The analysis of wastewater, or "wastewater surveillance" as it is commonly known, was first used in the 1940s as a tool to monitor polio. In more recent years, wastewater surveillance has become a comprehensive disease monitoring tool.



In fact, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) saw its potential and established the National Wastewater Surveillance System in September 2020, primarily to support monitoring efforts related to SARS-CoV-2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-foodborne-pathogens">Detecting foodborne pathogens</h2>



Now, researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a> and the Pennsylvania Department of Health have demonstrated another promising application for this surveillance tool. 



The research, published in the Journal of Clinical Microbiology, shows that wastewater monitoring can detect foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella enterica.



This discovery stems from samples collected at two wastewater treatment plants in Central Pennsylvania in June 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-polio-to-salmonella">From polio to salmonella</h2>



"Non-typhoidal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-birds-do-not-carry-antibiotic-resistant-salmonella/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salmonella</a> is a common cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, but current surveillance for the disease is suboptimal," explained Nkuchia M'ikanatha, lead epidemiologist at the Pennsylvania Department of Health.



"In this research, we evaluated the utility of wastewater monitoring to enhance surveillance for this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-winds-help-pathogens-spread-on-poultry-farms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foodborne pathogen</a>."



Wastewater testing can detect traces of infectious diseases circulating in a community, even in asymptomatic individuals, offering an early warning system for potential outbreaks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ineffective-detection-of-salmonella-outbreaks">Ineffective detection of Salmonella outbreaks</h2>



Although healthcare providers are required to report cases of salmonellosis, many go unreported.



"In the United States, reporting relies heavily on healthcare professionals and laboratories, yet underreporting, incomplete data, and limited resources hinder the effective detection of outbreaks," noted the researchers.



Statistically, the CDC estimates that Salmonella causes around 1.35 million infections, 26,500 hospitalizations, and 420 deaths annually in the U.S. - primarily through contaminated food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-wastewater-surveillance">The power of wastewater surveillance</h2>



The study involved testing sewage samples collected twice weekly from two treatment plants for non-typhoidal Salmonella. Using whole genome sequencing, the researchers recovered 43 Salmonella isolates, grouped into seven serovars.



Notably, 20% of these isolates belonged to a rare type of Salmonella called Baildon, which had been associated with a local outbreak in the same period.



"Using whole genome sequencing, we showed that isolates of variant Salmonella Baildon clustered with those from an outbreak that occurred in a similar time frame," M'ikanatha noted. 



The study revealed a genetic match between the Salmonella found in the wastewater and isolates from a patient involved in the outbreak, highlighting the potential for wastewater monitoring to supplement traditional surveillance methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-potential-of-wastewater-monitoring">The potential of wastewater monitoring </h2>



Ed Dudley, senior author of the study and professor of food science at Penn State University, emphasized the significance of the research. 



"These results demonstrate the potential of wastewater monitoring as an early warning system for foodborne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-forest-cover-linked-to-disease-outbreaks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease outbreaks</a>, possibly even before physicians or labs report cases."



Dudley, who also directs Penn State’s E. coli Reference Center, envisions a future where most wastewater treatment plants regularly contribute samples to monitor a variety of illnesses.



"While it may not happen overnight, I foresee collaboration among public health agencies, academia, and federal entities, much like in our pilot study. This is one of the many crucial lessons we've learned from the pandemic," said Dudley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-salmonella-detection">Beyond salmonella detection</h2>



While the current study highlights Salmonella detection, wastewater surveillance holds promise for identifying a wide range of pathogens beyond foodborne illnesses. 



This technology could be applied to track other infectious diseases, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and even emerging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-have-eyes-and-ears-on-their-hosts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a>. 



Wastewater monitoring has already proven effective during the COVID-19 pandemic, providing early signals of viral spikes within communities. 



As the approach continues to develop, its applications are likely to extend to various health concerns, including antibiotic resistance and seasonal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-influenza-vaccine-could-offer-lifetime-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influenza</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-applications-of-wastewater-surveillance">Additional applications of wastewater surveillance </h2>



The infrastructure used for wastewater monitoring could also be adapted for environmental applications.



For example, this method could potentially be used to detect industrial pollutants, pharmaceutical residues, or environmental contaminants like PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances).



