution for reinforcing coastlines around the world.



Study senior author Alessandro Rotta Loria is a civil and environmental engineer at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern</a>. 



“Over 40% of the world’s population lives in coastal areas. Because of climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea-level rise</a>, erosion is an enormous threat to these communities,” said Rotta Loria.



“Through the disintegration of infrastructure and loss of land, erosion causes billions of dollars in damage per year worldwide. Current approaches to mitigate erosion involve building protection structures or injecting external binders into the subsurface.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strengthening-the-coast-without-structures">Strengthening the coast without structures</h2>



Rotta Loria said that his goal was to develop an approach capable of changing the status quo in coastal protection - one that didn’t require the construction of protection structures and could cement marine substrates without using actual cement.&nbsp;



“By applying a mild electric stimulation to marine soils, we systematically and mechanistically proved that it is possible to cement them by turning naturally dissolved minerals in seawater into solid mineral binders - a natural cement.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-coastal-sand-erosion">The rise of coastal sand erosion</h2>



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/burdens-of-climate-change-sea-level-rise-and-the-risk-of-isolation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> intensifies storms and raises sea levels, coastal erosion is becoming a more severe problem. According to a 2020 <a href="https://nature.com/articles/s41558-020-0697-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> by the European Commission’s Joint Research Center, nearly 26% of the Earth’s beaches could disappear by the end of this century.



Communities typically respond to this threat by building sea walls or injecting cement into the ground to strengthen the sandy marine substrates. However, these conventional methods have significant downsides: they are extremely expensive and often fail to last.



“Sea walls, too, suffer from erosion. So, over time, the sand beneath these walls erodes, and the walls can eventually collapse. Oftentimes, protection structures are made of big stones, which cost millions of dollars per mile. However, the sand beneath them can essentially liquify because of a number of environmental stressors, and these big rocks are swallowed by the ground beneath them,” said Rotta Loria.



“Injecting cement and other binders into the ground has a number of irreversible environmental drawbacks. It also typically requires high pressures and significant interconnected amounts of energy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solutions-inspired-by-nature">Solutions inspired by nature</h2>



To avoid these problems, Rotta Loria and his team developed a new technique inspired by coral and mollusks. Seawater is naturally rich in ions and dissolved minerals, and when a mild electrical current (two to three volts) is applied, it triggers chemical reactions that convert some of these constituents into solid calcium carbonate, the same mineral that mollusks use to build their shells.&nbsp;



A slightly higher voltage (four volts) can convert these constituents into magnesium hydroxide and hydromagnesite, common minerals found in various stones.



When these minerals form in the presence of sand, they act like glue, binding the sand particles together. In lab tests, the process worked with all types of sands, from common silica and calcareous sands to iron sands, which are often found near volcanoes.



“After being treated, the sand looks like a rock,” Rotta Loria said. “It is still and solid, instead of granular and incohesive. The minerals themselves are much stronger than concrete, so the resulting sand could become as strong and solid as a sea wall.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-protection-for-coastlines-nbsp">Long-term protection for coastlines&nbsp;</h2>



The minerals form instantaneously once the current is applied, but longer electrical stimulation produces more substantial results. “We have noticed remarkable outcomes from just a few days of stimulations,” he added. “Then, the treated sand should stay in place, without needing further interventions.”



The treated sand is expected to maintain its durability for decades, providing long-term protection for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-erosion-is-picking-up-speed-across-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastlines</a>. The process is also eco-friendly and reversible. The mild voltages used in the process are harmless to sea life, and the process can be undone if necessary by switching the battery’s anode and cathode, which dissolves the minerals.



“The minerals form because we are locally raising the pH of the seawater around cathodic interfaces,” Rotta Loria explained. “If you switch the anode with the cathode, then localized reductions in pH are involved, which dissolve the previously precipitated minerals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-cost-more-protection-nbsp">Less cost, more protection&nbsp;</h2>



This method offers a cost-effective alternative to traditional erosion control methods. Rotta Loria’s team estimates that their process costs just $3 to $6 per cubic meter of electrically cemented ground, compared to up to $70 for similar methods that use binders.



