For thousands of years, humans have gazed up at the moon, wondering what secrets it holds. Now, new research suggests that water on the moon's surface is more widespread than we thought -- even in places bathed in sunlight.



Roger Clark, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a>, and his team have uncovered evidence that could change our understanding of the moon's resources. 



"Future astronauts may be able to find water even near the equator by exploiting these water-rich areas," Clark said. "Previously, it was thought that only the polar region, and in particular, the deeply shadowed craters at the poles were where water could be found in abundance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closer-look-at-the-lunar-landscape">Closer look at the lunar landscape</h2>



Back in 2008 and 2009, the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/chandrayaan-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandrayaan-1</a> spacecraft orbited the moon, collecting detailed maps of its surface using the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) imaging spectrometer. 



The M3 instrument wasn't your average camera -- it captured 85 different colors from the visible spectrum into the infrared range. 



This allowed the team to search for the unique fingerprints of water and hydroxyl in the sunlight reflected off the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-moon-had-active-volcanoes-just-120-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar surface</a>.



Imagine trying to spot a drop of water on a vast desert. Sounds tricky, right? 



But by using infrared spectroscopy, scientists can detect tiny amounts of water and hydroxyl (a molecule made of one hydrogen and one oxygen atom) by the way they absorb light. 



Different materials absorb and reflect light differently, giving each a unique spectral signature.



"Just like we see different colors from different materials, the infrared spectrometer can see many (infrared) colors to better determine the composition, including the water (H2O) and hydroxyl (OH)," Clark explained. 



This means that even in sunlit areas, where water was thought to be scarce, we can now detect these vital molecules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteors-moon-rocks-and-lunar-water">Meteors, moon rocks, and lunar water</h2>



One of the key findings is that meteor impacts play a significant role in distributing water across the moon. 



When meteors crash into the surface, they excavate water-rich rocks from beneath, scattering them across all latitudes. 



This challenges the long-held belief that useful amounts of water are only found in the dark, frigid craters near the poles.



By studying where this water is located, scientists can learn more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeless-mystery-solved-scientists-uncover-what-is-inside-the-moons-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon's geological history</a>. Plus, it opens up new possibilities for future lunar missions. 



If astronauts can find water closer to the equator, it could make long-term habitation more feasible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-metastable-moon-water">Mystery of metastable moon water</h2>



But there's a catch. Water on the moon doesn't behave quite like it does on Earth. It's what's known as "metastable," meaning it's slowly broken down over millions of years. 



"By studying the location and geologic context, we were able to show that water in the lunar surface is metastable," Clark noted. "H2O is slowly destroyed over millions of years, but with hydroxyl, OH, remaining."



So, while water molecules may degrade over time, hydroxyl sticks around. This hydroxyl can potentially be combined to create water and even oxygen -- a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-building-space-station-called-gateway-will-orbit-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">valuable resource for astronauts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind-and-space-weathering">Solar wind and space weathering</h2>



The moon's surface is also coated with a thin layer of hydroxyl, thanks to the solar wind. Protons from the sun slam into the lunar soil, interacting with oxygen in minerals to form hydroxyl in a process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-moon-is-drifting-away-and-earth-will-never-be-the-same-without-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weathering</a>. It's like a constant drizzle of particles reshaping the very surface of the moon.



"Elsewhere on the lunar surface, there appears a patina of hydroxyl, probably created from solar wind protons impacting the lunar surface," Clark said. This means that the moon is continually evolving, even without an atmosphere or weather as we know it.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/moon_covered-water-hydroxyl_Moon-Mineralogy-data_credit-NASA-ISRO_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/moon_covered-water-hydroxyl_Moon-Mineralogy-data_credit-NASA-ISRO_1s.webp" alt="Top: Black and white image of the Moon from Moon Mineralogy Mapper data. Bottom: Map of water on the Moon. Credit: NASA/ISRO/M3 Team/PSI/R. Clark" class="wp-image-1945396"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Top: Black and white image of the Moon from Moon Mineralogy Mapper data. Bottom: Map of water on the Moon. Credit: NASA/ISRO/M3 Team/PSI/R. Clark</figcaption></figure>



Putting all these pieces together reveals a moon that's more geologically complex than we imagined. "Both cratering and volcanic activity can bring water-rich materials to the surface, and both are observed in the lunar data," Clark pointed out.



The moon primarily consists of two types of rocks: dark basaltic mare, similar to lava flows in Hawaii, and lighter anorthosite rocks that make up the highlands. 