As the scope of wastewater surveillance widens, collaboration between public health agencies, research institutions, and industry becomes increasingly essential. 



By leveraging data from sewage samples, scientists could help inform public health responses, food safety protocols, and environmental protection efforts.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jcm.00825-24" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Clinical Microbiology</a>.



-----



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Wastewater holds the key to early disease detection

The analysis of wastewater, or "wastewater surveillance" as it is commonly known, was first used in the 1940s as a tool to monitor polio. In more recent years, wastewater surveillance has become a comprehensive disease monitoring tool. In fact, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) saw its potential and established the National Wastewater Surveillance System in September 2020, primarily to support monitoring efforts related to SARS-CoV-2. Detecting foodborne pathogens Now, researchers from Penn State University and the Pennsylvania Department of Health have demonstrated another...

COVID-19 antibodies persist for at least nine months after SARS-CoV-2 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-americans-had-undiagnosed-covid-19-infections/">infection</a>, according to a new study from Imperial College London. The researchers tested nearly 3,000 residents of Vo', Italy for infection in February and March of 2020, and then tested them again for antibodies in May and November.

The study revealed that 98.8 percent of people infected during the first round of tests had antibodies in November. The level of antibodies was no different between people who had suffered symptoms of COVID-19 and those who that had been symptom-free. 

"We found no evidence that antibody levels between symptomatic and asymptomatic infections differ significantly, suggesting that the strength of the immune response does not depend on the symptoms and the severity of the infection," said study lead author Dr. Ilaria Dorigatti.

"However, our study does show that antibody levels vary, sometimes markedly, depending on the test used. This means that caution is needed when comparing estimates of infection levels in a population obtained in different parts of the world with different tests and at different times."

The team used three types of tests that detect different types of antibodies that respond to different parts of the virus. 

The researchers found that antibody levels had increased in some people, which suggests they were re-infected and their immunity was further boosted. 

"The May testing demonstrated that 3.5 percent of the Vo' population had been exposed to the virus, even though not all of these subjects were aware of their exposure given the large fraction of asymptomatic infections," said Professor Enrico Lavezzo of the University of Padua.

"However, at the follow-up, which was performed roughly nine months after the outbreak, we found that antibodies were less abundant, so we need to continue to monitor antibody persistence for longer time spans."

"It is clear that the epidemic is not over, neither in Italy nor abroad," said Dr. Dorigatti. "Moving forward, I think that it is of fundamental importance to continue administering first and second vaccine doses as well as to strengthen surveillance including contact tracing. Encouraging caution and limiting the risk of acquiring SARS-CoV-2 will continue to be essential."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

COVID-19 antibodies persist for at least nine months

COVID-19 antibodies persist for at least nine months after SARS-CoV-2...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.mtu.edu/">Michigan Technological University</a> have uncovered new information on two iconic wildlife populations that inhabit Isle Royale - an island of the Great Lakes located northwest of Lake Superior. 

The researchers found evidence that wolves are thriving in the region, while the moose population appears to be in a state of decline.

The COVID-19 pandemic canceled the wintertime survey of wolves and moose on Isle Royale for the first time in 63 years. The MTU team visited the remote national park in the spring, gaining new insights into wolf and moose abundance. The experts report that the Isle Royale wolf population is likely growing. 

"We recovered footage of a group of four wolf pups taken in January 2021 by remote cameras at the east end of Isle Royale," said Professor Sarah Hoy. "Additionally, observations of tracks and scats left by wolf pups last fall at two different locations suggest that there were probably two different litters of pups living at the east end of the island in September 2020."

"Wolf foraging behavior seems driven by minimizing the risks associated with killing large prey, like moose, even when the differences in vulnerability among individual moose might seem relatively subtle compared to when predators are choosing between different prey species."

The moose population is particularly sensitive to nutritional stress, which has concerning implications for how the animals will respond to a warming climate. 

"We found that the nutritional health of moose was importantly influenced by how hot it is during the summer, and also by how deep the snow is in winter," said Hoy. "Moose tended to be more nutritionally stressed during winters with deep snow, which may be because deeper snow makes it more difficult for moose to move around and find food."

The moose population is likely declining, and Hoy noted that moose really struggled to find enough food this past winter. 