This approach also shows promise for repairing cracked structures made of reinforced concrete, commonly found in existing shoreside infrastructure that is deteriorating due to sea-level rise, sand erosion, and extreme weather. A single pulse of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-generate-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electricity</a> could heal potentially destructive cracks without the need to rebuild the entire structure.



“The applications of this approach are countless. We can use it to strengthen the seabed beneath sea walls or stabilize sand dunes and retain unstable soil slopes. We could also use it to strengthen protection structures, marine foundations, and so many other things. There are many ways to apply this to protect coastal areas,” Rotta Loria concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01604-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Fighting coastal erosion: Electricity turns sand into a sea wall

New research from Northwestern University has demonstrated that a mild...

Billions of years ago, our Moon was a seething, tumultuous body of liquid molten rock. Molten rock, also known as magma, then slowly solidified to form the Moon's surface. 



This is a hypothesis scientists call the 'Lunar Magma Ocean' theory. The recent Chandrayaan-3 mission, by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), uncovered evidence supporting this theory.



The remnants of this magma ocean were found on an uncharted territory -- the Moon's South Pole. This once enigmatic and isolated region has been explored for the first time by the Chandrayaan-3 mission -- a historic achievement in humankind's lunar exploration saga.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chandrayaan-3-and-the-moon-s-surface">Chandrayaan-3 and the Moon's surface</h2>



As the Moon began to cool down, a lighter mineral called ferroan anorthosite floated to the surface. 



This mineral forms when magma cools down, and it essentially became the artist that sculpted the Moon's surface. The <a href="https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3_Details.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandrayaan-3</a> team found evidence of this ferroan anorthosite at the South pole.



“The theory of early evolution of the Moon becomes much more robust in the light of our observations,” noted Dr. Santosh Vadawale from the Physical Research Laboratory, co-author of the paper about these discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mission-control-and-the-rover-s-journey">Mission control and the rover’s journey</h2>



Chandrayaan-3's rover, named Pragyaan, took us where none had been before. 



“They were really exciting times. Sitting in the control room, moving the rover around on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/contact-lost-with-chandrayaan-3-placing-the-moon-mission-in-jeopardy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar surface</a> -- that was really a once-in-a-lifetime experience,” says Prof Vadawale.



With the celebrated soft landing of Vikram, the spacecraft carrying Pragyaan, a new chapter began. As Pragyaan navigated the uneven and dusty lunar surface, it was built to withstand dramatic temperature changes. 



All the while, Prof. Vadawale and his colleagues were working tirelessly, guiding Pragyaan on its lunar expedition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-analysis-of-the-moon-s-surface">Scientific analysis of the Moon's surface</h2>



Pragyaan took 23 measurements using an alpha particle X-ray spectrometer. This unique instrument can get atoms excited and then analyze the resulting energy to identify soil minerals. 



But the surprises didn't stop there. The team also found evidence of a massive meteorite crash from four billion years ago. 



They discovered magnesium which they believe had been thrown up from deep inside the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mays-full-moon-will-eclipse-a-giant-red-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> due to this cosmic collision.



“This would have been caused by a big impact of an asteroid, throwing out material from this big basin. In the process, it also excavated a deeper part of the Moon,” said Professor Anil Bhardwaj, director of India’s <a href="https://www.prl.res.in/prl-eng/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Research Laboratory</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chandrayaan-3-s-geological-insights-on-moon">Chandrayaan-3's geological insights on moon</h2>



The findings from Chandrayaan-3 extend beyond mere geological curiosities; they unlock clues about the Moon's tumultuous history and the broader dynamics of our solar system. 



By analysing the lunar surface material, scientists can reconstruct the processes that shaped both the Moon and its interactions with Earth. 



This includes understanding how both celestial bodies influenced each other's geological histories, which is vital for piecing together the narrative of our shared cosmic past. 