Interestingly, the anorthosites contain a lot of water, while the basalts have very little. This difference affects where water and hydroxyl are found and how they're bonded within the minerals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-shadows-and-mysterious-swirls">Shifting shadows and mysterious swirls</h2>



Another intriguing aspect is how the strength of water and hydroxyl signals changes with the lunar day. When the sun is low on the horizon, the infrared absorptions become stronger. 



This led scientists to think that water might be moving around the moon daily. However, Clark's team found a different explanation.



The effect is due to a thin surface layer that's different from the deeper soil. When the sun is low, light passes through more of this top layer, enhancing the absorption signals. 



So, while there might still be some movement of water, the layering of the soil plays a significant role.



Have you ever heard of lunar swirls? These are diffuse patterns seen in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-magma-ocean-molten-rock-found-moons-surface-south-pole-chandrayaan-3/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">areas of the moon</a>, and their origins have puzzled scientists. 



They're thought to be related to magnetic fields that divert the solar wind, reducing hydroxyl production. The new study confirms that swirls are low in hydroxyl and water content but adds that they sometimes have higher amounts of pyroxene, a common mineral.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-features-hidden-in-plain-sight">New features hidden in plain sight</h2>



What's even more fascinating is that the global hydroxyl maps have revealed areas similar to known swirls but invisible in regular light. 



These features only show up through hydroxyl absorption, suggesting they might be old, eroded swirls or entirely new types like arcs and lines.



By mapping the moon in these new ways, we're <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-cave-found-moon-mare-tranquillitatis-could-shelter-astronauts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">uncovering secrets</a> that were hiding right under our noses -- or telescopes, in this case. It goes to show that there's always more to learn, even about our closest celestial neighbor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-moon-water-matter">Why does moon water matter?</h2>



So, why does all this matter? For one, it could have a big impact on future moon missions. Knowing that water is more widely available means astronauts might not have to rely solely on the poles for resources. 



This could simplify mission planning and open up new areas of exploration.



"Knowing where water is located not only helps to understand lunar geologic history, but also where astronauts may find water in the future," Clark emphasized.



Moreover, understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-is-shrinking-moonquakes-potential-problems-for-astronauts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon's complex geology</a> helps us piece together the history of our solar system. Each discovery adds another chapter to the story of how planets and moons evolve.



In the end, these findings remind us that the moon is more than just a barren rock in the sky. It's a dynamic world with a rich geological tapestry. From water hidden in sunlit soils to mysterious swirls etched by magnetic fields, there's a lot more going on than meets the eye.



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Alongside Clark, scientists Neil C. Pearson, Thomas B. McCord, Deborah L. Domingue, Amanda R. Hendrix, and Georgiana Kramer delved into data from the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) instrument aboard India's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ad5837" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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The Moon's entire surface is covered with water, not just the poles

For thousands of years, humans have gazed up at the moon, wondering what secrets it holds. Now, new research suggests that water on the moon's surface is more widespread than we thought -- even in places bathed in sunlight. Roger Clark, a senior scientist at the Planetary Science Institute, and his team have uncovered evidence that could change our understanding of the moon's resources. "Future astronauts may be able to find water even near the equator by exploiting these water-rich areas," Clark said. "Previously, it was thought...

New research from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/">California Institute of Technology</a> discusses the remarkable architectonic complexity of anthills, which reach as far as 25 feet underground, are home to millions of ants, and often last for decades. 

By studying the digging habits of ants and uncovering the mechanisms guiding them, scientists hoped not only to increase our understanding of ant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colorful-foods-can-prevent-cognitive-decline/">cognition</a> and behavior, but also to help improve humans’ ability to dig underground.

“I got inspired by these exhumed ant nests where they pour plastic or molten metal into them and you see these vast tunnel systems that are incredibly impressive,” said Civil and Mechanical Engineering Professor Jose Astrade. “I saw a picture of one of these next to a person and I thought ‘My goodness, what a fantastic structure.’ And I got wondering if ants ‘know’ how to dig.”

Together with Joe Parker, an assistant professor of Biology and Biological Engineering, Andrade devised experiments to study ants’ digging behavior. They started culturing ants and getting them to dig in little soil-filled cups that could be observed through X-ray imaging.

The ants were very efficient, digging the tunnels as straight as possible, and incorporating the cups’ edges into their construction’s structure. “That makes sense because a straight line is the shortest path between two points,” explained Andrade. “And with them taking advantage of the sides of the container, it shows that the ants are very efficient at what they do.”