"Because there have been such large numbers of moose on the island over the last five years and moose ate branches faster than the trees can recover and replace them, the amount of food available to moose during winter has been getting progressively worse each year since 2017."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Iconic wildlife populations are declining on Isle Royale

Scientists at Michigan Technological University have uncovered new information on...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>, researchers have used trail cameras to study interactions between white-tailed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cortisol-levels-can-be-used-to-predict-mortality-in-newborn-deer/">deer</a> fawns and their predators in human-dominated landscapes. The investigation revealed that when fawns feel that they are constantly in danger, they seem to relax instead of trying to head for cover. 

The experts compare this phenomenon to the effects of "burnout" in humans who endure chronic stress. The results of the study suggest that prey animals experience their own version of burnout.

"And you can understand why they do," said study lead author Asia Murphy, who recently graduated with a doctorate from Penn State's Intercollege Graduate Degree Program in Ecology. 

"Less than half of whitetail fawns live to see their first birthday, and many are killed by predators, such as coyotes, black bears and bobcats. Fawns instinctively 'know' they are in constant danger."

Ironically, said Murphy, the presence of humans - who would protect the fawns if they could - only ratchets up the stress the young animals experience. The fawns instinctively avoid areas with people, which further limits the part of the landscape they can use to feed and evade predators.

"The presence of people creates an environment where the danger seems so high that the animals basically stop having vigilance behaviors," said Murphy. "That was the surprising thing about my research - when fawns perceive that there is so much danger coming from so many sources, their behavior seemed like they just relaxed, like there's no point in being ready to hide or flee. I saw that in older deer, too."

Murphy noted that in areas where there are many predators and people present, fawns seem to relax instead of acting hypervigilant. "Like so much constant stress leaves them burned out."

The research was designed to investigate how human-dominated landscapes influence interactions between humans, black bears, coyotes, bobcats and fawns. The researchers compared camera trap data from surveys in six forested sites across Pennsylvania. The sites had different surroundings, including forest, agriculture, and developed areas.

The researchers found that bears, bobcats, coyotes, fawns, and adult deer all had more frequent overlaps in the agriculture and development sites compared to the mostly unbroken forest site. 

"By taking into account the different antipredator behaviors that can be detected and the different scales at which these behaviors might occur, we were able to gain a more comprehensive picture of how humans reduce available niche space for wildlife," said Murphy. 

"It was clear that disturbed landscapes - agriculture and development - create more time and space overlap between predators and fawns."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Constant danger leaves deer fawns in a state of burnout

In a new study from Penn State, researchers have used...

A devastating heatwave in the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia has killed hundreds of millions of sea creatures. Mussels, clams, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warm-waters-disease-predator-sea-star/">sea stars</a>, crabs, and other animals literally baked in the heat as temperatures soared over 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

During the last week of June, dozens of cities in the Northwestern U.S. and western Canada broke their all-time record high temperatures - some by four or five degrees. The heat dome lingered over the region for at least five days, killing hundreds of people and triggering nearly 200 wildfires in British Columbia alone.

Professor Christopher Harley, a marine biologist at the University of British Columbia, has been studying how the heatwave impacted marine animals on a Vancouver-area beach. He estimates that nearly one billion sea creatures were essentially cooked alive in the heat. 

"This is a preliminary estimate based on good data, but I'm honestly worried that it's a substantial underestimate," Professor Harley told <a href="https://www.npr.org/">NPR</a>. He compared what he has seen of the mass mortality event to a post apocalyptic movie.

"I've been working in the Pacific Northwest for most of the past 25 years, and I have not seen anything like this here. This is far more extensive than anything I've ever seen."

"I'm also looking for all these dead barnacles. I've been hearing from people about dead clams and crabs and intertidal anemones and sea stars. And once you really start factoring in all these different species, it's been a huge catastrophe for marine life."

Professor Harley told NPR that while extreme heat in the Pacific Northwest is "exceptionally rare," he's seen estimates from other scientists that similar heat waves could start occurring once every five to ten years. "If it happens that frequently, the system won't have time to recover in between the die-offs."

The majority of the sea creatures lost were mussels, and losing so many at once could lead to devastating impacts - both in the water and on land. 

"Mussels are what's known as a foundation species because a lot of the ecosystem depends upon them... so losing the mussel bed would be losing all the apartment buildings in a city core," explained Professor Harley.