As the data continues to be interpreted, the rich tapestry of the Moon’s formative years becomes clearer, providing insight not only into its evolution but also into the environmental conditions prevalent during its infancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-s-surface-shaping-future-exploration">Moon's surface shaping future exploration</h2>



The triumph of Chandrayaan-3 ignites interest in further lunar exploration missions, both by India and other nations. 



The successful landing and operational achievements of Pragyaan in previously uncharted territory highlight the potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-supermoon-blue-moon-will-outshine-and-outsize-all-other-moons-this-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exhilarating discoveries</a> yet to come.



Future missions could focus on more extensive sampling of lunar materials, and even potential human habitation on the Moon, providing a stepping stone for deeper space exploration. 



Collaborations among countries and private enterprises are also on the horizon, fostering a new era of international partnership in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-lunar-earth-flyby-gave-juice-spacecraft-successful-gravity-boost-to-jupiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space science.</a> 



As we look ahead, each revelation from the Moon propels humanity not just towards understanding our celestial neighbor but also paves the way for exploration beyond, to Mars and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chandrayaan-3-a-stepping-stone-for-moon-exploration">Chandrayaan-3: A stepping stone for moon exploration</h2>



This mission's findings are critical steps towards a future dream -- the construction of a human base on the Moon. As Chandrayaan-3 continues to collect data, it also hopes to eventually discover ice water on the South Pole.



<a href="https://www.isro.gov.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISRO</a> plans to continue this exploratory journey with another lunar mission in the coming years. Their hopes hover around collecting more samples from the lunar surface and bringing them back to Earth for thorough analysis.



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Evidence of a magma ocean discovered on the Moon's surface

Billions of years ago, our Moon was a seething, tumultuous...

Adorable,Smiling,Little,Girl,Drinking,Water,In,Kitchen.,Health,And

Are we unwittingly feeding our children the fluoride-laden water of woes? Could the very thing we’ve long hailed as our oral health savior be the silent culprit behind lower IQ scores in children? It appears that we might just be, according to a recent government report.



In a startling revelation that’s stirring up waves, a comprehensive government report suggests that high levels of fluoride in tap water could be linked to decreased IQ scores in children. 



This news is particularly troubling because it involves hundreds of thousands of kids who are drinking tap water that might be chipping away at their intellectual potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluoride-content-in-water">Fluoride content in water</h2>



In what has been noted as one of the most in-depth studies of its kind, the report points the finger at high levels of fluoride consumption as a possible enemy of brain development in youngsters. 



More precisely, scientists found an association between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-from-plastic-bottles-raises-your-blood-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a> with more than 1.5 milligrams of fluoride per liter and a drop of up to five IQ points. Now, that's not just small beer.



To put things into perspective, no less than 1.9 million individuals depend on water systems with fluoride levels above 1.5mg. 



These startling revelations mark the first time a federal agency has acknowledged that there may indeed be a connection between fluoride and IQ.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluoride-and-dental-treatment">Fluoride and dental treatment</h2>



Fluoride has been an active component in the US water supply for years. This was in response to studies demonstrating its role in strengthening teeth and reducing cavities. To many people, it was one of the most outstanding public health achievements of the 20th century.



The fluoride addition to drinking water is estimated to save a whopping $6.5 billion annually in dental treatment costs and cuts down the occurrence of cavities by up to 25 percent, as per the CDC.



However, several counties across Illinois, Texas, New Mexico, and others may soon be hearing the alarm bells ringing loud and clear. Research reveals that fluoride levels in these locations are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-4-4-billion-people-lack-access-to-safe-drinking-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particularly high</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pick-your-poison">Pick your poison</h2>



Let’s put our cards on the table. The safe limit for fluoride, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (<a href="https://www.epa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPA</a>), should not exceed four milligrams per liter, primarily to avoid skeletal fluorosis. 



This disorder can lead to weaker bones, stiffness, and pain. Meanwhile, the World Health Organization claims that the safe limit is approximately 1.5 milligrams of fluoride per liter.