Ants seemed to have an extraordinary intuitive sense of the laws of physics. They dug their tunnels as steeply as possible, but not so steep that they would collapse. The ants also created subtle rearrangements in the force chains around the tunnels so that the walls were strengthened, but the pressure at the end of the tunnels was relieved, making it easier for them to continue digging. 

But are the ants aware of what they do when they are digging? “What we discovered was that they didn’t seem to ‘know’ what they are doing,” said Andrade. “They didn’t systematically look for soft spots in the sand. Rather, they evolved to dig according to the laws of physics.” 

Humans could not only learn from these remarkable digging methods, but could also devise robotic ants to assist in processes such as mining, underground farming, or subway construction. “This would be the final frontier,” said Andrade.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ants’ underground cities are architectonic marvels

New research from the California Institute of Technology discusses the...

In a new study carried out by the <a href="https://naturemap.earth/">Nature Map Consortium</a>, experts set out to identify the most important areas worldwide where nature conservation could simultaneously protect the greatest number of species from extinction, preserve terrestrial carbon stocks, and safeguard freshwater resources.

The researchers determined that conserving a strategically placed 30 percent of land could protect 70 percent of terrestrial plant and animal species, as well as 68 percent of all clean water. The proposed plan would also help to prevent the release of more than 62 percent of the world’s vulnerable carbon stocks.

According to the experts, the solution is the first of its kind to truly integrate biodiversity, carbon, and water conservation within a common approach and a single global priority map.

“To implement post-2020 biodiversity strategies such as the Global Biodiversity Framework, policymakers and governments need clarity on where resources and conservation management could bring the greatest potential benefits to biodiversity. At the same time, biodiversity should not be looked at in isolation," explained study lead author Martin Jung of the <a href="https://iiasa.ac.at/">IIASA</a> Biodiversity, Ecology, and Conservation Research Group.

"Other aspects such as conserving carbon stocks within natural ecosystems should be considered alongside biodiversity, so that synergies and trade-offs can be evaluated when pursuing multiple objectives."

Study co-author Piero Visconti said the new global priority maps developed as part of the study show that when it comes to identifying new areas to manage for nature conservation, such as protected areas or community-managed forests, quality is more important than quantity. 

"To aim for quality of conservation and achieve the goal of safeguarding biodiversity, government and non-government agencies should be setting objectives and indicators for what they want: conserving species, healthy ecosystems and their services to people, and identify areas to conserve accordingly," said Visconti. "Our study provides guidance on how to do that."

According to study co-author Guido Schmidt-Traub, maps for integrated spatial planning are necessary for meeting climate and biodiversity objectives. "They are also critical for financing natural climate solutions, improving carbon markets, and greening supply chains."

The research has quantitatively confirmed many areas as being biodiversity hotspots, and has also identified new areas to be considered as important for biodiversity at a global scale, including the southeastern United States and the Balkans.

“Our methods, data, and the global priority maps are meant to be used as a decision support tool for major conservation initiatives," said Jung. "Furthermore, the study lays the groundwork for a new generation of integrated prioritizations and planning exercises that all actors can use to inform conservation choices at the regional, national and sub-national levels."

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nature conservation could achieve biodiversity and climate goals

In a new study carried out by the Nature Map...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> recently discovered that volcanoes play an important role in stabilizing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-alter-photosynthesis-and-plant-growth/">temperatures</a> at Earth’s surface. According to the scientists, volcanoes have been responsible over geological time for cycles of emitting and subsequently removing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2).

Volcanoes achieve such thermic regulation through a process called <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/weathering/#:~:text=to%20slowly%20crumble.-,Chemical%20Weathering,acid%2C%20that%20can%20dissolve%20rock.">chemical weathering</a>. During this natural breakdown and dissolution of rocks, elements such as calcium or magnesium are flushed by rivers to the oceans, where they form minerals capable of regulating atmospheric CO2 levels and, thus, the global climate at large.

“In this respect, weathering of the Earth’s surface serves as a geological thermostat,” said study lead author Professor Tom Gernon. “But the underlying controls have proven difficult to determine due to the complexity of the Earth system.”

By incorporating machine-learning algorithms and plate tectonic reconstructions into computer models, Dr. Gernon and his team found that continental volcanic arcs have been the most important driver of chemical weathering during the past 400 million years. 

“It’s a balancing act,” explained study co-author professor Martin Palmer. “On one hand, these volcanoes pumped out large amounts of CO2 that increased atmospheric CO2 levels. On the other hand, these same volcanoes helped remove that carbon via rapid weathering reactions.”