"The craziest thing is that it's just the tip of the iceberg," Professor Malin Pinsky of Rutgers University told NPR. "We can see the mussels because they're on the shoreline, but to a large extent, oceans are out of sight, out of mind, so we're likely to learn the magnitude of what's happening only much later."

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hundreds of millions of sea creatures killed in historic heatwave

A devastating heatwave in the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia...

The frequency of intense rainstorms will increase across Europe as a result of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shocking-un-report-the-worst-of-climate-change-is-yet-to-come/">climate change</a>, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a>. The experts predict that by the end of the century, slow-moving storms could become 14 times more frequent across land. 

The slow-moving storms will dump extremely high levels of precipitation, with the potential for devastating impacts like those caused by the recent storms in Germany and Belgium.

"This study shows that in addition to the intensification of rainfall with global warming, we can also expect a big increase in slow-moving storms which have the potential for high rainfall accumulations. This is very relevant to the recent flooding seen in Germany and Belgium, which highlights the devastating impacts of slow-moving storms," said Professor Lizzie Kendon.

"Our finding that slow-moving intense rainstorms could be 14 times more frequent by the end of the century under the high emissions RCP8.5 scenario, shows the serious impacts that we may expect across Europe if we do not curb our emissions of greenhouse gases."

For the investigation, a team of researchers led by Dr. Abdullah Kahraman used very detailed climate model simulations at the UK Met Office Hadley Centre. 

The results of the study indicate that the weather phenomenon is directly related to climate change, which is causing intense rainstorms to move more slowly. The experts found that the slower movement of storms will drive an increase in local rainfall accumulations, raising the risk of flash flooding across Europe beyond what was previously expected. 

"With recent advances in supercomputer power, we now have pan-European climate simulations resolving the atmosphere in high detail as short-range weather forecasting models do. These models have grid spacing of approximately 2 km, which allows them to simulate storm systems much better, resulting in better representation of extremes," explained Dr. Kahraman.

"Using these state-of-the-art climate simulations, we have developed metrics to extract potential cases for heavy rainfall, and a smaller, almost-stationary subset of these cases with the potential for high rainfall accumulations. These metrics provide a holistic view of the problem, and help us understand which factors of the atmosphere contribute to heavy rainfall changes."

"This is one of the first studies to explore changes in the speed of such heavy rainfall systems - an important aspect contributing to flood risk. Currently, we are also investigating other extreme weather types by examining the climate simulations data with a severe weather forecaster's perspective."

Professor Hayley Fowler pointed out that governments across the world have been too slow in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and global warming is keeping pace. 

"This study suggests that changes to extreme storms will be significant and cause an increase in the frequency of devastating flooding across Europe," said Professor Fowler.

"This, alongside the current floods in Europe, is the wake-up call we need to produce improved emergency warning and management systems, as well as implementing climate change safety factors into our infrastructure designs to make them more robust to these severe weather events."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19448007">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Europe will see a surge in slow-moving intense storms

The frequency of intense rainstorms will increase across Europe as...

We are all familiar with “love at first sight” as it is portrayed in the movies. It seems, however, that this is not the way romantic involvement works in real life. 

The authors of a new study analyzed a sample of research conducted on how romantic relationships are initiated. They found that 75 percent of these studies were devoted to the type of romance that begins with a spark between strangers while only 8 percent covered romantic relationships that form, over time, between friends.

"We might have a good understanding of how strangers become attracted to each other and start dating, but that's simply not how most relationships begin," said study lead author Danu Anthony Stinson, a professor of Psychology at the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca/">University of Victoria</a>.

The researchers used information on romantic relationships derived from 1,900 adults, many of whom were university students. Two-thirds of the adults stated that their current or most recent relationship had begun as a friendship. Moreover, among the university students, starting off as friends was the preferred route to romantic involvement.

The trend was consistent over different genders, education levels and ethnic groups, and was even more pronounced in young adults (between 20 and 30 years of age) and in relationships between members of the LGBTQ+ community.

For individuals whose relationships arose out of friendships, the average duration of the friendship was one to two years before romance developed. The majority of these participants admitted that they did not enter into the friendships with any thoughts of romantic attachment.