In spite of these guidelines, the controversy over fluoride in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-solution-removes-over-98-percent-of-nanoplastics-from-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water supply</a> has been brewing for years, leading to many communities voting against its use. 



This newest report only adds fuel to the fire, unveiling links between fluoride and anxiety, temper problems, and headaches in children as young as three.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-levels-of-fluoride-in-water">Levels of fluoride in water</h2>



At the helm of this 324-page government report is none other than the <a href="https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Toxicology Program</a>, part of the Department of Health and Human Services. 



As per the numerous studies reviewed in the report, kids exposed to higher levels of fluoride exhibited lower IQ levels, somewhere between 2 to 5 points lower, to be exact.



However, the team was not able to conclude the impact of lower doses of fluoride or its effect on adults.



These findings support previous research from Canada, China, India, Iran, Pakistan, and Mexico, which delivered similar results -- that higher levels of fluoride in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strict-pfas-limits-will-make-drinking-water-safer-for-100-million-americans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a> are linked with lower IQ in children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muddying-the-waters">Muddying the waters</h2>



The study did not mention how many people are on water systems where fluoride is artificially added and where concentrations are above the 1.5 milligrams per liter mark.



Interestingly, fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral in water and soil. However, about 80 years ago, a lightbulb moment happened. 



Scientists discovered that people whose water supplies naturally had more fluoride also had fewer cavities. They believed fluoride was replacing minerals in teeth that were lost due to decay and wear.



Fast forward to today, where about 70 percent of US households have access to fluoridated drinking water. This percentage is considerably higher than in many other nations, including the UK (10 percent), Spain (10 percent), and Canada (40 percent).



This study is a stark reminder that even something as commonplace as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-source-water-exceeds-safe-drinking-limits-of-pfas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a> can have unforeseen repercussions. 



With IQ scores in America falling for the first time in a century, it's time we took a hard look at this fluoride debacle and asked ourselves -- are we doing more harm than good?



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Too much fluoride in tap water might lower kids' IQ by a few points

Are we unwittingly feeding our children the fluoride-laden water of...

The sky tells its own tales with stars as protagonists, planets as supporting characters, and meteor showers and comets as special effects that add sparkle to this cosmic script. 



Now, scientists have uncovered a new plot twist, one with meteors that shines a light on where comets formed in the early solar system.



According to an international team of 45 researchers studying meteor showers, comets don't all disintegrate alike as they approach our Sun. 



In a paper published in the scientific journal Icarus, they attribute these differences to varied conditions within the protoplanetary disk, the birthplace of comets nearly 4.5 billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-showering-new-insights">Showering new insights</h2>



“The meteoroids we see as meteors in the night sky are the size of small pebbles,” said lead author and <a href="https://www.seti.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a> and NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/ames/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ames Research Center</a> meteor astronomer Peter Jenniskens. “They are, in fact, the same size as the pebbles that collapsed into comets during the formation of our solar system.”



Flashback to 4.5 billion years ago, when our solar system was in its infancy, particles in the protoplanetary disk around the young Sun gradually grew from dust to pebbles. 



“Once pebbles grow large enough to no longer travel along with the gas, they are destroyed by mutual collisions before they can grow much bigger,” said <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> Ames planetary scientist and co-author Paul Estrada. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-comets-hidden-near-earth-ice-giants-can-be-both-friend-and-foe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Comets</a> and primitive asteroids instead were formed when clouds of these pebbles locally collapsed into kilometer-sized and larger bodies.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-soaked-comets-and-meteors">Sun-soaked comets and meteors</h2>



Fast forward to present day, and we see comets, as they approach the Sun, crumbling into smaller fragments called meteoroids. 



These meteoroids co-orbit with the comet for a while, and can later delight us with glorious meteor showers when they hit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosol-formation-earths-lower-atmosphere-soas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s atmosphere</a>.



“We hypothesized that comets crumble into the sizes of the pebbles they are made of,” said Jenniskens. 