Since atmospheric CO2 levels are currently higher than they have been in three million years, volcanic activity that seemed to have saved the planet before is currently unable to achieve similar results. 

“Unfortunately, the results do not mean that nature will save us from climate change," said Dr. Gernon. “Today, atmospheric CO2 levels are higher than at any time in the past three million years, and human-driven emissions are about 150 times larger than volcanic CO2 emissions." 

"The continental arcs that appear to have saved the planet in the deep past are simply not present at the scale needed to help counteract present-day CO2 emissions."

However, the team’s findings offer insights into possible ways of dealing with the climate crisis. Artificially enhancing chemical weathering through pulverizing and spreading rocks across land in order to increase the speed of chemical reaction rates could be a key factor in eliminating atmospheric CO2. 

“This is by no means a silver bullet solution to the climate crisis - we urgently need to reduce CO2 emissions in line with IPCC mitigation pathways, full stop,” concluded Dr. Gernon. “Our assessment of weathering feedbacks over long timescales may help in designing and evaluating large-scale enhanced weathering schemes, which is just one of the steps needed to counteract global climate change.”

The research was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo/">Nature Geoscience</a>. 

---

By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Volcanoes stabilize temperatures at Earth's surface

Researchers at the University of Southampton recently discovered that volcanoes...

An elephant’s trunk is capable of making a wide range of different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-impairment-eye-movements/">movements</a> to fulfill the requirements of the array of tasks it carries out. Some have even referred to this proboscis as a "Swiss Army knife" because of its functional versatility.

In addition to being used for smelling, eating and drinking, the trunk can curl, twist, lift, grasp, pluck, push, suck, blow and encircle an object. A team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/university/">University of Geneva</a> (UNIGE),  Switzerland, set out to investigate how elephants control the motion of this most extraordinary appendage. 

For all vertebrate animals, complex motion is possible because their bones are articulated at the joints and provide sites for muscle attachment. By flexing or relaxing their muscles, vertebrates can move their bones in well-defined and predictable ways. But an elephant’s trunk contains no bones and is flexible along its entire length. It is therefore something of a mystery how an elephant manages to use its trunk for tasks as diverse as plucking a single blade of grass and lifting a load of 270 kg (595 lb).

A multidisciplinary team led by Professor Michel Milinkovitch made use of motion-capture technology that is commonly employed in the movie industry, as well as state-of-the art medical imaging, to understand how an elephant deals with the huge variety of possible movements it can make with its trunk.

The results show that elephants use a suite of about 20 simple movements that they then combine in different ways to achieve more complex behavioral functions. In the same way that words are the building blocks of complex sentences, the 20 simple movements are selected and joined together by an elephant depending on the task it needs to perform with its trunk.

“When grasping and securing an object for transport, the trunk exhibits a localized flexion that travels from its tip to its most basal parts, while when the elephant reaches a target in front of it, it extends and retracts specific parts of its trunk in a modular fashion," explained study co-author Paule Dagenais. 

For example, when an elephant reaches with its trunk for an object to the side, it extends its trunk in rigid segments, bending as though there are joints present in predictable places. These virtual joints give the impression of an elbow or a wrist but have no skeletal origin. 

Changing the characteristics of the object to be retrieved also alters the specific basic movements that are used. When picking up a light, wooden disk, an elephant will use suction to stick the disk to the end of its trunk while lifting it. However, when a heavier, metal disk is retrieved suction is only used initially, to secure the object’s position, while the elephant curls its trunk around the disk and lifts it with that movement.

“In addition, we discovered that how much the trunk slows down when following a curve can be predicted precisely on the basis of the local curvature of that path; remarkably, such a mathematical relation between speed and path curvature also exists for the human hand when drawing," said Professor Milinkovitch. 

The use of computer tomographic (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and sectioning along the length of the trunk enabled the researchers to determine that the muscular anatomy of the trunk is what gives rise to its kinematic versatility. 

The researchers hope to use this new understanding of the biomechanics and physics behind trunk muscle movements to help design soft robotic manipulators that allow gentle and smooth interactions, such as gripping and grasping delicate objects. 

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How an elephant's trunk performs like a Swiss Army knife

An elephant’s trunk is capable of making a wide range...

A plant-based diet can lead to enormous benefits, including weight loss, improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-foods-linked-to-drastically-lower-risk-of-heart-disease/">heart</a> health, and even a longer life. Now, scientists with the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> have identified the plant-based burgers that smell the most like real beef.

“During the last several years, increasing awareness of the impact of meat production on climate change, as well as meat shortages during the pandemic, have made people more accepting of plant-based alternatives,” said Dr. LiLi Zyzak, the project’s principal investigator. 