Professor Stinson feels that more research is needed into this form of romance initiation as it is the preferred pathway for many people and has largely been overlooked in previous scientific studies. She hopes that the current research findings will encourage people to think critically about their stereotyped notions of love and friendship.

"Our research suggests that the lines between friendship and romance are blurry, and I think that forces us to rethink our assumptions about what makes a good friendship but also what makes a good romantic relationship," said Professor Stinson. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/home/spp">Social Psychological and Personality Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://bosman@truewan.co.za/">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Friends to lovers - the preferred pathway to romantic involvement

We are all familiar with “love at first sight” as...

The body of evidence showing links between prenatal exposure to air pollution and poor academic outcomes in adolescents is growing. 

In a recent longitudinal study from the <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/">Columbia Mailman School of Public Health</a>, maternal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was monitored during the third trimester of pregnancy. This is a time when a fetus is particularly sensitive to environmental conditions. 

The 200 children subsequently born were tested at age 10 for levels of inhibitory control, and again at age 13 for academic achievement in areas including spelling, reading comprehension, and math. 

Inhibitory control is an important factor when a child learns a new skill or concept. Very often, a new and different rule must supersede an old, familiar rule in order to progress. 

Across all the participants, higher levels of prenatal exposure to PAH were associated with poorer inhibitory skills. This implies that exposure to high levels of PAH renders a child less capable of replacing a familiar response with a new, more unusual one.  

The ability to self-regulate in this way is crucial during the acquisition of academic skills. In this study, poor inhibitory control was associated with worse spelling, worse reading comprehension, and worse math skills. 

Study first author Professor Amy Margolis is an associate professor of Medical Psychology in the Department of Psychiatry at Columbia University Irving Medical Center. 

&nbsp;

"By compromising childhood inhibitory control, prenatal exposure to air pollution may alter the foundation upon which later academic skills are built,” said Professor Margolis.

&nbsp;

Inhibitory control can thus be seen as a mediator in the relationship between air pollution and poor academic achievement. Those exposed to high levels of air pollution suffer poor inhibitory control and therefore struggle to learn new concepts and skills.

The findings may ultimately lead to the development of interventions to help students to improve their academic outcomes. 

"When evaluating students’ learning problems and formulating treatment plans, parents and teachers should consider that academic problems related to environmental exposures may require intervention focused on inhibitory control problems, rather than on content-related skill deficits, as is typical in interventions designed to address learning disabilities," said Professor Margolis.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/environmental-research">Environmental Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air pollution exposure linked to poor academic achievement

The body of evidence showing links between prenatal exposure to...

For three decades, Professor Hisayoshi Nozaki has collected algae samples from the Sagami River an hour outside of Tokyo, Japan. This work was part of a research project aimed at gaining a deeper understanding of sexes. Now, that research is finally paying off. 

Samples first collected in 2007 and 2013 from a dam lake show a strange species of algae. What makes the algae species, Pleodorina starrii, interesting is that it comes in three sexes. 

Individuals of each of the sexes breed in pairs. The third sex which scientists are calling ‘bisexual’ can produce both male and female sex cells. 

This may sound like a case of hermaphroditism but it’s subtly different. Hermaphrodites are indeed organisms that produce both male and female sex cells, however this is due to abnormal gene expression. 

In the case of P. starrii, the third sex is completely normal. A few other plants and some invertebrate animals have three sexes, although this is the first case of an algae with three sexes. 

“It seems very uncommon to find a species with three sexes, but in natural conditions, I think it may not be so rare," explained Professor Nozaki.

There are even ancient organisms with sexes referred to as ‘plus’ and ‘minus’ rather than male and female. Later in evolution, sexes evolved to be quite different from one another, such as in mammals the small sperm cells and large egg cells. 

P. starrii is a good model organism for studying the evolution of sex because, it has a different reproductive strategy than its closest relatives, representing an evolutionary change. 

To study their reproduction, colonies of different sexes are reared in the lab and forced to reproduce sexually. Males grow sperm packets which are released, and the sperm swim until they come into contact with a female colony. 

The researchers discovered that this third sex in P. starrii has previously isolated both the male and female genes in the algae. It is their hope to continue research and make more discoveries about the nature of sex.

"This finding was possible because of our very long-term experience of going on field collection trips and our practice growing and studying algae," said Professor Nozaki.