“In that case, the size distribution and the physical and chemical properties of young meteoroid streams still contain information about the conditions in the protoplanetary disk during this collapse.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worldwide-surveillance">Worldwide surveillance</h2>



Jenniskens and his team of professional and amateur astronomers use special low-light video cameras in a project called "<a href="http://cams.seti.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAMS</a>" – short for Cameras for Allsky Meteor Surveillance.



The team set up networks of these cameras globally to track meteoroids' paths, the height at which they first ignite, and how they slow down in Earth's atmosphere. They also gleaned insights into the chemical composition of some of these meteoroids.



Studying 47 young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-meteor-showers-delta-aquarids-alpha-capricornids-light-up-night-skies-august-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteor showers</a>, they found fascinating differences in the crumbles of two types of comets: Jupiter-family comets from the Scattered Disk of the Kuiper Belt beyond Neptune and long-period comets from the Oort Cloud surrounding our solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-crumbles-for-different-comets">Different crumbles for different comets</h2>



Jenniskens and his team found that long-period comets often crumble into sizes suggesting gentler accretion conditions, while Jupiter-family comets usually crumble into smaller, denser <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-meteor-showers-delta-aquarids-alpha-capricornids-combine-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteoroids</a>, showing more diversity in their content.



So how does this all fit into the grand cosmic story? As the giant planets were growing, Neptune moved outward, scattering comets and asteroids out of the remaining protoplanetary disk. 



This movement likely created both the Scattered Disk of the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud, which host our long-period and Jupiter-family comets, respectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteors-and-comets-solving-the-puzzle">Meteors and comets: Solving the puzzle</h2>



However, this story has some plot holes. If the scattering by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mors-somnus-provides-clues-neptune-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neptune</a> was responsible for creating both types of comets, they should have similar properties.



But our diligent researchers found otherwise, suggesting that the long-period <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/devil-comet-is-visible-in-the-northern-hemisphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a> only survived in their long orbits after the Sun had moved away from the stars and molecular clouds in the Sun’s birth region. 



In contrast, Jupiter-family comets have always been on shorter orbits and represent&nbsp;all&nbsp;objects scattered by Neptune on its outward journey.



Weaving together these complex pieces of our cosmic history, the researchers have shed light not just on the birthplaces of comets, but also on the dynamic and fascinating process that led to the structured, beautiful solar system we call home. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wrapping-up-the-cosmic-journey">Wrapping up the cosmic journey</h2>



So, what's next in this celestial saga? Will there be more plot twists as we unravel the secrets held by meteor showers? 



As the mystery unfolds, one thing is clear: the night sky isn't just a splattering of stars. It's a living, breathing tale of our universe’s past, present, and future.



So, sit back, look up, and enjoy the cosmic show -- it's been billions of years in the making.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103524002896?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Icarus</a>.



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Meteor showers help scientists learn where comets came from

The sky tells its own tales with stars as protagonists,...

A recent study has explored the ecological relationships and evolutionary adaptations of tarantulas, uncovering surprising details about these often-feared spiders. 



The research revealed that tarantulas frequently form mutually beneficial partnerships with various species, including amphibians, reptiles, and even army ants - predators typically known to feed on spiders. 



Notably, the study suggests that the dense hair covering tarantulas may have evolved as a defense mechanism against these predatory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tarantula-partnerships-with-other-species-nbsp">Tarantula partnerships with other species&nbsp;</h2>



An international team of scientists conducted an extensive literature review and examined how tarantulas interact with other species.&nbsp;



This study is the first to report associations between tarantulas and animals such as snakes, whip spiders, and harvestmen. Additionally, the researchers documented over 60 new cases of partnerships between tarantulas and amphibians from ten different countries.



According to the experts, the interactions and even cohabitation between tarantulas and other species are often mutually advantageous.



“Apparently, the frogs and toads that live within the retreats of tarantulas benefit from the shelter and protection against their predators. In turn, they feed on insects that could be harmful to the spider, its eggs, and its juveniles,” said lead author Alireza Zamani, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>, Finland.