“There are a lot of products out there, and food companies are doing interesting research, but nobody ever publishes anything because it’s a trade secret.”

Even though plant-based meat products have been available for over two decades, many of the early alternatives were noticeably different from traditional meat. Today, companies have found ways to make plant proteins taste more like beef. 

One of the biggest challenges has been to pinpoint the best mix of vegetable oils to mimic the fatty meat smell.

"The problem with plant-based burgers is that the plant protein itself contributes a strong odor,” said Dr. Zyzak. “For example, pea protein smells like green, cut grass, so companies have to find a way to mask that aroma. Some use heavy seasonings.” 

“We wanted to give consumers an idea of what’s out there so that they can make informed decisions at the grocery store."

The researchers set out to compare the aroma compounds produced by cooking real hamburgers and eight popular brands of plant-based burgers. Among these alternatives, the Beyond Burger from Beyond Meat most closely resembled the odor profile of beef.

The plant-based brand that had the closest appearance to real raw hamburger was found to have a yeast- or bread-like odor, according to the experts. They noted that a number of the other brands had heavy seasonings that released strong garlic or barbecue aromas.

Dr. Zyzak would ultimately like to use what she has learned to produce a mixture of odor compounds that closely mimic hamburger aroma. 

The research will be presented at a meeting of the American Chemical Society, <a href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/meetings/acs-meetings.html">ACS Fall 2021</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Which plant-based burgers smell the most like real beef?

A plant-based diet can lead to enormous benefits, including weight...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.kent.ac.uk/">University of Kent</a> has revealed that chimpanzees of West Africa are threatened by lack of regulated human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-change-their-behavior-to-adapt-to-coastal-development/">development</a>. According to the researchers, robust regulation of large-scale development is required to protect the habitats of western chimpanzees.

"Global biodiversity loss is occurring at an alarming rate, with a growing consensus that we are entering a sixth mass extinction," wrote the study authors. "Rapid human development and associated habitat loss, principally through agriculture, infrastructure and extractive industries, is a significant contributor."

Western chimpanzees were classified as critically endangered in 2016 after their population declined by 80 percent in just over two decades. This ongoing trend has been primarily driven by poaching and habitat loss.

The researchers noted that although western chimpanzees are legally protected throughout their range, an estimated 83 percent of the population lives outside of protected areas. The chimps are particularly vulnerable to open-pit mining, a technique that can be extremely destructive.

The Kent team reviewed a total of 175 laws across the eight countries where western chimpanzees can be found. The results of the study suggest that the current legislation does not protect western chimpanzees from the environmental impacts of development, including mining. 

‘The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures utilized by the countries examined do not go far enough to protect western chimpanzees," said study co-author Dr. Tatyana Humle. "With global biodiversity loss occurring at an alarming rate, this is a major concern.’

"Mitigation hierarchy principles are critical to species conservation and help to regulate the environmental impacts of projects that are not reliant upon development bank or other debt-financing markets," said study co-author Thomas Evans.

"A tightening of legislation is necessary to ensure that avoidance, remediation and offset measures are implemented in line with the objective of safeguarding the habitat of this critically endangered species.’

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/biological-conservation">Biological Conservation</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Western chimpanzees need protection from human development

A new study from the University of Kent has revealed...

Human breast milk can help treat infections in newborn babies, according to new research from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a>. The researchers found that human milk oligosaccharides, sugar molecules found in breast milk, protect against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-of-infant-boys-can-enhance-cognitive-skills/">bacteria</a> known as group B Streptococcus (GBS) - a common cause of blood infections in newborns. 

The experts report that human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) may ultimately replace antibiotics for treating infections in infants and adults.

“Our lab has previously shown that mixtures of HMOs isolated from the milk of several different donor mothers have antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity against GBS,” said Rebecca Moore,  a graduate student in the lab of Dr. Steven Townsend at Vanderbilt University. 

“We wanted to jump from these in vitro studies to see whether HMOs could prevent infections in cells and tissues from a pregnant woman, and in pregnant mice.” 

The CDC reports that about 2,000 babies in the U.S. get GBS each year, and up to six percent do not survive the infection. The bacteria can be transferred from mother to baby during delivery. 

The incidence of late-onset infections, which happen from one week to three months after birth, is higher in formula-fed infants. This indicates that factors in breast milk could help protect against GBS. 

The investigation was focused on the effects of HMOs on GBS infection in placental immune cells called macrophages.