"Continued, long-term studies are very important to unveil the true nature of species in the natural world."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15585646">Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Algae species with three sexes discovered in Japan

For three decades, Professor Hisayoshi Nozaki has collected algae samples...

Part of the Amazon rainforest has been transformed into a significant source of carbon dioxide emissions, according to a long-term study. Experts at <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">NOAA</a> report that deforestation in eastern Brazil has led to less rainfall and hotter temperatures, which has flipped the forest from a carbon sink to a source of carbon dioxide. 

Based on nearly 10 years of CO2 measurements, the researchers found that the most deforested parts of the eastern Amazon - mainly in the southeast - are releasing more carbon than they store. 

“On the other hand, the wetter, more intact western and central Amazon, was neither a carbon sink nor source of atmospheric CO2 , with the absorption by healthy forests balancing the emissions from fires," explained study co-author and NOAA scientist John Miller. 

The Amazon is made up of 2.8 million square miles of jungle and represents more than half of the remaining tropical forest on the planet. Scientists estimate that the Amazon locks up about 123 billion tons of carbon, both above and below ground.

In 2010, study lead author Luciana Gatti and an international team of experts set out to investigate whether the combined effects of climate change and land conversion is compromising the Amazon’s ability to store carbon.

“The regions of southern Pará and northern Mato Grosso states represent a worst-case scenario,” said Gatti. 

The southeast region of the Amazon has experienced 30 percent deforestation over the last four decades. Nine years of airborne measurements showed that this region is a net emitter of carbon. On the other hand,   the western portion of the rainforest has experienced less clearing still serves as a carbon sink. 

According to the researchers, the increased emissions were likely due to the fires that are used to convert jungle to cropland, and by reduced uptake of CO2 by the trees that remained. 

“The big question this research raises is if the connection between climate, deforestation, and carbon that we see in the eastern Amazon could one day be the fate of the central and western Amazon, if they become subject to stronger human impact,” said Miller.  

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Part of the Amazon now releases more carbon than it stores

Part of the Amazon rainforest has been transformed into a...

To most of us, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adults-are-not-good-at-daydreaming-but-we-should-be/">dreaming</a> mind is a mystery. Until recently, this was true for scientists as well. Experts at the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/university/">University of Geneva</a> recently used artificial intelligence to take a peek at the sleeping brain. 

Using an electronic encephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) interpreted by artificial intelligence, the researchers gained important insight.

The evidence gathered by the scientists shows that during deep sleep, when the brain is no longer gathering external stimuli, it is instead sorting through memories. 

Different parts of the brain communicate with each other to evaluate our memories, and only the most useful ones are kept. The brain prioritizes memories that have a reward associated with them, and these are usually preserved. 

The researchers already knew that memories are consolidated during deep sleep but wanted to learn more, particularly about the role of emotions in memory consolidation.

Virginie Sterpenich, the principal investigator of the study, is a researcher in the lab of Professor Sophie Schwartz in the Department of Basic Neurosciences at UNIGE Faculty of Medicine.

"To find out which brain regions are activated during sleep, and to decipher how these regions allow us to consolidate our memory, we developed a decoder capable of deciphering the activity of the brain in deep sleep and what it corresponds to," explained Sterpenich. 

"In particular, we wanted to see to what extent positive emotions play a role in this process."

The researchers had people play two different games while awake and monitored their brains. The different games were chosen because they activated different parts of the brain. 

Half the participants won one game, half won the other, so that positive emotions were associated with winning. Next, the experts watched the same people’s brains while they slept. 

The recordings from the sleeping brains were very similar to those of the brains while people played games. This showed that the sleeping brain was actually remembering playing the games. 

The sleepers especially focused on remembering the game they won. The scientists concluded that the brain reinforces positive memories - those associated with a reward. 

Later, participants were tested to see how well they remembered the games. Interestingly, those who had more parts of their brain activated while replaying the memory during sleep were able to remember the game better. Sleep, it turns out, helps us remember important things.        

Sterpenich said that the brain "very clearly" relived the game won and not the game lost by reactivating the regions used during wakefulness. 

"As soon as you go to sleep, the brain activity changes. Gradually, our volunteers started to 'think' about both games again, and then almost exclusively about the game they won when they went into deep sleep."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What does the brain do while we sleep?