“It seems that tarantulas might not be as scary and threatening as their reputation suggests.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-are-tarantulas-so-hairy">Why are tarantulas so hairy?</h2>



One of the most significant insights from the study is the proposal of a new hypothesis regarding why tarantulas are so hairy. The researchers posit that the hirsuteness - or hairiness - of tarantulas may have evolved as a defense mechanism against predatory ants.



“Observations indicate that army ants tend to ignore both adult tarantulas and spiderlings. This is quite interesting, since army ants are known to attack and feed on a wide variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-urbanization-shape-arthropod-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>,” Zamani said.



The study observed that ants interacting with tarantulas would enter the spider’s burrow, gather food remains, and clean the burrow, which benefits the tarantula. Only a few ants attempted to attack the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-turn-to-cannibalism-when-food-sources-are-limited/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a>, but these attacks failed because the tarantulas' legs were protected by a fringe of stiff hairs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-strategies-of-tarantulas-nbsp">Evolutionary strategies of tarantulas&nbsp;</h2>



“The dense hair covering the tarantula's body makes it difficult for the ants to bite or sting the spider. Therefore, we believe that hairiness may have evolved as a defense mechanism,” said Zamani.&nbsp;



This hypothesis is supported by findings that many burrowing New World tarantulas cover their egg sacs with urticating hairs, Zamani noted.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barbed-hairs-for-defense-nbsp">Barbed hairs for defense&nbsp;</h3>



“The tarantulas typically release these barbed hairs as a defense mechanism, deterring and sometimes even killing their attackers. Covering their egg sacs with these hairs, however, effectively hinders the movement of small injurious arthropods, such as ants, that might try to attack the eggs.”



The study also suggests that the hirsuteness of tarantulas could be a trait that is still evolving and may be more developed in certain tarantula species. Spiders with less dense body <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-use-their-hair-to-detect-predators-static-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hair</a> could be more vulnerable to ant attacks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evading-predatory-ants-nbsp">Evading predatory ants&nbsp;</h3>



In addition, the researchers documented a unique escape strategy employed by New World arboreal tarantulas when threatened by ants.



“In a field study in Peru, a female Avicularia hirschii was observed leaving its silken retreat and hanging from the edge of a leaf by the tips of its front legs after sensing the approach of army ants in search of live prey,” Zamani recounted.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defensive-secretions">Defensive secretions</h3>



The scientists also proposed that tarantulas might have another defense strategy involving a previously unknown chemical mechanism. They suggest that tarantulas may possess specialized epidermal glands in their cuticles that could secrete predator-repellent substances.



“This hypothesis is supported by the observation that cats and dogs, animals with highly developed sense of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-have-an-incredible-sense-of-smell-to-find-their-way-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smell</a>, tend to wince and move away after sniffing a tarantula. Tarantulas have slit-like epidermal gland openings of unknown function, which may produce defensive secretions responsible for this reaction,” Zamani said.



While more evidence is needed to confirm the chemical defense mechanism hypothesis, this study represents a significant advancement in understanding the behavior of tarantulas, including their surprising partnerships.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2024.2382404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Natural History</a>.



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Tarantulas have beneficial partnerships with other species

A recent study has explored the ecological relationships and evolutionary...

Did you ever wonder about the flamboyant male peacock spreading its feathers or the distinct colors of a golden snub-nosed monkey? Turns out, these are more than just unique fashion statements. They are essential forms of communication in the animal kingdom, particularly for primates.



According to new research, the captivating features of primates do more than just attract mates or establish social hierarchies. They hold a crucial role in communication between different social groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-signals-for-primate-communication">Critical signals for primate communication</h2>



Researchers from the University of Zurich (<a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UZH</a>) and the University of Western Australia have uncovered an intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-primates-must-prioritize-survival-over-long-term-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">connection</a> between the spectacular features of primates and their social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-unlock-the-mysteries-of-orangutan-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a>.



Stefan Lüpold from the Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies at UZH and Cyril Grueter from the University of Western Australia conducted a study revealing that primate ornamentation aids in intergroup communication. 