“We found that HMOs were able to completely inhibit bacterial growth in both the macrophages and the membranes, so we very quickly turned to looking at a mouse model,” explained Moore. 

“In five different parts of the reproductive tract, we saw significantly decreased GBS infection with HMO treatment."

“We concluded that GBS is producing lactic acid that inhibits growth, and then when we add the oligosaccharide, the beneficial species can use it as a food source to overcome this suppression."

According to the researchers, the reason HMOs can treat and prevent GBS infection is likely two-fold: they act as an anti-adhesive by preventing pathogens from sticking to tissue surfaces and forming a biofilm, and they possibly serve as a prebiotic by supporting the growth of good bacteria.

“HMOs have been around as long as humans have, and bacteria have not figured them out. Presumably, that’s because there are so many in milk, and they’re constantly changing during a baby’s development,” said Dr. Townsend. 

“But if we could learn more about how they work, it’s possible that we could treat different types of infections with mixtures of HMOs, and maybe one day this could be a substitute for antibiotics in adults, as well as babies.”

The research was presented at the fall meeting of the American Chemical Society, ACS Fall 2021.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sugars in breast milk help prevent infections in newborns

Human breast milk can help treat infections in newborn babies,...

A new study from the <a href="https://gumc.georgetown.edu/">Georgetown University Medical Center</a> has completely shifted our understanding of how aging affects the mind. The research shows that two key mental abilities, which allow the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-protects-the-brain-from-dementia/">brain</a> to acquire new information and focus on what is important, can actually improve in older adults. 

Both of these mental abilities help support critical aspects of cognition such as memory, decision making, self-control, and navigation. 

“These results are amazing, and have important consequences for how we should view aging,” said study senior author Dr. Michael T. Ullman.

“People have widely assumed that attention and executive functions decline with age, despite intriguing hints from some smaller-scale studies that raised questions about these assumptions."

“But the results from our large study indicate that critical elements of these abilities actually improve during aging, likely because we simply practice these skills throughout our life.”

Dr. Ullman said that the research is particularly important because of the rapidly aging population, both in the United States and worldwide. He noted that with further research, it may be possible to deliberately improve these skills as protection against cognitive decline.

Focusing on a group of 702 participants aged 58 to 98, the researchers looked at three separate components of attention and executive function. They studied the brain networks involved in alerting, orienting, and executive inhibition. 

Each of these mental abilities has different characteristics and relies on different areas of the brain, neurochemicals, and genes. With this in mind, the experts theorized that the networks may also show different aging patterns.

“We use all three processes constantly,” explained study first author Dr. João Veríssimo. “For example, when you are driving a car, alerting is your increased preparedness when you approach an intersection. Orienting occurs when you shift your attention to an unexpected movement, such as a pedestrian. And executive function allows you to inhibit distractions such as birds or billboards so you can stay focused on driving.”

The study revealed that alerting declined over the course of aging. By contrast, both orienting and executive inhibition improved with age.

The researchers believe that because orienting and inhibition are skills that can improve with lifelong practice. The gains from this practice can be large enough to outweigh the underlying neural declines, they explained. 

“Because of the relatively large number of participants, and because we ruled out numerous alternative explanations, the findings should be reliable and so may apply quite broadly,” said Dr. Veríssimo. Furthermore, he said that since orienting and inhibitory skills underlie numerous behaviors, the results have wide-ranging implications.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nathumbehav/">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts identify key mental abilities that actually improve with age

A new study from the Georgetown University Medical Center has...

More than one billion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-who-live-near-woodlands-have-better-mental-health/">children</a> have an "extremely high risk" of suffering from the environmental shocks of the climate crisis, according to new report from <a href="https://www.unicef.org/">UNICEF</a>.

The researchers found that hundreds of millions of children are facing a dangerous threat - exposure to natural disasters, such as cyclones and heatwaves, combined with a lack of essential services, such as water and sanitation.

“For the first time, we have a complete picture of where and how children are vulnerable to climate change, and that picture is almost unimaginably dire," said UNICEF Executive Director Henrietta Fore.

"Climate and environmental shocks are undermining the complete spectrum of children’s rights, from access to clean air, food and safe water; to education, housing, freedom from exploitation, and even their right to survive. Virtually no child’s life will be unaffected."

“For three years, children have raised their voices around the world to demand action. UNICEF supports their calls for change with an unarguable message - the climate crisis is a child’s rights crisis.” 

The study showed that nearly half of the world's 2.2 billion children live in one of the 33 countries that are most threatened by climate change. 