To most of us, the dreaming mind is a mystery....

Spotted hyenas live in clans, sometimes numbering as many as 100 individuals. Within a clan, the status of each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jumping-spiders-know-the-difference-between-animals-and-objects/">animal</a> is determined by its standing in the social hierarchy. 

Female hyenas are dominant to males and the leader of each clan is an alpha female. High-ranking individuals tend to have better rates of survival and reproduction.

While researchers understand the dynamics of hyena social hierarchies quite well, they have never uncovered how the status of a mother is passed on to her offspring, when no genetics is involved in this inheritance.

In a recent study by biologists from the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, it was established that young hyenas not only copy their mother’s behavior, but they also inherit their mother’s network of “friends."

"We knew that the social structure of hyenas is based in part on one's rank in the agonistic hierarchy, which we know is inherited from mothers," said study co-author Professor Erol Akçay. "But what we found, that affiliative, or friendly interactions, are also inherited, hadn't been shown."

The study was based on 27 years of observations on hyena social behavior, collected by study co-author Kay Holekamp of Michigan State University. In particular, the proximity of an individual to others was used to map out social networks among clan members. 

"With hyenas, if one individual gets within a few meters of another, that suggests they have a social connection," explained Amiyaal Ilany, a senior lecturer at Israel's Bar-Ilan University.

Once researchers had a picture of each individual's social connections, they could compare the networks of mothers and offspring. Clearly, while a cub is young it spends most of its time with its mother and both of them interact with the same individuals. But even when cubs grow older and spend less time with their mothers, they maintain the same social connections.

This pattern was particularly strong for high-ranking mothers and their female cubs, where network similarity was still very high, even when cubs were six years old, according to Ilany.

In Holekamp’s opinion, hyena cubs form relationships with their mothers’ close allies early in life, thus cementing their own social standing and rank for the duration of their adult lives.

This study illustrates that genes are not the only factors that can influence evolutionary processes, such as reproductive success and survival. 

"A lot of things that are considered by default to be genetically determined may depend on environmental and social processes," said Ilany.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

–—

By <a href="http://bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hyenas inherit their mother's social network

Spotted hyenas live in clans, sometimes numbering as many as...

Whereas most animal species breed throughout their lives, humans and a few species of whales experience menopause. This is a time when the older females no longer reproduce but rather invest their energy and knowledge in helping their offspring and grand-offspring to survive. 

Scientists have long puzzled over why menopause exists and how it evolved. Studies on killer whales have provided new evidence in this field. Killer whales occur in oceans throughout the world but are divided into distinct ecotypes based on differences in their hunting tactics and social behavior. 

Previous research on the ecotype known as “resident” killer whales has shown that females spend around 30% of their lives in a post-reproductive state. Resident killer whales feed mostly on salmon and live together in large groups. Females in the group become more and more genetically related to the group over time (since their offspring remain in the group), so it makes sense that “grandmothering” would be a useful evolutionary strategy for mature females. 

New research has recently been conducted on a different ecotype, known as Bigg’s killer whales. These particular whales specialize in hunting seals, which is a widely dispersed food item in comparison to a large shoal of salmon. For this reason, Bigg’s killer whales live in small groups and individuals tend to leave the group on reaching maturity. 

"Some sons and daughters stay with their mother, but overall we predict a weaker pattern of increased relatedness to fellow group members as a whale ages,” explained study lead author Mia Lybkær Kronborg Nielsen of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. Weaker relatedness implies less evolutionary reason to stop reproducing and enter menopause. 

The study used more than 40 years of data on Bigg's and resident whales, and found that females from both ecotypes were post-reproductive for around 30% of their adult years. 

According to Professor Darren Croft, it is not immediately clear why the age at menopause and the length of the post-reproductive lifespan seems to be the same in both.

Further research is needed in order to understand these findings. In future, drones will be used to investigate how “grandmothering” by mature whales contributes to the survival of their offspring and grand-offspring. 

"Not only do the results contribute to a better understanding of animal evolution, they have significant implications for conservation by shedding light on the importance of social structure for the recovery of these populations," explained study co-autor Thomas Doniol-Valcroze.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.

–—

By <a href="http://bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Is “grandmothering” in killer whales a stable evolutionary strategy?

Whereas most animal species breed throughout their lives, humans and...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...