The visually striking traits of many primate species - like the golden snub-nosed monkey’s blue face and lip wart - serve as critical signals for communicating with other groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-picture-of-ornamentation">Bigger picture of ornamentation</h2>



The research involved the analysis of data from 144 primate species, both monkeys, and apes. The focus was on how ornamentation relates to the overlap of home ranges - simply put, how much living space groups share with their neighbors. Lüpold and Grueter’s findings unearthed a fascinating pattern.



Species that shared more space with their neighbors showcased greater differences in ornamentation between the sexes. In other words, in species where groups interact more frequently, males are more likely to sport flashy traits that set them apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-aggression-more-primate-communication">Less aggression, more primate communication</h2>



Another interesting finding was that intergroup encounters were less likely to be aggressive in species with greater home range overlap. 



This discovery suggests that vivid physical traits might help to reduce conflict between groups, possibly by allowing them to quickly assess potential rivals from a distance. 



This phenomenon highlights the importance of visual cues in animal behavior and interactions. When species share overlapping territories, the ability to recognize and evaluate rivals can lead to less frequent confrontations.



Unique primate features may serve as signals of strength or fitness, enabling individuals to identify potential threats without escalating to direct conflict, ultimately promoting coexistence within shared habitats. 



Understanding these dynamics can provide valuable insights into the evolutionary adaptations that influence social structures among different species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-efforts">Implications for conservation efforts</h2>



The findings of this study extend beyond mere curiosity about primate behavior; they carry significant implications for conservation strategies. Understanding how ornamentation aids <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-use-specific-names-to-address-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a> can inform approaches to habitat preservation.



For instance, protecting areas where primate groups interact can enhance their social dynamics. 



Additionally, maintaining diversity in these habitats is crucial, as variations in ornamentation could contribute to the resilience of these species in the face of environmental changes. 



By recognizing the importance of visual signals in social interactions, conservationists can better identify environments that support the communication needs of primates, ultimately benefiting biodiversity as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-across-the-primate-kingdom">Communication across the primate kingdom</h2>



This research into primate ornamentation invites comparisons with communication strategies across various species. 



Just as vibrant features in primates signal social information, animals in other taxa also employ visual signals for intergroup interactions.



From the brilliant plumage of birds during mating displays to the elaborate patterns on butterfly wings, the interplay between appearance and communication is a recurring theme in nature. 



Exploring these connections enriches our understanding of animal behavior and evolution, reaffirming the notion that the evolution of visual communication is a critical aspect of the survival of many species.



By examining these phenomena across the animal kingdom, we can further appreciate the intricate tapestry of life that each species weaves through its unique adaptations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-impact">Evolutionary impact</h2>



Challenging the common belief that primate ornamentation is solely focused on mate competition within groups, Lüpold's study emphasizes the impact of the broader social environment on these traits. 



It reveals that social interactions play a crucial role not only within groups but also between them, affecting how ornamental features are developed and perceived. 



This research provides a fresh perspective on the evolution of primate ornamentation, suggesting that these traits may serve multiple functions, including signaling social status and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-who-are-facially-expressive-make-the-best-leaders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">facilitating communication</a> among diverse groups. 



The findings contribute to our understanding of the intricate dynamics of animal communication, showcasing the complexity of social relationships in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



“These findings challenge the common belief that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-primates-struggle-more-with-extreme-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> ornamentation is only about competing for mates within groups,” says Lüpold. “Instead, they highlight the importance of considering the wider social environment in which gregarious animals exist, recognizing the significance of social interactions both within and between groups.”&nbsp;



It looks like humans aren't the only species that values outward appearances for communication. So the next time you see a brightly colored or elaborately ornamented primate, remember, it's not just about looking good. They're communicating messages just as we do - just in a different language.



Who knew that the colorful world of primates had so much to say? The study’s findings are indeed an exciting step forward in understanding animal behavior. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/evlett/advance-article/doi/10.1093/evlett/qrae045/7735307" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution Letters</a>.



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Visually striking primate features ease tension and reduce conflict

Did you ever wonder about the flamboyant male peacock spreading...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...