”Children in East Asia and the Pacific countries are on the frontline of the climate crisis and the climate hazards they face, from lethal heat waves to flooding to wildfires, are already becoming more severe and intense," said UNICEF Regional Director Marcoluigi Corsi.

"The region is one of the most vulnerable to climate-related disasters globally, with about half of the population directly affected every year."

Corsi noted that the climate crisis disproportionally affects the most vulnerable children and adolescents, exacerbating current inequalities and undermining the progress achieved over the last few decades.

According to the Children’s Climate Risk Index (CCRI), 240 million children are highly exposed to coastal flooding, 400 million children are highly exposed to cyclones, 600 million children are highly exposed to vector borne diseases, 820 million children are highly exposed to heatwaves, and 920 million children are highly exposed to water scarcity. Further, one billion children are are highly exposed to exceedingly high levels of air pollution.

While nearly every child around the world is at risk from at least one of these environmental hazards, an estimated 850 million children live in areas where at least four of these environmental shocks overlap, the study found. 

“Climate change is deeply inequitable. While no child is responsible for rising global temperatures, they will pay the highest costs. The children from countries least responsible will suffer most of all,” said Fore. 

“But there is still time to act. Improving children’s access to essential services, such as water and sanitation, health, and education, can significantly increase their ability to survive these climate hazards. UNICEF urges governments and businesses to listen to children and prioritise actions that protect them from impacts, while accelerating work to dramatically reduce greenhouse gas emissions.”

The CCRI was developed in collaboration with several partners including the Data for Children Collaborative.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Children will pay the highest costs for the climate crisis

More than one billion children have an "extremely high risk"...

A common heartburn drug has become a potential candidate for treating COVID-19. Recent studies were launched after experts noticed a surprising pattern in medical records from the early days of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-covid-19-cases-linked-to-wildfires/">COVID-19</a> pandemic in Wuhan, China.

Many of the elderly patients that managed to survive the infection in Wuhan had two things in common: they were poor and suffered from chronic heartburn.

Researchers found that these particular elderly survivors were taking an inexpensive heartburn drug called famotidine, which is the key ingredient in Pepcid. 

On the other hand, wealthier patients tend to take omeprazole, a more expensive ingredient that is found in Prilosec.

A team of experts in the <a href="https://engineering.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia School of Engineering and Applied Science</a> set out to investigate whether this over-the-counter heartburn drug was actually helping people survive COVID-19. Study co-author Phil Bourne, a professor of Biomedical Engineering, explained that this is how many medical studies begin.

“There’s often a phenomenon that doctors report anecdotally, or that’s mentioned in passing in a particular research paper, and that provides a clue - a hook,” said Professor Bourne.

Under normal circumstances, scientists use clinical trials to determine whether a drug is effective in treating a particular medical condition. Professor Bourne noted that this method is expensive and can take years.

To speed up the process, Professor Bourne and UVA senior scientist Cameron Mura worked with an international team of researchers, utilizing information from a database that contains the medical records of millions of COVID-19 patients in 30 different countries. The experts zeroed in on about 22,000 patients who were taking the heartburn relief drug famotidine. 

“The power of the electronic health record, which is really yet to be fully realized as a research tool, is that you’ve suddenly got all this data you can mine to see whether what you determined in passing or anecdotally has any basis,” said Professor Bourne.

The analysis showed that when delivered at high doses, or the equivalent of about 10 Pepcid tablets, famotidine appears to improve the odds of survival for COVID-19 patients. This was particularly true when the drug was combined with aspirin. 

According to the researchers, the heartburn drug also seems to hinder the severity of disease progression, making patients less likely to reach the point where they require intubation or a ventilator.

Patients with severe COVID-19 often experience something called a cytokine storm, a potentially deadly immune response. 

“Basically, your immune system goes haywire and starts attacking things like your otherwise healthy lung tissue because it’s so desperate to kill off the invading virus,” said Mura. “Your own physiology essentially uses a sledgehammer against the pathogen when a fly swatter would suffice.”

The experts theorize that famotidine suppresses that reaction. Like all other medications, this heartburn drug can cause side effects, and the researchers believe that interfering with cytokine storms might be one of them.

“It may well be a case of famotidine having a beneficial off-target effect,” said Mura. Side effects are typically perceived as a bad thing, but in cases like this, they could be very useful. 

Despite the team’s hopeful findings, further research is urgently needed. Previous studies have offered conflicting results on the effects of famotidine on COVID-19 patients. One study even suggested that the heartburn drug could be detrimental. 

“Scientific studies are sometimes viewed as the end-all, be-all, but they’re really just a starting point or a springboard,” said Mura. “Any good study raises more questions than it answers, and data science is often what kick-starts that process.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/sigtrans/">Signal Transduction &amp; Targeted Therapy</a> from the Nature publishing group.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Is a heartburn drug secretly saving COVID-19 patients?

A common heartburn drug has become a potential candidate for...

Reporting on climate change is finally falling in line with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-science-is-becoming-increasingly-critical-to-society/">science</a>, according to a recent study from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado at Boulder</a>. The news strikes a hopeful note at a time when trust in media and institutions is at an all time low, though the new paper does single out one outlier - conservative media. 

The practice of balanced reporting is useful when it gives two nuanced perspectives to a contentious issue, but less so when it becomes a platform for denialism and pseudoscience.

“Two decades ago, print media frequently gave equal credence to both legitimate climate experts and outlier climate deniers," explained study lead author Lucy Mcallister.

In collaboration with researchers at the Technological University of Munich and the University of New England, the team examined around 5,000 news articles from the past fifteen years.

The experts found that the political environment often affected the accuracy of climate reporting, with accuracy taking a downturn during the negotiations of the Copenhagen Accord, for example. By contrast, accuracy in reporting increased during the signing of the Paris Agreement. 

Conservative media continues to obfuscate the public’s understanding, but by and large reporting on climate change has improved. 

“Nine out of ten media stories accurately reported the science on human contributions to climate change. It’s not portrayed as a two-sided debate anymore,” said Mcallister. However, this does not mean scientists and climate activists can rest on their laurels.

“Accurate reporting in these print outlets vastly outweighed inaccurate reporting, but this is not a cause for complacency," explained Max Boykoff, director of the Environmental Studies program at CU Boulder.

"The terrain of climate debates has largely shifted in recent years away from mere denial of human contributions to climate change to a more subtle and  ongoing undermining of support for specific policies meant to substantially address climate change.” 

Indeed, without holding media sources, politicians, and those in our immediate circle accountable for the accuracy of their information, the public’s understanding of climate change would be in dire straits. It will take vigilance and a constant reappraisal of our biases. 

“Our work helps provide insights on how the media are portraying human contributions to climate change, yet more clearly must be done," concluded Boykoff.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1748-9326">Environmental Research Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Reporting on climate change has become more accurate

Reporting on climate change is finally falling in line with...

A new study published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-021-02505-3">Communications Biology</a> shows that urbanization plays a key role in determining mammalian body size. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> have found that city life causes many mammals to grow larger. This contradicts the findings of previous research which claimed that city dwelling mammals get smaller over time. 

Until recently, experts believed that a classic biological principle called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/bergmann-rule">Bergmann’s Rule</a> could be applied to urban animals. This is the idea that animals living in warmer climates are smaller than members of the same species from colder environments. This would certainly make sense, since cities have higher temperatures than green landscapes (a phenomenon called the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/heatislands">heat island effect</a>).

“In theory, animals in cities should be getting smaller because of these heat island effects, but we didn’t find evidence for this happening in mammals,” said Maggie Hantak, lead study author and a postdoctoral fellow at the Florida Museum. “This paper is a good argument for why we can’t assume Bergmann’s Rule or climate alone is important in determining the size of animals.”

The analysis of nearly 140,500 measurements of body mass and length from over 100 North American mammal species conducted by Dr. Hantak and her colleagues leaves no space for doubt: city dwelling mammals clearly grow larger than their non-urban counterparts, regardless of climatic factors.

“This wasn’t what we expected to find,” said Robert Guralnick, curator of biodiversity informatics at the Florida Museum. “But urbanization represents this new disturbance of the natural landscape that didn’t exist thousands of years ago. It’s important to recognize that it’s having a huge impact.”

While the impact of climate change on mammal body size has been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1259/">acknowledged</a> since a decade ago, the effects of urbanization have been ignored. 

“When we think about what’s going to happen to mammalian body size over the next 100 years, a lot of people frame that as global warming causing animals to get smaller,” said Guralnick. “What if that isn’t the biggest effect? What if it’s that urbanization is going to lead to fatter animals?”

The abundance of food, water, and shelter, together with a relative lack of predators, can certainly offer more dining opportunities for many city dwelling mammals. 

Although bigger is generally better from a biological and evolutionary standpoint, more research is needed to assess the long-term effects on urban mammals of eating a rich diet of human food waste. 

---

By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

City dwelling mammals are getting bigger

A new study published in Communications Biology shows that urbanization...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...